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FUNDAMENTAL METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS Alpha C. ChiangFUNDAMENTAL METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS Third Edition Alpha C. Chiang Professor of Economics The University of Connecticut McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoThis book was set in Times Roman by Science Typographers, Ine The editors were Patricia A. Mitchell and Cail Gavert the production supervisor was Leroy A. Young The cover was designed by Carla Bauer FUNDAMENTAL METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS Copyright © 1984, 1974, 1967 by McGraw-Hill, Ing. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America, Ecept as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by un means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior wntien permission of the publisher, 24 22 28 24 25 26 27 28 29.30 FGRFGR 99 ISBN 0-O?-010813-? Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Chiang. Alpha C.. date Fundamental methods of mathematical economics, Bibliography: p Includes index i. Economics, Mathematical, 1. Title HBI3S.C47 1984 330,01'St_83-19609 ISBN 0.07-010813-7 This book is printed on acid-free paper.Part | be ow CONTENTS Preface Introduction The Nature of Mathematical Economi Mathematical versus Nonmathematical Economics Mathematical Economics versus Econometrics Economic Models Ingredients of a Mathematical Model The Real-Number System The Concept of Sets Relations and Functions Types of Function Functions of Two or More Independent Variables Levels of Generality Static (or Equilibrium) Analysis Equilibrium Analysis in Economics The Meaning of Equilibrium Partial Market Equilibrium— A Linear Model 10 n 0 B 29 31 35 35 36vi CONTENTS 33 34 3.5 4 4 42 43 44 45 46 5 Sa 52 33 54 55 56 37 58 Part 3 61 62 63 64 65 66 Partial Market Equilibrium-—A Nonlinear Model General Market Equilibrium Equilibrium in National-Income Analysis Linear Models and Matrix Algebra Matrices and Vectors Matrix Operations Notes on Vector Operations Commutative, Associative, and Distributive Laws Identity Matrices and Null Matrices Transposes and Inverses Linear Models and Matrix Algebra (Continued) Conditions for Nonsingularity of a Matrix Test of Nonsingularity by Use of Determinant Basic Properties of Determinants Finding the Inverse Matrix Cramer's Rule Application to Market and National-Income Models Leontief Input-Output Models Limitations of Static Analysis Comparative-Static Analysis Comparative Stati of Derivative The Nature of Comparative Statics Rate of Change and the Derivative The Derivative and the Slope of a Curve The Concept of Limit Digtession on Inequalities and Absolute Values Limit Theorems Continuity and Differentiability of a Function ind the Concept Rules of Differentiation and Their Use in Comparative Statics Rules of Differentiation for a Function of One Variable Rules of Differentiation Involving Two or More Funetions of the Same Variable Rules of Differentiation Involving Functions of Different Variables Partial Differentiation Applications to Comparative-Static Analysis Note on Jacobian Determinants 40 46 52 54 58 58 67 16 19 82 88 88 9 98 103 107 12 ns 124 7 7 128 131 132 141 145 147a1 93 94 95 96 10 10.1 102 103 104 105 106 107 nul Wa 12 13 14 ILS 16 17 CONTENTS vii Comparative-Static Analysis of General-Function Models Differentials Total Differentials Rules of Differentials Total Derivatives Derivatives of Implicit Functions Comparative Statics of General-Function Models Limitations of Comparative Statics Optimization Problems Optimization: A Special Variety of Equilibrium Analysis Optimum Values and Extreme Values Relative Maximum and Minimum: First-Derivative Test ‘Second and Higher Derivatives ‘Second-Derivative Test Digression on Maclaurin and Taylor Series Nth-Derivative Test for Reiative Extremum of a Function of One Variable Exponential and Logarithmic Functions The Nature of Exponential Functions ‘Natural Exponential Functions and the Problem of Growth Logarithms Logarithmic Functions Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Optimal Timing Further Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Derivatives The Case of More than One Choice Variable The Differential Version of Optimization Conditions Extreme Values of a Function of Two Variables Quadratic Forms—An Excursion Objective Functions with More than Two Variables Second-Order Conditions in Relation to Concavity and Convexity Economic Applications Comparative-Static Aspects of Optimization Optimization with Equality Constraints Effects of a Constraint Finding the Stationary Values Second-Order Conditions 187 188 194 196 198 204 215 226 231 232 233 239 245 254 263 307 308 310 319 332 337 353 364 369 370 372 379viii CONTENTS 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 15 15.1 152 153 Isa 155 136 157 16 161 16.2 163 164 165 166 Quasiconcavity and Quasiconveaity Utility Maximization and Consumer Demand Homogencous Functions Least-Cost Combination of Inputs ‘Some Concluding Remarks Dynamic Analysis Economic Dynamics and Integral Calculus Dynamics and