A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture

doi:10.1101/gr.186684.114

. 2015 Apr;25(4):459-66.

doi: 10.1101/gr.186684.114. Epub 2015 Mar 13.

A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture

Monika Karmin¹, Lauri Saag², Mário Vicente³, Melissa A Wilson Sayres⁴, Mari Järve⁵, Ulvi Gerst Talas⁶, Siiri Rootsi⁵, Anne-Mai Ilumäe⁷, Reedik Mägi⁸, Mario Mitt⁹, Luca Pagani³, Tarmo Puurand⁶, Zuzana Faltyskova³, Florian Clemente³, Alexia Cardona³, Ene Metspalu⁷, Hovhannes Sahakyan¹⁰, Bayazit Yunusbayev¹¹, Georgi Hudjashov¹², Michael DeGiorgio¹³, Eva-Liis Loogväli⁵, Christina Eichstaedt³, Mikk Eelmets¹⁴, Gyaneshwer Chaubey⁵, Kristiina Tambets⁵, Sergei Litvinov¹¹, Maru Mormina¹⁵, Yali Xue¹⁶, Qasim Ayub¹⁶, Grigor Zoraqi¹⁷, Thorfinn Sand Korneliussen¹⁸, Farida Akhatova¹⁹, Joseph Lachance²⁰, Sarah Tishkoff²¹, Kuvat Momynaliev²², François-Xavier Ricaut²³, Pradiptajati Kusuma²⁴, Harilanto Razafindrazaka²³, Denis Pierron²³, Murray P Cox²⁵, Gazi Nurun Nahar Sultana²⁶, Rane Willerslev²⁷, Craig Muller²⁸, Michael Westaway²⁹, David Lambert²⁹, Vedrana Skaro³⁰, Lejla Kovačevic³¹, Shahlo Turdikulova³², Dilbar Dalimova³², Rita Khusainova³³, Natalya Trofimova¹¹, Vita Akhmetova³⁴, Irina Khidiyatova³³, Daria V Lichman³⁵, Jainagul Isakova³⁶, Elvira Pocheshkhova³⁷, Zhaxylyk Sabitov³⁸, Nikolay A Barashkov³⁹, Pagbajabyn Nymadawa⁴⁰, Evelin Mihailov⁸, Joseph Wee Tien Seng⁴¹, Irina Evseeva⁴², Andrea Bamberg Migliano⁴³, Syafiq Abdullah⁴⁴, George Andriadze⁴⁵, Dragan Primorac⁴⁶, Lubov Atramentova⁴⁷, Olga Utevska⁴⁷, Levon Yepiskoposyan⁴⁸, Damir Marjanovic⁴⁹, Alena Kushniarevich⁵⁰, Doron M Behar⁵, Christian Gilissen⁵¹, Lisenka Vissers⁵¹, Joris A Veltman⁵¹, Elena Balanovska⁵², Miroslava Derenko⁵³, Boris Malyarchuk⁵³, Andres Metspalu⁸, Sardana Fedorova³⁹, Anders Eriksson⁵⁴, Andrea Manica⁵⁵, Fernando L Mendez⁵⁶, Tatiana M Karafet⁵⁷, Krishna R Veeramah⁵⁸, Neil Bradman⁵⁹, Michael F Hammer⁵⁷, Ludmila P Osipova³⁵, Oleg Balanovsky⁶⁰, Elza K Khusnutdinova³³, Knut Johnsen⁶¹, Maido Remm⁶, Mark G Thomas⁶², Chris Tyler-Smith¹⁶, Peter A Underhill⁵⁶, Eske Willerslev²⁸, Rasmus Nielsen⁶³, Mait Metspalu⁷, Richard Villems⁶⁴, Toomas Kivisild⁶⁵

