Where Germanic and Slavic meet – a note on new Polish-based tenses in the Vilamovicean language. Germanoslavica (2016) 27/1: 1-18.

Where Germanic and Slavic Meet – New Polish-based Tenses in the Vilamovicean Language Alexander A n d r a s o n ɔer Aufsat̟ präsentiert eine detaillierte Analyse von ̟wei innovativen verbalen Tempora, die im Wilmesaurischen (eine germanische Sprache, die in Polen gesprochen wird) gefunden wurdenŚ die so genannte „neue Zukunft“ oder „Żutur III“ und das „neue Konjunktiv Perfekt“ oder „Konjunktiv Perfekt III“. ɔer Autor diskutiert die morphosyntaktischen und semantischen ɕigenschaften der ̟wei Tempora, erklärt ihre Be̟iehung ̟u ähnlichen Konstruktionen in der wilmesaurischen Sprache und geht auf die mögliche Geschichte ihrer ɕntstehung einŚ beide Żormationen könnten durch die Analogie der Konstruktionen im Polnischen entstanden sein. This article provides a detailed analysis of two innovative verbal tenses currently found in Vilamovicean (a Germanic language spoken in Poland)Ś the so-called “new Żuture” or “Żuture III” and “new Conjunctive Perfect” or “Conjunctive Perfect III”. The author discusses the morphosyntactic and semantic characteristics of the two grams, explains their relation to similar constructions available in the Vilamovicean language and posits the most likely scenario of their origin, showing that both formations might have emerged by imitating equivalent expressions in Polish. 1. Introduction Wymysiöery [vɨmɨsøːrɪ ] – known in ɕnglish as Vilamovicean,1 Wilamowicean2 or Vilamovian3 – is probably the smallest Germanic language in the world. It is currently understood by approximately two hundred persons, but actively and fluently spoken by no more than forty. All the fully proficient speakers and the vast majority of the remaining users of the idiom were born before 1930 and, hence, are 1 Alexander A Ś Vilamovicean verbal system – ɔo the Preterite and the Perfect mean the same?, inŚ Linguistica Copernicana 3 (2010), P. 271-285ś Alexander A Ś ɕxpressions of futurity in the Vilamovicean language, inŚ Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics PLUS 40 (2010), P. 1-11ś Alexander A Ś Vilamovicean Passive, inŚ Linguistica Copernicana 5 (2011), P. 221-242ś Alexander A Ś The semantics of the Vilamovicean verbal system – Part 1 (empirical study), inŚ Studia Linguisticae Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis 130 (2013), P. 7-39ś Alexander A Ś The semantics of the Vilamovicean verbal system – Part 2 (explanation and modelling), inŚ Studia Linguisticae Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis 131 (2014), P. 1-20ś Alexander A Ś The Polish component in the Vilamovicean language, inŚ GLOSSOS 12 (2014), P. 1-38. 2 Tomas̟ W Ś The Making of a Language, Berlin 2003ś Carlo R Ś Some Considerations on the Origins of Wymysorys, BA Honors dissertation, Sydney 2012. 3 R . The Polish denomination of the vernacular is wilamowski [vilam fski]. In this study, following the custom adopted in the previous works of the author, the label ‘Vilamovicean’ will be preferred. 2 Alexander Andrason now more than 80 years of age, which signifies that the language is highly endangered and may disappear within one or two decades. Vilamovicean is spoken in Wilamowice in Poland. Wilamowice is a small town situated in Western Galicia (Małopolska or Little Poland), near the border of Upper Silesia (Górny ląsk) in the southern part of the country. Although the exact genetic classification of Vilamovicean is still being debated, it is plausible that the vernacular – just like other Silesian dialects – is an ɕast Central German (Ostmitteldeutsch) colonial variety, characteri̟ed, however, by certain Istvaeonic (Low Żranconian) and/or Ingvaeonic (Żrisian) traits.4 Given its geographic location, the idiom has historically coexisted with Standard Polish, Polish dialects of Małopolska, Standard High German and ɕast Central German vernaculars. The influence of these external systems on Vilamovicean has been distinct at different periods. In the late 19th and early 20th century before the Second World War (both during the Austrian Partition and after 1918 when Poland regained her independence), the Vilamovicean language and culture were blossoming and neither of them was endangered. The language coexisted peacefully with Polish and its dialects, being “protected” by other German vernaculars spoken in the area, such as “Hałcnowki” (Al̟nerisch or Alj̟nerisch) used in a neighboring village Hałcnów or a variety employed in Bielsko. At this time, Vilamovicean was spoken by the vast majority of the population of Wilamowice, being de facto the dominant idiom in the town. This signifies that the language was not a marginal linguistic island immersed in a prevailing Slavic linguistic territory. It rather belonged to an area where Polish (both standard and dialectal) and German influences could be experienced (German, being dialectal and, due to the proximity of the border, also standard). A relative equilibrium of this linguistic ecosystem – existing in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century – led to the “classical” époque of the Vilamovicean language and literature. ɔuring this period, important grammars, linguistic descriptions and lexicons were elaborated,5 and Żlorian B wrote his 4 Werner B – Ulrich K – Wolfgang P – Herbert W Ś ɔialektologie, Vol. 2, Berlin 1983ś W śR . See also Hugo R Ś ɔie “Żlamen” von Wilamowice. Versuch ̟ur ɔeutung einer Bäuerlichen Überlieferung, inŚ Slavica Gandensia 11 (1984), P. 19-34ś Norbert M Ś ɔie flämische Ostkolonisation und der ɔialekt von Wilamowice in Südpolen, inŚ Slavica Gandensia 11 (1984), P. 7-18ś Norbert M Ś Zur Stellung der deutschen ɔialekts von Wilmesau/Wilamowice in Südpolen, inŚ Gundolf K – Josef Joachim M (ɕds.)