Integration Indefinite Integrals Definite Integrals Improper Integrals Some Economie Applications of Integrals Domar Growth Model Continuous Time: First-Order Differential Equations First-Order Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficient and Constant Term Dynamics of Market Price Variable Coefficient and Variable Term Exact Differential Equations Nonlinear Differential Equations of the First Order and First Degree ‘The Qualitative-Graphic Approach Solow Growth Model Higher-Order Differential Equations Second-Order Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients and Constant Term Complex Numbers and Circular Functions Analysis of the Complex-Root Case ‘A Market Model with Price Expectations The Interaction of Inflation and Unemployment Differential Equations with a Variable Term Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations Discrete Time: First-Order Difference Equations Discrete Time, Differences, and Difference Equations Solving a First-Order Difference Equation The Dynamic Stability of Equilibrium ‘The Cobweb Model ‘A Market Model with Inventory Nonlinear Difference Equations The Qualitative-Graphic Approach 387 400 410 418 41 435 436 437 4a7 454 458, 465 470 470 475 480 483 489 493 496 502 503 sl 523 529 535 S41 544 349) 350 581 557 561 566 569)17 Wi 72 173 4 18 Ig 18.2 183 184 18.5 18.6 18.7 Part 6 19 19.1 19.2 193 194 19.5 196 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 8 CONTENTS ix Higher-Order Difference Equations Second-Order Linear Difference Equations with Constant Coefficients and Constant Term Samuelson Multiplier-Acceleration Interaction Model Inflation and Unemployment in Discrete Time Generalizations to Variable-Term and Higher-Order Equations Simultaneous Differential Equations and Difference Equations The Genesis of Dynamic Systems Solving Simultaneous Dynamic Equations Dynamic Input-Output Models The Inflation-Unemployment Model Once More Two-Variable Phase Diagrams Linearization of a Nonlinear Differential-Equation System Limitations of Dynamic Analysis Mathematical Programming Linear Programming Simple Examples of Linear Programming General Formulation of Linear Programs Convex Sets and Linear Programming Simplex Method: Finding the Extreme Points Simplex Method: Finding the Optimal Extreme Point Further Notes on the Simplex Method Linear Programming (Continued) Duality Economic Interpretation of a Dual Activity Analysis: Miero Level Activity Analysis: Macro Level Nonlinear Programming ‘The Nature of Nonlinear Programming Kuhn-Tucker Conditions The Constraint Qualification Kuhn-Tucker Sufficiency Theorem: Concave Programming Arrow-Enthoven Sufficiency Theorem: Quasiconcave Programming Economic Applications Limitations of Mathematical Programming The Greek Alphabet Mathematical Symbols A Short Reading List Answers to Selected Exercise Problems Index 516 377 585 591 596 605 605 608 616 623 628 638 646 651 652 661 665 671 676 682 688 688 696 700 709 116 716 72 7 738 744 747 784 756 737 760 163 781PART ONE INTRODUCTIONCHAPTER ONE THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS Mathematical economics is not a distinct branch of economies in the sense that public finance or international trade is. Rather, it is an approach to economic analysis, in which the economist makes use of mathematical symbols in the statement of the problem and also draws upon known mathematical theorems to aid in reasoning. As far as the specific subject matter of analysis goes. it can be micro- or macroeconomic theory. public finance, urban economics. or what not Using the term mathematical economics in the broadest possible sense, one may very well say that every elementary textbook of economics today exemplifies mathematical economics insofar as geometrical methods are frequently utilized to derive theoretical results, Conventionally, however, mathematical economics is reserved to describe cases employing mathematical techniques beyond simple geometry, such as matrix algebra, differential and integral calculus, differential equations, difference equations, etc. It is the purpose of this book to introduce the reader to the most fundamental aspects of these mathematical methods—those encountered daily in the current economic literature. 1.1. MATHEMATICAL VERSUS ECONOMICS NONMATHEMATICAL Since mathematical economics is merely an approach to economic analysis, it should not and does not differ from the nonmathematical approach to economic analysis in any fundamental way. The purpose of any theoretical analysis. regardless of the approach, is always to derive a set of conclusions or theorems from a given set of assumptions or postulates via a process of reasoning. The major difference between “mathematical economics” and “literary economi4 INTRODUCTION lies principally in the fact that, in the former, the assumptions and conclusions are stated in mathematical symbols rather than words and in equations rather than sentences; moreover, in place of literary logic, use is made of mathematical theorems—of which there exists an abundance to draw upon—in the reasoning process. Inasmuch as symbols and words are