Affiliations

¹ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; [email protected] [email protected].
² Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Botany, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
³ Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QH, United Kingdom;
⁴ Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; School of Life Sciences and The Biodesign Institute, Tempe, Arizona 85287-5001, USA;
⁵ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
⁶ Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
⁷ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
⁸ Estonian Genome Center, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
⁹ Estonian Genome Center, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
¹⁰ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Laboratory of Ethnogenomics, Institute of Molecular Biology, National Academy of Sciences, Yerevan, 0014, Armenia;
¹¹ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics, Ufa Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa, 450054, Russia;
¹² Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand;
¹³ Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA;
¹⁴ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
¹⁵ Department of Applied Social Sciences, University of Winchester, Winchester, SO22 4NR, United Kingdom;
¹⁶ The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;
¹⁷ Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Genetic Research, University Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tirana, ALB1005, Albania;
¹⁸ Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; Center for GeoGenetics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark;
¹⁹ Department of Genetics and Fundamental Medicine, Bashkir State University, Ufa, 450074, Russia; Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, 420008, Russia;
²⁰ Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6145, USA; School of Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, 30332, Georgia, USA;
²¹ Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6145, USA; Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6313, USA;
²² DNcode Laboratories, Moscow, 119992, Russia;
²³ Evolutionary Medicine Group, Laboratoire d'Anthropologie Moléculaire et Imagerie de Synthèse, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Toulouse 3, Toulouse, 31073, France;
²⁴ Evolutionary Medicine Group, Laboratoire d'Anthropologie Moléculaire et Imagerie de Synthèse, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Toulouse 3, Toulouse, 31073, France; Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, Jakarta, 10430, Indonesia;
²⁵ Statistics and Bioinformatics Group, Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand;
²⁶ Centre for Advanced Research in Sciences (CARS), DNA Sequencing Research Laboratory, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh;
²⁷ Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, DK-8000, Denmark;
²⁸ Center for GeoGenetics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark;
²⁹ Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, 4111, Australia;
³⁰ Genos, DNA Laboratory, Zagreb, 10000, Croatia; University of Osijek, Medical School, Osijek, 31000, Croatia;
³¹ Centogene AG, Rostock, 18057, Germany;
³² Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Academy of Science, Tashkent, 100143, Uzbekistan;
³³ Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics, Ufa Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa, 450054, Russia; Department of Genetics and Fundamental Medicine, Bashkir State University, Ufa, 450074, Russia;
³⁴ Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics, Ufa Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa, 450054, Russia;
³⁵ Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia;
³⁶ Institute of Molecular Biology and Medicine, Bishkek, 720040, Kyrgyzstan;
³⁷ Kuban State Medical University, Krasnodar, 350063, Russia;
³⁸ L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, 010008, Kazakhstan; Center for Life Sciences, Nazarbayev University, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan;
³⁹ Department of Molecular Genetics, Yakut Scientific Centre of Complex Medical Problems, Yakutsk, 677010, Russia; Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Natural Sciences, M.K. Ammosov North-Eastern Federal University, Yakutsk, 677000, Russia;
⁴⁰ Mongolian Academy of Medical Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, 210620, Mongolia;
⁴¹ National Cancer Centre Singapore, 169610, Singapore;
⁴² Northern State Medical University, Arkhangelsk, 163000, Russia; Anthony Nolan, London, NW3 2NU, United Kingdom;
⁴³ Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom;
⁴⁴ RIPAS Hospital, Bandar Seri Begawan, BE1518, Brunei;
⁴⁵ Scientific-Research Center of the Caucasian Ethnic Groups, St. Andrews Georgian University, Tbilisi, 0162, Georgia;
⁴⁶ University of Osijek, Medical School, Osijek, 31000, Croatia; St. Catherine Specialty Hospital, Zabok, 49210, Croatia; Eberly College of Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA; University of Split, Medical School, Split, 21000, Croatia;
⁴⁷ V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, Kharkiv, 61022, Ukraine;
⁴⁸ Laboratory of Ethnogenomics, Institute of Molecular Biology, National Academy of Sciences, Yerevan, 0014, Armenia;
⁴⁹ Genos, DNA Laboratory, Zagreb, 10000, Croatia; Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies, International Burch University, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
⁵⁰ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Institute of Genetics and Cytology, National Academy of Sciences, Minsk, 220072, Belarus;
⁵¹ Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, 106525 GA, The Netherlands;
⁵² Research Centre for Medical Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 115478, Russia;
⁵³ Genetics Laboratory, Institute of Biological Problems of the North, Russian Academy of Sciences, Magadan, 685000, Russia;
⁵⁴ Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom; Integrative Systems Biology Lab, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia;
⁵⁵ Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom;
⁵⁶ Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5120, USA;
⁵⁷ ARL Division of Biotechnology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA;
⁵⁸ Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-5245, USA;
⁵⁹ The Henry Stewart Group, London, WC1A 2HN, United Kingdom;
⁶⁰ Research Centre for Medical Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 115478, Russia; Vavilov Institute for General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119991, Russia;
⁶¹ University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsøe, N-9038, Norway;
⁶² Research Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom;
⁶³ Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA;
⁶⁴ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Estonian Academy of Sciences, Tallinn, 10130, Estonia.
⁶⁵ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QH, United Kingdom; [email protected] [email protected].

PMID: 25770088
PMCID: PMC4381518
DOI: 10.1101/gr.186684.114

A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture

Monika Karmin et al. Genome Res. 2015 Apr.