Ś Anfänge und ɕntwicklung der deutschen Sprache im mittelalterlichen Schlesien, Sigmaringen 1995, P. 71-81ś Maria L Ś ɔie deutsche Mundart von Wilamowice ̟wischen 1920 und 1987, Opole 1992. 5 Ludwik M Ś Nar̟ec̟e wilamowickie, Tarnów 1907ś Jó̟ef L Ś Monografia Miastec̟ka Wilamowic na podstawie ródeł autentyc̟nych, Kraków 1909 [1990]ś Adam K Ś ɔialekt Wilamowic w ̟achodniej Galicji. Żonetyka i fleksja, Kraków 1920ś Adam K Ś ɔialekt Wilamowic w ̟achodniej Galicji. Składnia i s̟yk wyra̟ów, Po̟nań 1921ś Hermann M Ś Wörterbuch der deutschen Mundart von Wilamowice, Kraków 1930-1936. Where Germanic and Slavic Meet – New Polish-based Tenses ... 3 epopee Óf jer wełt, the longest and most important literary text composed in the Vilamovicean language.6 This virtual stability was altered after the German invasion of Poland in 1939. As Germans considered all the speakers of German varieties in Poland not as Poles but as a category of Germans (e.g. Volksdeutsche), they emphasi̟ed the German character of the Vilamovicean language and culture. To be exact, Vilamoviceans were compelled to attend the German school where German was the medium of instruction. This led to a certain Germani̟ation of the tongue during the Second World War. The effects of the Germani̟ation may be observed in the fact that the speakers who went to the German school during the war nowadays present the strongest German characteristics in their variety of the Vilamovicean language. After the Second World War, the situation again changed drastically. As the Communist regime sei̟ed the power – being full of hostility towards any Germanic element that existed in the new Polish territory – it prohibited the use of Vilamovicean. Vilamoviceans were viewed as supporters of H and their tongue, perceived as German, was banned and their culture oppressed. Some of them were deported to the Siberian camps and never returned. In the later decades of Communist rule, the repression of the Vilamovicean idiom and culture became less strict and both gradually began to reappear more openly. Nevertheless, it was only after the fall of Communism in the late nineteen eighties that the inhabitants of Wilamowice ceased to be afraid of using their Germanic mother tongue, and the language began to flourish again. Apart from the above-mentioned prohibition, the situation of Vilamovicean was altered by the fact that the German influence – both standard and dialectal – was almost entirely erased. The area became entirely PolishŚ Germans were deported, local German vernaculars vanished and the Polish-German border moved many hundreds of kilometers to the West. The forty years of repression, prohibition and marginali̟ation of the tongue and culture, on the one hand, and a clear Polish linguistic domination, on the other, have steered the language towards a state of decay. Currently, it is the Polish language and culture that clearly predominate in Wilamowice and the whole region, while Vilamovicean can be viewed as an insignificant linguistic isle within the absolutely prevalent Slavic linguistic and cultural territory. ɕven in Wilamowice, Vilamovicean is very rarely employed being almost exclusively used by the oldest persons and invariably in informal situations.7 6 The poems written by B have been critically analy̟ed by W . 7 This brief description of the history of Vilamovicean draws from two papers published previously by the author, i.e. A Ś Vilamovicean – a Germanic-Slavic mixed language?ś Alexander A – Tymoteus̟ K Ś A fu̟̟y model of the Vilamovicean language, inŚ Sorbian Revue 48 (2014), P. 265-292. Żor a more detailed analysis of this issue, consult Tomas̟ W . 4 Alexander Andrason This extreme Slavic dominance and isolation of Vilamovicean from the German(ic) ̟one have resulted in a relatively high degree of the linguistic influence of Polish on the vernacular. In a previously published article,8 the author of this paper has demonstrated that the Polish component in the Vilamovicean language is much stronger than usually assumed. Żor example, the Vilamovicean phonetic system includes various sounds, both consonants (e.g. the “soft” and “hard” sibilants and affricatesŚ laminal flat postalveolar [s], [̟], [ṯs], [ḏ̟] and laminal alveolo-palatal [ ], [ʑ], [t ], and [dʑ]) and vowels (e.g. central close unrounded [ɨ] or fronted closemid central unrounded [ɘ]), that are typical to Polishś and shows exemplary Slavic phonological properties (for instance, the lack of aspiration of plosives and certain types of palatali̟ation). Likewise, the referential vocabulary is heavily impregnated by Polish loanwords. The total number of Slavic loans amount to, at least, four hundred stabili̟ed nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.9 Additionally, the Polish language has deeply penetrated the grammatical structure of Vilamovicean. Żor instance, Polish elements may be identified in functional lexemes (such as conjunctions, particles, pronouns and interjections), morphology (inflectional or derivational, and nominal or verbal), and syntax where it has influenced the word order, expressions of negation or the use of tenses in subordinated clauses. In general, the Polish impact on Vilamovicean appears to be relatively strong both quantitatively (the number of borrowings is impressive) and qualitatively (the influence affects all the levels and areas of the language).10 The most interesting result of the Polish linguistic and cultural domination is probably the creation of two new verbal tenses (so-called “new Żuture” and “new Conjunctive Perfect”) that, although rare and atypical, can be employed by the native speakers. This article provides a detailed analysis of these innovative constructions.11 It discusses their morphosyntactic and semantic characteristics, explains the relation to other similar constructions and posits the most likely scenario of their 8 A Ś The Polish component in the Vilamovicean language. 