really equivalents (witness the fact that symbols are usually defined in words), it matters little which is chosen over the other. But it is perhaps beyond dispute that symbols are more convenient to use in deductive reasoning, and certainly are more conducive to conciseness and preciseness of statement, The choice between literary logic and mathematical logic, again, is a matter of little import, but mathematics has the advantage of forcing analysts to make their assumptions explicit at every stage of reasoning, This is because mathematical theorems are usually stated in the “if-then” form, so that in order to tap the “then” (result) part of the theorem for their use, they must first make sure that the “if” (condition) part does conform to the explicit assumptions adopted. Granting these points, though, one may still ask why it is necessary to go beyond geometric methods. The answer is that while geometric analysis has the important advantage of being visual, it also suffers from a serious dimensional limitation. In the usual graphical discussion of indifference curves, for instance, the standard assumption is that only fvo commodities are available to the consumer. Such a simplifying assumption is not willingly adopted but is forced upon us because the task of drawing a three-dimensional graph is exceedingly difficult and the construction of a four- (or higher) dimensional graph is actually a physical impossibility. To deal with the more general case of 3, 4, or 1 goods, we must instead resort to the more flexible tool of equations. This reason alone should provide sufficient motivation for the study of mathematical methods beyond geometry. In short, we see that the mathematical approach has claim to the following advantages: (1) The “language” used is more concise and precise: (2) there exists a wealth of mathematical theorems at our service; (3) in forcing us to state explicitly all our assumptions as a prerequisite to the use of the mathematical theorems. it keeps us from the pitfall of an unintentional adoption of unwanted implicit assumptions; and (4) it allows us to treat the general n-variable case. Against these advantages, one sometimes hears the criticism that a mathe- matically derived theory is inevitably unrealistic. However, this criticism is not valid, In fact, the epithet “unrealistic” cannot even be used in criticizing eco- nomic theory in general, whether or not the approach is mathematical. Theory is by its very nature an abstraction from the real world. It is a device for singling out only the most essential factors and relationships so that we can study the crux of the problem at hand, free from the many complications that do exist in the actual world. Thus the statement “theory lacks realism” is merely a truism that cannot be accepted as a valid criticism of theory. It then follows logically that it is quite meaningless to pick out any one approach to theory as “unrealistic.” For example, the theory of firm under pure competition is unrealistic, as is the theoryTHE NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS 5. of firm under imperfect competition, but whether these theories are derived mathematically or not is irrelevant and immaterial, In sum, we might liken the mathematical approach to a “mode of transporta- tion” that can take us from a set of postulates (point of departure) to a set of conclusions (destination) at a good speed. Common sense would tell us that, if you intend to go to a place 2 miles away, you will very likely prefer driving to walking, unless you have time to kill or want to exercise your legs. Similarly, as a theorist who wishes to get to your conclusions more rapidly, you will find it convenient to “drive” the vehicle of mathematical techniques appropriate for your particular purpose. You will, of course, have to take “driving lessons” first; but since the skill thus acquired tends to be of service for a long, long while. the time and effort required would normally be well spent indeed. For a serious “driver”—to continue with the metaphor—some solid lessons in mathematics are imperative. It is obviously impossible to introduce all the mathematical tools used by economists in a single volume. Instead, we shall concentrate on only those that are mathematically the most fundamental and economically the most relevant. Even so. if you work through this book conscien- tiously, you should at least become proficient enough to comprehend most of the professional articles you will come across in such periodicals as the American Economic Review, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Journal of Political Economy. Review of Economies and Statistics, and Economic Journal. Those of you who, through this exposure, develop a serious interest in mathematical economics can then proceed to a more rigorous and advanced study of mathematics. 