. 2015 Apr;25(4):459-66.

doi: 10.1101/gr.186684.114. Epub 2015 Mar 13.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; [email protected] [email protected].
² Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Botany, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
³ Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QH, United Kingdom;
⁴ Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; School of Life Sciences and The Biodesign Institute, Tempe, Arizona 85287-5001, USA;
⁵ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
⁶ Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
⁷ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
⁸ Estonian Genome Center, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
⁹ Estonian Genome Center, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
¹⁰ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Laboratory of Ethnogenomics, Institute of Molecular Biology, National Academy of Sciences, Yerevan, 0014, Armenia;
¹¹ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics, Ufa Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa, 450054, Russia;
¹² Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand;
¹³ Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA;
¹⁴ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia;
¹⁵ Department of Applied Social Sciences, University of Winchester, Winchester, SO22 4NR, United Kingdom;
¹⁶ The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;
¹⁷ Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Genetic Research, University Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tirana, ALB1005, Albania;
¹⁸ Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA; Center for GeoGenetics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark;
¹⁹ Department of Genetics and Fundamental Medicine, Bashkir State University, Ufa, 450074, Russia; Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, 420008, Russia;
²⁰ Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6145, USA; School of Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, 30332, Georgia, USA;
²¹ Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6145, USA; Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6313, USA;
²² DNcode Laboratories, Moscow, 119992, Russia;
²³ Evolutionary Medicine Group, Laboratoire d'Anthropologie Moléculaire et Imagerie de Synthèse, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Toulouse 3, Toulouse, 31073, France;
²⁴ Evolutionary Medicine Group, Laboratoire d'Anthropologie Moléculaire et Imagerie de Synthèse, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Toulouse 3, Toulouse, 31073, France; Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, Jakarta, 10430, Indonesia;
²⁵ Statistics and Bioinformatics Group, Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand;
²⁶ Centre for Advanced Research in Sciences (CARS), DNA Sequencing Research Laboratory, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh;
²⁷ Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, DK-8000, Denmark;
²⁸ Center for GeoGenetics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark;
²⁹ Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, 4111, Australia;
³⁰ Genos, DNA Laboratory, Zagreb, 10000, Croatia; University of Osijek, Medical School, Osijek, 31000, Croatia;
³¹ Centogene AG, Rostock, 18057, Germany;
³² Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Academy of Science, Tashkent, 100143, Uzbekistan;
³³ Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics, Ufa Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa, 450054, Russia; Department of Genetics and Fundamental Medicine, Bashkir State University, Ufa, 450074, Russia;
³⁴ Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics, Ufa Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ufa, 450054, Russia;
³⁵ Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia;
³⁶ Institute of Molecular Biology and Medicine, Bishkek, 720040, Kyrgyzstan;
³⁷ Kuban State Medical University, Krasnodar, 350063, Russia;
³⁸ L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, 010008, Kazakhstan; Center for Life Sciences, Nazarbayev University, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan;
³⁹ Department of Molecular Genetics, Yakut Scientific Centre of Complex Medical Problems, Yakutsk, 677010, Russia; Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Natural Sciences, M.K. Ammosov North-Eastern Federal University, Yakutsk, 677000, Russia;
⁴⁰ Mongolian Academy of Medical Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, 210620, Mongolia;
⁴¹ National Cancer Centre Singapore, 169610, Singapore;
⁴² Northern State Medical University, Arkhangelsk, 163000, Russia; Anthony Nolan, London, NW3 2NU, United Kingdom;
⁴³ Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom;
⁴⁴ RIPAS Hospital, Bandar Seri Begawan, BE1518, Brunei;
⁴⁵ Scientific-Research Center of the Caucasian Ethnic Groups, St. Andrews Georgian University, Tbilisi, 0162, Georgia;
⁴⁶ University of Osijek, Medical School, Osijek, 31000, Croatia; St. Catherine Specialty Hospital, Zabok, 49210, Croatia; Eberly College of Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA; University of Split, Medical School, Split, 21000, Croatia;
⁴⁷ V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, Kharkiv, 61022, Ukraine;
⁴⁸ Laboratory of Ethnogenomics, Institute of Molecular Biology, National Academy of Sciences, Yerevan, 0014, Armenia;
⁴⁹ Genos, DNA Laboratory, Zagreb, 10000, Croatia; Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies, International Burch University, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
⁵⁰ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Institute of Genetics and Cytology, National Academy of Sciences, Minsk, 220072, Belarus;
⁵¹ Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, 106525 GA, The Netherlands;
⁵² Research Centre for Medical Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 115478, Russia;
⁵³ Genetics Laboratory, Institute of Biological Problems of the North, Russian Academy of Sciences, Magadan, 685000, Russia;
⁵⁴ Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom; Integrative Systems Biology Lab, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia;
⁵⁵ Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom;
⁵⁶ Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5120, USA;
⁵⁷ ARL Division of Biotechnology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA;
⁵⁸ Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-5245, USA;
⁵⁹ The Henry Stewart Group, London, WC1A 2HN, United Kingdom;
⁶⁰ Research Centre for Medical Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 115478, Russia; Vavilov Institute for General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119991, Russia;
⁶¹ University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsøe, N-9038, Norway;
⁶² Research Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom;
⁶³ Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA;
⁶⁴ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Department of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Estonian Academy of Sciences, Tallinn, 10130, Estonia.
⁶⁵ Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, 51010, Estonia; Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QH, United Kingdom; [email protected] [email protected].