9 These loans are usually well-integrated into the Vilamovicean language, being adjusted to its phonetics and morphology. Inversely, they are not mere examples of code switching but, on the contrary, currently belong to the standard – even though non-Germanic – vocabulary of the idiom. See A Ś The Polish component in the Vilamovicean languageś A Ś Vilamovicean – a Germanic-Slavic mixed language? 10 A Ś The Polish component in the Vilamovicean languageś A Ś Vilamovicean – a Germanic-Slavic mixed language? Contra A Ś ɕxpressions of futurity in the Vilamovicean language, P. 1, 9. 11 The two constructions have previously been mentioned in the following articlesŚ A Ś ɕxpressions of futurity in the Vilamovicean language, P. 7, 8ś A Ś The Polish component in the Vilamovicean language, P. 34ś and A Ś Vilamovicean – a Germanic-Slavic mixed language?, P. 77-78. In all these studies, the Polish influence was suggested. Where Germanic and Slavic Meet – New Polish-based Tenses ... 5 origin, showing that they might have emerged by imitating equivalent constructions in Polish. 2. New tenses The Vilamovicean verbal system contains the following constructionsŚ Present yhy mah12 ‘I do’ (ich mache),13 Preterite yhy maht ‘I did’ (ich machte), Perfect yhy ho gymaht ‘I have done’ (ich habe gemacht), Pluperfect yhy hot gymaht ‘I had done’ (ich hatte gemacht), Żuture I yhy wa / wå maha ‘I will do’ (ich werde machen), Żuture Perfect I wa / wå hon gymaht ‘I will have done’ (ich werde gemacht haben), Żuture II yhy zo maha ‘I shall do’ (ɔutch Ik zal maken), Conjunctive I yhy wje ‘(if) I were’ (ich wäre), Conjunctive Perfect I yhy het gymaht ‘(if) I had done’ (ich hätte gemacht), Conjunctive II yhy wje maha ‘I would do / (if) I did’ (ich würde machen), Conjunctive Perfect II yhy wje hon gymaht ‘I would have done / (if) I had done’ (ich würde gemacht haben), Progressivum yhy bej maha ‘I am doing’ (similar to ich bin beim Machen) and Resultativa ej gymaht ‘is done’ (ist gemacht), wjyd gymaht ‘will be done’ (cf. Icelandic verður gert)14 and błåjt gymaht ‘is done’ (cf. Swedish blir gjort). The above-mentioned formations are used by all the native speakers and – with the exception of the Progressivum and Resultativa – have also been mentioned by K in his grammatical description from 1920 and 1921. ɕquivalents of these forms can easily be found in the Germanic family, either in German or in other Germanic languages.15 12 In this article, the author follows the most common spelling convention which is nowadays used in publications dedicated to the Vilamovicean language. This orthography has first been proposed by Tymoteus̟ K and then – in a slightly modified form – employed by Alexander A and Tymoteus̟ K in their work on the Vilamovicean grammar. It has also been used by Tymoteus̟ K in his poem S’ława fum Wilhelm (Wilamowice, 2011) and in the first children’s book written recently by Carlo R (Ynzer boümmüter, Wars̟awa, 2014). In general terms, the spelling is based both on the Germanic and Polish tradition. The correspondence between the vocalic sounds and their graphemes is the followingŚ å [a], a [ɑ] (by some speakers also pronounced as [ ]), i [i] or [ɪ], e [e] or [ɛ], o [o] or [ ], u [u], ü [y] or [ʏ], ö [ø] and y [ɨ]. The following graphemes stand for diphthongsŚ åj [aj], ej [ej], jy [ɪɨ] or [ɪə] and oü [œʏ] or [œy], while the combination iöe is pronounced [yøœ] or [yøə]. As far as the consonants are concerned, four special graphemes have been adopted from PolishŚ c [ts], ł [w], ś [ ] and ć [ʨ]. The letter h usually represents the sound [x] although it can also stand for [h]. Żor a general discussion of various spelling conventions used in order to represent the Vilamovicean language, see R . Żor a detailed discussion of the orthography used by Żlorian B , see Tomas̟ W . 13 In parentheses, the German (or Germanic) equivalents will be given. 14 This construction is also used in the German manner as a dynamic Passive Present ‘is being done’ (wird gemacht). In a future time frame, it can also denote ongoing – and not necessarily resultative – activities. 15 Żor a detailed description of these constructions, see A , The semantics of the Vilamovicean verbal system – Part 1 (empirical study), and A , The semantics of 6 Alexander Andrason Besides these typical grams,16 Vilamovicean has recently developed two additional formations. Both constructions are rare, being only used by approximately 15% of the native speakers. The remaining 85% of the informants perceive these innovative forms as not entirely correct. Since in the case of Vilamovicean, one can hardly talk about correctness or norm,17 the speakers do not typically judge a given form as inadmissible – they rather propose an alternative way to express the intended content, i.e. how they would say it. Nevertheless, it must be emphasi̟ed that the persons that use these novel constructions belong to the group of the most competent and fluent native speakers – all of them born before the Second World War – and their usage, including linguistic innovations, does not stem from an imperfect language acquisition as it commonly happens with speakers from younger generations. 