1.2) MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS VERSUS ECONOMETRI! The term “mathematical economics” is sometimes confused with a related term, “econometrics.” As the “metric” part of the latter term implies, econometrics is concerned mainly with the measurement of economic data, Hence it deals with the study of empirical observations using statistical methods of estimation and hypothesis testing. Mathematical economics, on the other hand, refers to the application of mathematics to the purely rheorerical aspects of economic analysis. with little or no concern about such statistical problems as the errors of measure- ment of the variables under study In the present volume, we shall confine ourselves to mathematical economics. That is, we shall concentrate on the application of mathematics to deductive reasoning rather than inductive study. and as a result we shall be dealing primarily with theoretical rather than empirical material. This is, of course, solely 4 matter of choice of the scope of discussion, and it is by no means implied that econometrics is less important. Indeed, empirical studies and theoretical analyses are often complementary and mutually reinforcing. On the one hand. theories must be tested against empirical data for validity before they can be applied with confidence. On the6 INTRODUCTION other, statistical work needs economic theory as a guide, in order to determine the most relevant and fruitful direction of research. A classic illustration of the complementary nature of theoretical and empirical studies is found in the study of the aggregate consumption function, The theoretical work of Keynes on the consumption function led to the statistical estimation of the propensity to consume, but the statistical findings of Kuznets and Goldsmith regarding the relative long-run constancy of the propensity to consume (in contradiction to what might be expected from the Keynesian theory). in turn, stimulated the refinement of aggregate consumption theory by Duesenberry, Friedman, and others.* In one sense, however, mathematical economics may be considered as the more basic of the two: for. to have a meaningful statistical and econometric study, a good theoretical framework—preferably in a mathematical formulation is indispensable. Hence the subject matter of the present volume should be useful not only for those interested in theoretical economics, but also for those seeking a foundation for the pursuit of econometric studies. * John M. Keynes, The General Theory of Employment. Interest and Money, Harcourt, Brace and Company. Ine., New York, 1936, Book III: Simon Kuznets, National Income: A Summary of Findings National Bureau of Economic Research, 1946, p. $3: Raymond Goldsmith, 4 Study of Saving in th United States, vol. 1, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1958, chap. 3; James $, Duesenberry. Income, Saving. and the Theory of Consumer Behavior, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.. 1949; Milton Friedman, A Theory of the Consumption Function, National Bureau of Economic Research, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.. 1987.CHAPTER rwo ECONOMIC MODELS ‘As mentioned before, any economic theory is necessarily an abstraction from the real world. For one thing, the immense complexity of the real economy makes it impossible for us to understand all the interrelationships at once; nor, for that matter, are all these interrelationships of equal importance for the understanding of the particular economic phenomenon under study. The sensible procedure is, therefore, to pick out what appeal to our season to be the primary factors and relationships relevant to our problem and to focus our attention on these alone. Such a deliberately simplified analytical framework is called an economic model, since it is only a skeletal and rough representation of the actual economy. 2.1. INGREDIENTS OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL An economic model is merely a theoretical framework, and there is no inherent reason why it must be mathematical. If the model is mathematical, however, it will usually consist of a set of equations designed to describe the structure of the model. By relating a number of variables to one another in certain ways, these equations give mathematical form to the set of analytical assumptions adopted. Then, through application of the relevant mathematical operations to these equations, we may seek to derive a set of conclusions which logically follow from those assumptions.8 INTRODUCTION Variables, Constants, and Parameters ‘A variable is something whose magnitude can change, i.e., something that can take on different values. Variables frequently used in economies include price. profit, revenue, cost, national income, consumption, investment, imports. exports, and so on, Since each variable can assume various values, it must be represented by a symbol instead of a specific number. For example, we may represent price by P. profit by 7, revenue by R, cost by C, national income by Y. and so forth. When we write P = 3 or C = 18, however, we are “freezing” these variables at specific values (in appropriately chosen units). Properly constructed, an economic model can be solved to give us the solution values of a certain set of variables, such as the market-clearing level of price, or the profit-maximizing level of output. Such