PMID: 25770088
PMCID: PMC4381518
DOI: 10.1101/gr.186684.114

Abstract

It is commonly thought that human genetic diversity in non-African populations was shaped primarily by an out-of-Africa dispersal 50-100 thousand yr ago (kya). Here, we present a study of 456 geographically diverse high-coverage Y chromosome sequences, including 299 newly reported samples. Applying ancient DNA calibration, we date the Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) in Africa at 254 (95% CI 192-307) kya and detect a cluster of major non-African founder haplogroups in a narrow time interval at 47-52 kya, consistent with a rapid initial colonization model of Eurasia and Oceania after the out-of-Africa bottleneck. In contrast to demographic reconstructions based on mtDNA, we infer a second strong bottleneck in Y-chromosome lineages dating to the last 10 ky. We hypothesize that this bottleneck is caused by cultural changes affecting variance of reproductive success among males.

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Figures

**Figure 1.**
The phylogenetic tree of 456 whole Y chromosome sequences and a map of sampling locations. The phylogenetic tree is reconstructed using BEAST. Clades coalescing within 10% of the overall depth of the tree have been collapsed. Only main haplogroup labels are shown (details are provided in Supplemental Information 6). Colors indicate geographic origin of samples (Supplemental Table S1), and fill proportions of the collapsed clades represent the proportion of samples from a given region. Asterisk (*) marks the inclusion of samples from Caucasus area. Personal Genomes Project (http://www.personalgenomes.org) samples of unknown and mixed geographic/ethnic origin are shown in black. The proposed structure of Y chromosome haplogroup naming (Supplemental Table S5) is given in Roman numbers on the y-axis.

**Figure 2.**
Cumulative Bayesian skyline plots of Y chromosome and mtDNA diversity by world regions. The red dashed lines highlight the horizons of 10 kya and 50 kya. Individual plots for each region are presented in Supplemental Figure S4A.

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References

1. Armitage SJ, Jasim SA, Marks AE, Parker AG, Usik VI, Uerpmann HP. 2011. The southern route “out of Africa”: evidence for an early expansion of modern humans into Arabia. Science 331: 453–456. - PubMed
1. Barker G. 2006. The agricultural revolution in prehistory: why did foragers become farmers? Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
1. Bellwood PS. 2005. First farmers: the origins of agricultural societies. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA.
1. Bowler J, Johnston H, Olley J, Prescott J, Roberts R, Shawcross W, Spooner N. 2003. New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia. Nature 421: 837–840. - PubMed
1. Chan KM, Moore BR. 2005. SYMMETREE: whole-tree analysis of differential diversification rates. Bioinformatics 21: 1709–1710. - PubMed

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[1] Armitage SJ, Jasim SA, Marks AE, Parker AG, Usik VI, Uerpmann HP. 2011. The southern route “out of Africa”: evidence for an early expansion of modern humans into Arabia. Science 331: 453–456. - PubMed

[2] Armitage SJ, Jasim SA, Marks AE, Parker AG, Usik VI, Uerpmann HP. 2011. The southern route “out of Africa”: evidence for an early expansion of modern humans into Arabia. Science 331: 453–456. - PubMed

[3] Barker G. 2006. The agricultural revolution in prehistory: why did foragers become farmers? Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

[4] Barker G. 2006. The agricultural revolution in prehistory: why did foragers become farmers? Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

[5] Bellwood PS. 2005. First farmers: the origins of agricultural societies. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA.

[6] Bellwood PS. 2005. First farmers: the origins of agricultural societies. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA.

[7] Bowler J, Johnston H, Olley J, Prescott J, Roberts R, Shawcross W, Spooner N. 2003. New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia. Nature 421: 837–840. - PubMed

[8] Bowler J, Johnston H, Olley J, Prescott J, Roberts R, Shawcross W, Spooner N. 2003. New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia. Nature 421: 837–840. - PubMed

[9] Chan KM, Moore BR. 2005. SYMMETREE: whole-tree analysis of differential diversification rates. Bioinformatics 21: 1709–1710. - PubMed

[10] Chan KM, Moore BR. 2005. SYMMETREE: whole-tree analysis of differential diversification rates. Bioinformatics 21: 1709–1710. - PubMed

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A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture

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A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture

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