2.1. Żuture III The first construction is a new periphrastic future tense, consisting of the auxiliary wan (cognate to werden in German) and the past participle of a main verb (1.a). This form will henceforth be called ‘Żuture III’ in order to differentiate it from two other regular future tenses, the Żuture I (formed with the auxiliary wan and infinitiveś 1.b) and Żuture II (formed with the auxiliary zuła and infinitiveś 1.c). In contrast to the Żuture I, which also employs the verb wan), the Żuture III uses the past participle instead of the infinitive. As far as its meaning is concerned, the innovative formation is fully equivalent to the regular future tenses – especially the Żuture I – and principally expresses future activities, both perfective (bound, complete, punctual) and imperfective (progressive, durative, habitual).18 (1) a. Yhy wå gybata dy nökweryn19 I will asked the neighbor I will ask the neighbor. the Vilamovicean verbal system – Part 2 (explanation and modelling). 16 The term ‘gram’ refers to all possible types of grammatical constructions ranging from analytical to synthetic, from complex periphrases to bound morphemes, and from pragmatic to highly semantici̟ed (cf. Östen ɔ Ś The Tense and Aspect Systems of ɕuropean Languages in a Typological Perspective, inŚ Östen ɔ (ɕd.)Ś Tense and Aspect in the Languages of ɕurope, Berlin 2000, P. 3-25). 17 Although limited to a small area and a small population, the language displays some dialectal variations. 18 A Ś ɕxpressions of futurity in the Vilamovicean languageś A Ś The semantics of the Vilamovicean verbal system – Part 1 (empirical study). Observe also that the Żuture II has a stronger modal sense. 19 ɕmilia ɔ , born 1933 (A Ś ɕxpressions of futurity in the Vilamovicean language, P. 7). Where Germanic and Slavic Meet – New Polish-based Tenses ... 7 b. Yhy wå bata dy nökweryn I will ask the neighbor I will ask the neighbor. c. Yhy zo bata dy nökweryn I shall ask the neighbor I shall (should) ask the neighbor. Vilamovicean does in fact possess a construction that formally approximates the Żuture III but which always has a passive reading (so-called Passive PresentŻuture). To be exact, when the auxiliary wada (cognate to the German werden)20 is inflected in the Present tense and accompanied by a past participle, the meaning of the entire periphrasis is a passive future (2.a–b) or dynamic passive present (2.c–d)Ś21 (2) a. Żir draj jür wjyd dy trös gyboüt Żor three year will-be the street built The street will be built in three years. b. Mün wjyd dy hyt gymöłt a gonca tog Tomorrow will-be the wall painted a whole day Tomorrow, the wall will be painted the whole day. d. ɔy oüta wada gyrjyt diöh dy ben̟yn The cars become driven by the gas Cars are propelled by gas (i.e. gas serves to propel cars). e. Wu ej s’ oüta? S’ wjyd eta grod gyryht When is the car? It becomes already right-now repaired Where is the car? It is being repaired. There are also two other formations that employ the verb wan in the Present and a past participle, but always accompanied by the infinitive of the verbs zåjn ‘be’, hon ‘have’ or wada ‘become’. One is the Żuture Perfect I and the other is Passive Żuture I. The Żuture Perfect I genetically corresponds to the German construction werden gekauft haben ‘will have bought’ or werden gekommen sein ‘will have come’ and, in its basic use, conveys the idea of future anteriority, expressing future events that precede other future activities (3.a). The Passive Żuture I (3.b) is a less common future passive expression, alternative to the construction discussed above and illustrated in examples 2.a–b.22 20 The differences between the two Vilamovicean verbs (wan and wada) that correspond to the German predicate werden will be explained further below in this section. 21 A Ś Vilamovicean Passive. 22 Thus, in contrast to the expression wjyd gymaht, it fails to denote present ongoing activities. 8 Alexander Andrason (3) a. Wen yh s’mytagasa wå’h hon koht, woh abysła rün When I the-lunch will-I have cooked, will-I a-little rest When I have cooked the lunch, I will rest a little. b. ɔos wyt gymoht zåjn /wada This will done be / become This will be done. It should be underlined that, although similar, the Żuture III and the Passive Present-Żuture constructions are not structurally identicalŚ the former uses the form wan as the auxiliary, while the latter employs the form wada. In Vilamovicean, the verb that corresponds to the German predicate werden has two alternative shapesŚ shorter wan (SG23 wa/wå, wyst, wyt and PL wan, wat, wan) and longer wada (SG wad, wjydst, wjyd and PL wada, wad, wada). When this verb appears in combination with an infinitive, it usually shows up in the short form, while in cases where it is used with a participle (as well as with an adjective, noun or prepositional clause), the long variant is preferred. Alternatively, it could be stated that the distribution of the two forms depends on whether the verb is used as a semantically void auxiliary (mainly as an indicator of the idea of futurity) or, on the contrary, as a semantically full verb with the meaning of ‘become’. In the former case, in which wada is regularly followed by an infinitive, the “short” forms appear. In the latter case, however, longer – phonetically less reduced – forms are found. One should also note that the longer variant (wada) frequently has an inherent future sense approximating the usage of the cognate Icelandic verb verða ‘become, will be’. Accordingly, the Vilamovicean expression har wjyd ym hoüs is equivalent to Icelandic Hann verður heima ‘He will be at home’. In other words, when wada stands in the Present tense and is not used as an auxiliary introducing another verb, it typically denotes future events.24 However, as already mentioned, when used in a passive construction (Passive Present-Żuture wjyd gymaht), it can also match the German usage and express present dynamic activities (cf. 2.c–d, above). The formal and semantic relations of the Żuture III to other similar constructions are summari̟ed below, where the expression har maht ‘he does’ is employed in all the grams discussed previously. Like all the varieties of the Żuture I (Żuture I, Żuture Perfect I and Passive Żuture I), the Żuture III employs the short form of the auxiliary, i.e. wan. However, in contrast to these formations – and similar to the Passive Present-Żuture –, it only uses the past participle and no infinitive. It is, thus, the form of the auxiliary verb that enables speakers to differentiate between the Passive 23 The abbreviation SG stands for ‘singular’ and PL for ‘plural’. 