variables, whose solution values we seek from the model, are known as endogenous variables (originating from within), However, the model may also contain variables which are assumed to be determined by forces external to the model, and whose magnitudes are accepted as given data only: such variables are called exogenous variables (originating from without). It should be noted that a variable that is endogenous to one model may very well be exogenous to another. In an analysis of the market determination of wheat price (P), for instance, the variable P should definitely be endogenous; but in the framework of a theory of consumer expenditure, P would become instead a datum to the individual consumer, and must therefore be considered exogenous. Variables frequently appear in combination with fixed numbers or constants, such as in the expressions 7P or 0.5R. A constant is a magnitude that does not change and is therefore the antithesis of a variable. When a constant is joined to a variable, it is often referred to as the coefficient of that variable. However, a coefficient may be symbolic rather than numerical. We can, for instance. let the symbol a stand for a given constant and use the expression aP in lieu of TP in a model, in order to attain a higher level of generality (see Sec. 2.7). This symbol a is a rather peculiar case—it is supposed to represent a given constant, and yet, since we have not assigned to it a specific number, it can take virtually any value In short, it is a constant that is variable! To identify its special status, we give it the distinctive name parametric constant (or simply parameter) It must be duly emphasized that, although different values can be assigned to a parameter, it is nevertheless to be regarded as a datum in the model. It is for this reason that people sometimes simply say “constant” even when the constant is parametric. In this respect. parameters closely resemble exogenous variables, for both are to be treated as “givens” in a model, This explains why many writers for simplicity, refer to both collectively with the single designation “ parameters.” ‘As a matter of convention, parametric constants are normally represented by the symbols a, b,c, o theit counterparts in the Greek alphabet: a, 8 and y. But other symbols naturally are also permissible. As for exogenous variables, in order that they can be visually distinguished from their endogenous cousins, we shall follow the practice of attaching a subscript 0 to the chosen symbol. For example, if P symbolizes price, then P, signifies an exogenously determined price,ECONOMIC MODELS 9 Equations and Identities Variables may exist independently, but they do not really become interesting until they are related to one another by equations or by inequalities. At this juncture we shall discuss equations only. In economic applications we may distinguish between three types of equa- tion: definitional equations, behavioral equations, and equilibrium conditions. A definitional equation sets up an identity between two alternate expressions that have exactly the same meaning, For such an equation, the identical-equali ign = (read: “is identically equal to”) is often employed in place of the regular equals sign = , although the latter is also acceptable. As an example, total profit is defined as the excess of total revenue over total cost; we can therefore write aw=R-C A behavioral equation, on the other hand, specifies the manner in which a variable behaves in response to changes in other variables. This may involve either human behavior (such as the aggregate consumption pattern in relation to national income) or nonhuman behavior (such as how total cost of a firm reacts to output changes). Broadly defined, behavioral equations can be used to describe the general institutional setting of a model, including the technological (e.g.. production function) and legal (e.g.. tax structure) aspects. Before a behavioral equation can be written, however, it is always necessary to adopt definite assumptions regarding the behavior pattern of the variable in question, Consider the two cost functions (21) C= 75+ 109 (2.2) C=1l0+Q? where Q denotes the quantity of output. Since the two equations have different forms, the production condition assumed in each is obviously different from the other. In (2.1), the fixed cost (the value of C when Q = 0) is 75, whereas in (2.2) it is 110. The variation in cost is also different, In (2.1), for each unit increase in Q, there is a constant increase of 10 in C. But in (2.2), as Q increases unit after unit, C will increase by progressively larger amounts, Clearly, it is primarily through the specification of the form of the behavioral equations that we give mathemati- cal expression to the assumptions adopted for a model. The third type of equations, equilibriwn conditions. have relevance only if our model involves the notion of equilibrium, If so, the equilibrium condition is an ‘equation that describes the prerequisite for the attainment of equilibrium. Two of the most familiar equilibrium conditions in economics are Q,=@, — [quantity demanded = quantity supplied] and S=J [intended saving = intended investment] which pertain, respectively, to the equilibrium of a market model and the equilibrium of the national-income model in its simplest form. Because equations10 INTRODUCTION of this type are neither definitional nor behavioral, they constitute a class by themselves. 