24 A Ś ɕxpressions of futurity in the Vilamovicean languageś A Vilamovicean Passive. Ś Where Germanic and Slavic Meet – New Polish-based Tenses ... 9 Present-Żuture (wjyd gymaht ‘it is (being) doneś it will be done’) and the Żuture III (wyt gymaht ‘he will do’)Ś wyt wjyd wyt wyt Żuture I Passive Present-Żuture Żuture Perfect I Passive Żuture I har har har har Żuture III har wyt maha ‘he will do’ gymaht ‘he will be done/is (being) done’ gymaht hon ‘he will have done’ gymaht zåjn ‘he will be done’ gymaht ‘he will do’ Żigure 1Ś Żuture III and its Vilamovicean background The Żuture III construction structurally approximates the Polish Żuture tense such as the expression będzie robił ‘he will do / be doing’. This Polish formation (labelled as l-Żuture or Participial Żuture) is composed of the verb być ‘be’ inflected in the Synthetic Żuture (3rd person singular będzie ‘he will’) and an original active perfect participle (robił), which nowadays is typically used as a past tense (robił ‘he did, was doing’ or jam/żem robił ‘I did, was doing, used to do’). The entire construction constitutes a paradigmatic imperfective future in Modern Polish. One should note that this gram comes from an original perfect formation that in Old Polish offered a future perfect sense.25 However, in Modern Polish its sense is invariably non-perfect (or non-anterior) – the construction regularly introduces imperfective activities, be they progressive, durative or habitual (4.a-b)Ś (4) a. Jutro będę pisał eg̟amin pr̟e̟ cały d̟ień Tomorrow I-will write (lit. written)26 exam during whole day Tomorrow I will write an exam during the whole day. b. Jak pojadę do His̟panii when I-will-go to Spain When I go to Spain będę pił wino I-will drink (lit. drunk) wine I will drink wine every day. cod̟iennie every day 25 Krystyna ɔługos̟-K – Stanisław ɔ Ś Gramatyka historyc̟na ję̟yka polskiego, Wars̟awa 2003, P. 310. Żor an exhaustive treatment of l-Żuture see Helmut M Ś ɔas Żuturum der polnischen Verba, München 1971. 26 As explained, this form is homophonous with the past tense which descends from the original active perfect l-participle. 10 Alexander Andrason The formal and semantic properties of the Vilamovicean Żuture show that one probably witnesses a morphosyntactic calque from Polish. On the one hand, as the verb wada/wan can have an inherent future meaning ‘will be’ when inflected in the Present tense, it can be viewed as fully comparable to the Polish auxiliary będzie ‘will be’. On the other hand, since the past participle such as gymaht is used as the most common expression of past and perfect – so-called Perfect (yhy ho gymaht ‘I have done, did, had done’), semantically close to the Polish past in ł such as the imperfective past robił ‘he did, was doing, used to do’ – it could be employed as a “natural” equivalent of the l-slot in the Polish Participial Żuture tense.27 Thus, the Polish Żuture będzię robił could have been imitated by the Vilamovicean expression wå gymaht (cf. Żigure 1 below).28 będę = (yhy) wå jam / żem robił = ho gymaht będę robił → yhy wå gymaht Żigure 2Ś Origin of the Żuture III This Polish background of the Vilamovicean Żuture III can also be demonstrated by a different fact. Polish has another imperfective future gram that is semantically equivalent to the l-Żuture. This construction is built on the auxiliary być in the Synthetic Żuture (3rd person singular będzie) and the infinitive of a main verb instead of the participial form in ł. Although certain differences in their usage may be found, the two Żutures usually have an identical aspectual meaning and denote future imperfective (progressive, durative, habitual) activities.29 (5) Będę pisał list I-will write (lit. [having] written) letter Będę pisać list I-will write letter I will write a letter 27 As the Perfect ho gymaht ‘I have done’ has an active sense, the participle gymaht (even if originally it had a passive value when derived from underlying transitive verbs) can be perceived as analogous to the original active perfect l-participle in Polish. 28 It is important to note that the Żuture III is not confined to the perfect or perfective sense but, just like the Polish construction, can introduce future progressive or habitual activities. 29 Michael MIKOSŚ Alternative Żorms of the Żuture Imperfective Tense in Polish, inŚ The Slavic and ɕast ɕuropean Journal 29 (1985), 4, P. 448-460. Regarding the compound imperfective future forms in Polish consult Helmut MÖNKɕŚ ɔas Żuturum der polnischen Verba, München 1971. Żor an alternative theory concerning the origin and meaning of the compound futures in Polish, see Henk PROɕMɕŚ On the compound future tense in Polish, inŚ Studies in West Slavic and Baltic Linguistics 16 (1991), P. 181-271. Where Germanic and Slavic Meet – New Polish-based Tenses ... 11 These two options of conveying the idea of futurity in Polish could have stimulated the development of an analogical situation in Vilamovicean. Accordingly, as the Żuture I (wyt maha) corresponds to the infinitival future tense of Polish (będzie robić), the l-variant of the future tense in Polish (będzie robił) could have triggered the formation of a similar construction in Vilamovicean. As the Polish slot robił has its most straightforward equivalent in the expression höt gymaht ‘he did, has done’, the construction wyt gymaht might have been derived to imitate the Polish form. Again, the entity robił – which originally was an active perfect participle and which can still be separated from the flectional endings of the original verb ‘to be’ (e.g. żem robił or jam robił ‘I have done / I have been doingś lit. I am [having] done’) – could easily be associated with the Vilamovicean past participle such as gymaht. This development may be schemati̟ed as a type of analogyŚ będzie robić Ś wyt maha Ś będzie robił x x = wyt gymaht Żigure 3Ś Origin of the Żuture III Although the hypothesis of the Polish background of the Żuture III seems to be very likely, the development of this construction could have also been stimulated by the fact that the Żuture Perfect I exhibits a participial form and uses a short variant of the auxiliary (cf. example 3.a, above). The two Vilamovicean tenses, i.e. the Żuture Perfect I and Żuture III, differ in that the former always employs the infinitive hon ‘have’ or zåjn ‘be’ and typically introduces future anterior activities. Accordingly, the sequence wyt gymaht hon might have helped in deriving a new future wyt gymaht, an imitation of the Polish Participial Żuture. Since the lack of the verb hon in the Żuture III (wyt gymaht) makes this form clearly distinguishable from the Żuture Perfect I (wyt gymaht hon) and since the use of the short variant wan makes it likewise distinguishable from the Passive Present-Żuture (wjyd gymaht), there is no risk that this new future formation could be confused with the constructions already existing in the language. In other words, copying the Polish Participial Żuture (where the auxiliary verb offers an explicit sense ‘will be’, where the original participle has an active value, and where no other ‘have’ and ‘be’ predicates, typical for perfect/anterior grams, are used) the Vilamovicean future perfect pattern wyt gymaht hon could have been reused as wyt gymaht in the sense of a “non-perfect” (the auxiliary hon or zåjn are missing) active future (the short variant wan is employed instead of the long wada exemplary for passive forms).30 30 The evolution whereby the auxiliary ‘have’ is lost in a perfect gram is not exceptional but is typologically well attested. It is documented in North Germanic languages where the 12 Alexander Andrason 2.2. Conjunctive Perfect III The other innovative construction – henceforth referred to as ‘Conjunctive Perfect III’ – is a periphrasis formed by the Conjunctive I form wje (SG wje, wjest, wje and PL wjen, wjet, wjenś cognate to the German Past Conjunctive tense) with the sense of ‘would’ and/or ‘would be’ and the past participle of a main verb. The entire expression provides a modal counterfactual unreal meaningŚ (6) Wen dy mer dos hetst gy̟iöet gestyn,31 If you me this had told yesterday If you had told me that yesterday, wje’h ju mytum gykuzt would-I just with-him talked I would already have talked to him In Vilamovicean in order to convey an unreal (irrealis) counterfactual sense, two formations are regularly usedŚ Conjunctive Perfect I or Conjunctive Perfect II. The Conjunctive Perfect I consists of the auxiliary verb hon ‘have’ in the Conjunctive I (i.e. het) and the past participle of a main verb, for instance het gymaht ‘(if) I had done’ (7.a). It corresponds to the German Conjunctive Pluperfect ich hätte gemacht and ich wäre gekommen. It is plausible that the Conjunctive Perfect I of some intransitive and/or inchoative verbs was originally formed by means of the auxiliary wje, e.g. *wje gykuma. However, currently the only form that is used, is het gykuma. The Conjunctive Perfect II is an analytic expression formed by the Conjunctive I form wje, the infinitive zåjn ‘be’ or hon ‘have’ and the past participle of a main verb, e.g. wje hon gymaht ‘I would have done / (if) I had done’ or wje zåjn gykuma ‘I would have come / (if) I had come’. It corresponds to the construction ich würde gemacht haben or ich würde gekommen sein in German (7.b).32 All of this means that instead of the new Conjunctive Perfect III wje gykuzt in (6), speakers can always use more regular expressions wie gykuzt hon or het gykuzt ‘would have talked / (if) he had talked’. Perfect series with the possessive verb cognate to the Vilamovicean hon ‘have’ can in certain contexts be eliminated and use only the participle (see, for instance, som jag gjort ‘which/that I have done’ instead of som jag har gjort in Swedish). A development of a future perfect into a simple future is also documented by the Polish Participial l-Żuture będzie robił which, as already mentioned, is a successor of an expression that, at earlier historical stages, functioned as a future perfect. Later, it acquired the status of a non-perfect (non-anterior) future tense. 31 Waleria BRZɕZINA, born 1925 (see ANɔRASONŚ ɕxpressions of futurity in the Vilamovicean language, P. 8). 32 ANɔRASONŚ The semantics of the Vilamovicean verbal system – Part 1 (empirical study). Where Germanic and Slavic Meet – New Polish-based Tenses ... 