2.2. THE REAL-NUMBER SYSTEM Equations and variables are the essential ingredients of a mathematical model. But since the values that an economic variable takes are usually numerical, a few words should be said about the number system, Here, we shall deal only with so-called “real numbers.” Whole numbers such as | are called positive integers: these are the numbers most frequently used in counting. Their negative counterparts 1, =2. =3.... are called negative integers: these can be employed. for example, to indicate subzero temperatures (in degrees). The number 0 (zero), on the other hand. is neither positive nor negative, and is in that sense unique. Let us lump all the positive and negative integers and the number zero into a single category, referring to them collectively as the ser of all imegers Integers. of course, do not exhaust all the possible numbers, for we have fractions, such as 3. }, and . which—if placed on a ruler—would fall between the integers. Also, we have negative fractions, such as ~ } and — 3. Together. these make up the ser of all fractions The common property of all fractional numbers is that each is expressible as a ratio of two integers: thus fractions qualify for the designation rational numbers (in this usage. rational means ratio-nal). But integers are also rational, because any integer n can be considered as the ratio n/1. The set of all integers and the set of all fractions together form the ser of all rational numbers Once the notion of rational numbers is used. however. there naturally arises the concept of irrational numbers—numbers that cannot be expressed as ratios of & pair of integers. One example is the number V2 = 1.4142... which is a nonrepeating, nonterminating decimal. Another is the special constant 7 1415... (representing the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diame- ter), which is again a nonrepeating, nonterminating decimal, as is characteristic of all irrational numbers. Each irrational number. if placed on a ruler. would fall between two rational numbers, so that, just as the fractions fill in the gaps between the integers on a ruler. the irrational numbers fill in the gaps between rational numbers. The result of this filling-in process is a continuum of numbers, all of which are so-called “real numbers.” This continuum constitutes the set of all real numbers. which is often denoted by the symbol R. When the set R is displayed on a straight line (an extended ruler), we refer to the line as the real line. In Fig. 2.1 are listed (in the order discussed) all the number s relationship to one another. If we read from bottom to top, however, we find in effect a classiticatory scheme in which the set of real numbers is broken down into its component and subcomponent number sets. This figure therefore is a summary of the structure of the real-number system, 1s, arranged inECONOMIC MODELS 11 Integers 71 L Fractions Rational Ierationat sumbers numbers Real numbers Figure 2.1 Real numbers are all we need for the first 14 chapters of this book, but they are not the only numbers used in mathematics. In fact, the réason for the term “real” is that there are also “imaginary” numbers, which have to do with the square roots of negative numbers. That concept will be discussed later. in Chap. iF 2.3. THE CONCEPT OF SETS. We have already employed the word “set” several times. Inasmuch as the concept of sets underlies every branch of modern mathematics. it is desirable to familiarize ourselves at least with its more basic aspects Set Notation A set is simply a collection of distinet objects. These objects may be a group of (distinct) numbers, or something else. Thus, all the students enrolled in a particular economies course can be considered a set, just as the three integers 2, 3, and 4 can form a set. The objects in a set are called the elements of the set. There are two alternative ways of writing a set: by enumeration and by description. If we let S represent the set of three numbers 2. 3, and 4, we can write, by enumeration of the elements, 4} S=Q2 But if we let / denote the set of all positive integers, enumeration becomes difficult, and we may instead simply describe the elements and write 1 = {x | xa positive integer) which is read as follows: “/ is the set of all (numbers) x, such that x is a positive integer.” Note that braces are used to enclose the set in both cases. In the descriptive approach, a vertical bar (or a colon) is always inserted to separate the general symbol for the elements from the description of the elements. As another example, the set of all real numbers greater than 2 but less than 5 (call it J) can12 INTRODUCTION be expressed sy ce bolically as [2 (includes), we may then write TOS of SOT It is possible that two given sets happen to be subsets of each