13 (7) a. Wen dy mer dos hetst gyziöet gestyn, If you me this had told yesterday, If you had told me this yesterday, het yh ju mytum gykuzt had I just with-him talked I would already have talked to him. b. Wen yh wje hon gybaka, If I were have cooked If I had cooked (it) wje h śun ołys hon gymaht were I already all have done I would already have it all done. Historically, the auxiliary wje in the Conjunctive Perfect II construction (wje gymaht hon) must have constituted the Conjunctive I form of the predicate wada/ wan ‘become’, given the fact that in German an equivalent construction employs the predicate werden in the Past Conjunctive tense, cf. ich würde gemacht haben. However, in Vilamovicean, the correct Conjunctive I form of wada/wan is wjed while wje constitutes the form of the Conjunctive I of the verb zåjn (cognate to German wäreś see example 8).33 It is also how the speakers themselves perceive this form in the Conjunctive Perfect II, i.e. as a form of the verb zåjn and not wada. It is nevertheless highly possible that in the original form wjed – which still exists in the modern language – the consonant d has merely been lost. In this manner, the form of the Conjunctive I of wada/wan (when it functions as an auxiliary in Conjunctive Perfect II) has become wje and, hence, identical to the Conjunctive I of zåjn. (8) Wen yh gjełd het, wje’ h śejn (cf. German wäre) If I money had were I beautiful If I had money, I would be beautiful. The language also possesses a construction that is formally very similar to the Conjunctive Perfect III. This formation employs the Conjunctive I of the verb wada/wan (i.e. wjed) and the past participle of a meaning verbŚ wjed gymaht, a cognate to würde gemacht in German. Its meaning is invariably passive and realcounterfactual (instead of the unreal counterfactual sense of the Conjunctive Perfect III). Accordingly, this construction does not refer to past situations which are impossible to be changed (‘It would have been done / (if) it had been done’) but rather 33 Cf. KLɕCZKOWSKIŚ ɔialekt Wilamowic w ̟achodniej Galicji. Żonetyka i fleksja (see especially page 142). 14 Alexander Andrason to situations which are present and unlikely (‘It would be done / (if) it was/were doneś see 9.a below). Since in Vilamovicean, the Passive voice can be formed both with the verb wada and zåjn, sometimes the form wje may also be used (9.b). In this case, the form of the Passive Conjunctive I (formally equivalent to wäre gemacht) is identical to the structure of the Conjunctive Perfect III. (9) a. Wen yh gjełd het, yhy wjed gybata If I money had I would-be (lit. become) asked If I had money, I would be asked. b. Wen yh gjełd het, yhy wje gybata If I money had I would-be asked If I had money, I would be asked. Another form that is similar to the Conjunctive Perfect III is the Conjunctive II. This construction employs the infinitive of a main verb instead of the past participle found in the Conjunctive III. The Conjunctive II constitutes a periphrastic alternative to the Conjunctive I of zåjn ‘be’, hon ‘have’ and wada ‘become’, as well as modal verbs. The Conjunctive II is also the typical form of verbs that lack the Conjunctive I (vi̟. all the verbs except those mentioned previously). The meaning of this gram is invariably counterfactual and real. (10) Wen yh wje hon gjełd, If I were have money If I had money, wje’h mer kiöefa å grusy hyt were-I for.me buy a big house I would buy myself a big house. The formal relation between the Conjunctive Perfect III and the other conjunctive forms in the Vilamovicean language can be summari̟ed in the following mannerŚ Conjunctive Perfect I Conjunctive Perfect II Passive Conjunctive I Conjunctive II har het gymaht ‘he would have done / if he had done’ har wje gymaht hon ‘he would have done / if he had done’ har wjed gymaht ‘he would be done’ har wje maha ‘he would do’ Where Germanic and Slavic Meet – New Polish-based Tenses ... Conjunctive III har wje gymaht 15 ‘he would have done / if he had done’ Żigure 4Ś Conjunctive Perfect III and its Vilamovicean background Again, the innovative Conjunctive Perfect III parallels the Polish Past Conditional byłby napisał formed by the auxiliary być ‘be’ in the Conditional (in the 3rd person singular byłby ‘would be’) and the past l-form of a main verb (e.g. robił). In Polish, this expression has a irrealis counterfactual sense (‘I would have written’ or ‘(if) I had written’ś cf. 11.a-b) and contrasts with the real counterfactual Conditional napisałbym ‘I would write / (if) I wrote’. Historically, the Past Conditional in Polish comes from a perfect expression where the slot in ł was originally an active perfect participle. (11) a. Byłbyś mi to powiedział, You-would-have to-me it said If you had told me that to byłbym ci pomógł then I-would-have you helped then I would have helped you. b. Gdybym był to wiedział wc̟e niej If-I-would-have it known earlier If only I had (would have) known it earlier. Since wje is viewed by the Vilamoviceans as equivalent to the Polish Conditional byłby, on the one hand, and gymaht is employed as a part of the Perfect form (the most frequent expression of the sense of a past and present perfect), semantically close to the Polish past which is homonymous with the participial ł slot of Past Conditional on the other hand,34 the periphrasis wje gymaht could be used in order to imitate the sequence byłbym robiłŚ byłbym = (yhy) wje jam / żem robił = ho gymaht byłbym robił → yhy wje gymaht Żigure 5Ś Origin of the Conditional Perfect III Similar to the previously discussed Żuture III, the development of the Conjunctive Perfect III – understood as an imitation of a Polish construction – could 34 fect. The force of the original l-participle is similar to the active use of gymaht in the Per- 16 Alexander Andrason also have been stimulated by certain forms that have already existed in the Vilamovicean language, namely the Conjunctive Perfect II (wje gymaht hon) and Conjunctive Perfect I (het gymaht). These two constructions are semantically analogous to the novel