other. When this occurs. however, we can be sure that these two sets are equal. To state this formally: we can have S, C S; and S, ¢ S, if and only if S,ECONOMIC MODELS 13 Note that, whereas the © symbol relates an individual element to a set, the C symbol relates a subser to a set. As an application of this idea, we may state on the basis of Fig. 2.1 that the set of all integers is a subset of the set of all rational numbers. Similarly, the set of all rational numbers is a subset of the set of all real numbers. How many subsets can be formed from the five elements in the set $= {1,3,5,7,9}? First of all, each individual element of S can count as a distinct subset of S, such as (1), (3), ete, But so can any pair, triple, or quadruple of these elements, such as (1.3), (1,5},.-..(3.7.9}. ete. For that matter, the set S itself (with all its five elements) can be considered as one of its own subsets—every element of $ is an element of S, and thus the set S itself fulfills the definition of a subset. This is, of course, a limiting case, that from which we get the “largest” possible subset of S, namely, S itself At the other extreme, the “smallest” possible subset of S is a set that contains no element at all. Such a set is called the mull set, or empty set. denoted by the symbol @ or ( }. The reason for considering the null set as a subset of S is quite interesting: If the null set is not a subset of $ (@ ¢ S), then @ must contain at least one element x such that x € S. But since by definition the null set has no element whatsoever, we cannot say that @ ¢ S: hence the null set is a subset of Ss. Counting all the subsets of S, including the two limiting cases $ and 2. we find a total of 2° = 32 subsets. In general, if a set has n elements, a total of 2” subsets can be formed from those elements,* It is extremely important to distinguish the symbol @ or { } clearly from the notation (0); the former is devoid of elements, but the latter does contain an element, zero. The null set is unique: there is only one such set in the whole world, and it is considered a subset of any set that can be conceived. As a third possible type of relationship, two sets may have no elements in common at all. In that case, the two sets are said to be disjoint. For example, the set of all positive integers and the set of all negative integers are disjoint sets. A fourth type of relationship occurs when two sets have some elements in common but some elements peculiar to each. In that event, the two sets are neither equal nor disjoint; also, neither set is a subset of the other. Operations on Sets. When we add, subtract, multiply. divide, or take the square root of some numbers. we are performing mathematical operations. Sets are different from * Given a set with a clements (a. 6. ¢...., ) We may first classify its subsets into Wo categories: one with the clement « in it, and one without, Each of theve two can be further classified into two subcategories: one with the clement 6 in it, and one without, Note that by considering the second clement h, we double the number of categories in the classification from 2 10 4 (= 2°), By the same token, the consideration of the element « will increase the total number of categories to 8 (= 2°) When all 1 elements are considered. the total number of categories will become the total number of subsets, and that number is 214 INTRODUCTION numbers, but one can similarly perform certain mathematical operations on them. ‘Three principal operations to be discussed here involve the union, intersection, and complement of sets. To take the union of wo sets A and B means to form a new set containing those elements (and only those elements) belonging to A. or to B. or to both A and B. The union set is symbolized by 4 U B (read: “A union B”), Example 1 Wf A = (3.5.7) and B = (2.3.4.8), then AU B= (2,3.4,5,7,8) This example illustrates the case in which two sets 4 and B are neither equal nor disjoint and in which neither is a subset of the other, Example 2 Again referring to Fig. 2.1, we see that the union of the set of all integers and the set of all fractions is the set of all rational numbers. Similarly, the union of the rational-number set and the irrational-number set yields the set of all real numbers. The imersection of two sets A and B, on the other hand, is a new set which contains those elements (and only those elements) belonging to both A and B. The intersection set is symbolized by 4 9 B (read: “A intersection B”). Example 3 From the sets A and B in Example 1, we can write ANB=() Example 4 If A = {—3,6, 10} and B = (9,2,7,4), then A B= @. Set A and set B are disjoint; therefore their intersection is the empty set—no element is common to A and B. It is obvious that intersection is a more restrictive concept than union. In the former, only the elements common to A and B are acceptable, whereas in the latter, membership in either A or B is sufficient to establish membership in the union set, The operator symbols 1 and U—which, incidentally, have the same kind of general status as the symbols, +. +, etc.