gram, expressing counterfactual unreal situations. To be exact, in the same manner as it was with the Żuture III, the auxiliary hon in wje gymaht hon might have been eliminated, as possibly redundant (cf. Żootnote 30). Since the form wje could be a variant of wada in the Conjunctive Perfect II, it would differentiate the construction from the Passive Conjunctive I where wjed is typically used. Thus, in order to imitate the Polish Past Conditional, the sequence wje gymaht hon could have been simplified to wje gymaht ‘(he) would have said / (if he) had said’ distinct from wjed gymaht ‘(it) would be said / (if it) were said’.35 Alternatively, the active pattern wje (Conjunctive I of zåjn) + past participle (wje gykuma), which had probably existed in the language, could have been extended to hon verbs, thus, yielding an active construction wje gymaht ‘I would have done’. This was possible because the auxiliary wje was lost in the Conjunctive Perfect I, where the form het was generali̟ed with all the verbs. Although the ‘have’ type auxiliary is commonly generali̟ed with verbs that originally employed the ‘be’ type verb in the perfect series (see the Conjunctive Perfect Iś see also the Perfect in North Germanic languages and ɕnglish, where the possessive auxiliary is nowadays used with all the verbs, e.g. jag har kommit ‘I have come’ in Swedish), in some languages, an opposite development takes place and a ‘be’ type predicate spreads to all the perfect constructions (cf. some Italian dialects as well as Kashubian and Macedonian).36 However, as there is no trace of generali̟ation of zåjn in any other type of the Perfect series 35 A similar – but not identical – construction, may be found in Yiddish where the analytical conditional tense reflects a periphrasis composed of the auxiliary wolt, an old preterite of the verb wellen ‘to want’, and the past participle of a main verb. This construction has counterfactual senses, both real and unreal (see Rebecca M Ś Basic YiddishŚ A Grammar and Workbook, New York 2011). According to G , wolt gemoht emerged as a confusion of wolt mahen (real) and wolt gemoht haben (unreal) yielding a new formally mixed counterfactual conditional. In her view, the rise of the participial conjunctive-conditional in Yiddish developed under a Slavic influence (see ɕwa G Ś Jidys̟Ś ję̟yk ydów polskich, Wars̟awa 1994, see especially pages 50-52)Ś ‫אָל גע אָג‬ ‫א‬ (A) Ix wolt gezogt I would told I would tell / have told 36 Nina G Ś Macedonian – a language with three perfects?, inŚ Östen ɔ (ɕd.)Ś Tense and Aspect in the Languages of ɕurope, Berlin/New York 2000, P. 479-494 (see especially page 384)ś Jouko L Ś The perfect – aspectual, temporal and evidential, ebd., P. 365-383 (see especially page 377)ś Kr̟ys̟tof M Ś The Syntax of Compound Tenses in Slavic, Utrecht 2006ś Patri̟ia R Ś Tiempos de formación Romance I. Los tiempos compuestos, inŚ Concepción C (ɕd.)Ś Sintaxis histórica de la lengua española, Vol. 1, México 2006, P. 243-346. Where Germanic and Slavic Meet – New Polish-based Tenses ... 17 (Present Perfect, Pluperfect or Żuture Perfect), this type of development – if it has actually occurred – must be due to the already explained imitation of the Polish Past Conditional form. The development of the new Żuture and Conditional forms in Vilamovicean corroborates the idea of replica grammaticali̟ation or pattern replication,37 whereby speakers of the replica (target) language create a new category on the basis of the construction found in the model (input) language.38 Accordingly, Vilamovicean speakers replicated two verbal forms available in Polish by using grammatical material available in their mother tongue. In the two cases discussed in this article, when replicating, speakers preserved the compositional structure and semantic potential of the modelled Polish constructions in their Vilamovicean equivalents. 3. Conclusion The present study has dealt with one of the most intriguing effects of the Polish influence on the Vilamovicean languageŚ the creation of new verbal tenses, Żuture III and Conjunctive Perfect III, which can be used instead of the Żuture I and Conjunctive Perfect I or II, respectively. Żirst, the semantic and morphosyntactic properties of these innovative constructions have been described and their relation to other similar forms, available in the language, has been explained. After that, it has been proposed that both the Żuture III and Conjunctive Perfect III may have emerged as imitations of equivalent expressions that exist in Polish, namely the Participial Żuture and Participial Past Conditional. Lastly, the author has hypothesi̟ed that although the Polish influence seems to have been decisive in developing the two grams, their emergence may also have been fostered by the existence of certain forms already available in Vilamovicean. These “older” constructions – still under impact of Polish – could have been re-used and adjusted to the Polish pattern, yielding entirely new formations. In this manner, the Polish and Germanic languages – the two mother tongues of the Vilamovicean speakers – might jointly have collaborated in generating the two new tenses, thus increasing the complexity of the Vilamovicean verbal system. 37 Bernd H – Tania K Ś On contact-induced grammaticali̟ation, inŚ Studies in Language 27 (2003), 3, P. 529-572ś Bernd H – Tania K Ś Language Contact and Grammatical Change, Cambridge 2005. 38 Volker G – Johan van der A Ś What is ‘contact-induced grammaticali̟ation’? ɕxamples from Mayan and Mixe-Zoquean languages, inŚ Björn W – Bernhard W – Björn H (ɕds.)Ś Grammatical Replication and Borrowability in Language Contact, Berlin 2012, P 381-425ś see especially page 386.