—therefore have the connotations “and” and “or.” respectively. This point can be better appreciated by comparing the following formal definitions of intersection and union: Intersection: AQ B=(x|x€Aandx € BY Union AUB=(x|x€Aorx € B) Before explaining the complement of a set, let us first introduce the concept of universal set, In a particular context of discussion, if the only numbers used are the set of the first seven positive integers, we may refer to it as the universal set, U, Then, with a given set, say, A = (3, 6.7}, we can define another set 4 (read: “the complement of A”) as the set that contains all the numbers in the universalECONOMIC MODELS. 1S That is. (x |x © Uand x € 4} = (1.2.4.5) set U which are not in the A et Note that, whereas the symbol U has the connotation “or” and the symbol 9 means “and.” the complement symbol ~ carries the implication of “not.” Example 5 (f U = (5,6,7,8.9} and 4 = (5.6). then A = (7.8.93 Example 6 What is the complement of U? Since every object (number) under consideration is included in the universal set, the complement of U must be empty. Thus 0 = & The three types of set operation can be visualized in the three diagrams of Fig. 2.2, known as Venn diagrams. In diagram a, the points in the upper circle form a set A, and the points in the lower circle form a set B. The union of A and B then consists of the shaded area covering both circles, In diagram b are shown the same two sets (circles). Since their intersection should comprise only the points common to both sets, only the (shaded) overlapping portion of the two circles satisfies the definition. In diagram c. let the points in the rectangle be the universal set and tet A be the set of points in the circle; then the complement set 4 will be the (shaded) area outside the circle, Laws of Set Operations From Fig, 2.2. it may be noted that the shaded area in diagram a represents not only 4 U B but also BU A. Analogously. in diagram 6 the small shaded area is the visual representation not only of A. B but also of BO A, When formalized. Union Intersection Complement AUB AnB A | A 4 \ A | } | i A | : | | | | fo (a) (6. — (e} Figure 2216 INTRODUCTION this result is known as the commutative law (of unions and intersections) AUB=BUA ANB=BNA These relations are very similar to the algebraic laws a + 6 = 6 + aand aX b= bxa To take the union of three sets 4, B. and C, we first take the union of any two sets and then “union” the resulting set with the third; a similar procedure is applicable to the intersection operation. The results of such operations are illustrated in Fig. 2.3. It is interesting that the order in which the sets are selected for the operation is immaterial. This fact gives rise to the associative law (of unions and intersections): AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC AN(BOC)=(ANB)NC These equations are strongly reminiscent of the algebraic laws a + (b + c) = (a +b) +e and a x (bX c) = (aX b) Xe There is also a law of operation that applies when unions and intersections are used in combination. This is the distributive law (of unions and intersections): AU(BOC)=(AUB)N(AUC) AN(BUC)=(ANB)U(ANC) These resemble the algebraic law a X (b + ¢) = (a X b) + (aX c). Example 7 Verify the distributive law. given A = (4,5), B= (3,6,7), and C= (2.3). To verify the first part of the law, we find the left- and right-hand expressions separately: Left: AU(BAC) 3) UG) = 8.4.5} Right: (AV BINA UC) = B,4.5,6,.7)9 2.3.4.5 (3.4.5) AUBUC AN BNC Figure 23ECONOMIC MODELS 17 Since the two sides yield the same result, the law is ver procedure for the second part of the law, we have Left: AN(BUC)= {4.5} 02367 = © ed. Repeating the Right: (ANB)U(ANC)=BUG=9 Thus the law is again verified. EXERCISE 2.3 1 Write the following in set notation: (a) The set of all real numbers greater than 27. (b) The set of all real numbers greater than 8 but less than 73, 2 Given the sets S = (2,4,6), Ss = (7.2.6). 4,2,6), and following statements are true? (a) 8-5 (3 € (g) $, > Sy (b) S=R? (02) 4 ES, UH OCS. (c) SES; (f) SOR (1) Sy > (1,2) 3 Referring to the four sets given in the preceding problem, find: (a) SU (0) S08 (2) YASS, (bh) SUS, (AISAS, (PSUS US, 4 Which of the following statements are valid? 4), which of the (U)AUA=A (ANE =D (AN ASA (fA UMA - (c) AUS=A_— (g) The complement of 4 is (4) 4UU=U 5 Given 4 = (4.5.6). B 3.4.6.7}, and C = (2.3.6), verify the distributive law, 6 Verify the distributive law by means of Venn diagrams, with different orders of successive shading, 7 Enumerate all the subsets of the set (a. b.c} 8 Enumerate all the subsets of the set S = (1.3.5.7), How many subsets are there altogether? 9 Example 6 shows that @ is the complement of U. But since the null set is a subset of any set, 2 must be a subset of U. Inasmuch as the term “complement of U" implies the notion of being nor in U, whereas the term “subset of U implies the notion of being int L it seems paradoxical for & to be both of these. How do you resolve this paradox? 2.4 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS Our discussion of sets was prompted by the usage of that term in connection with the various kinds of numbers in our number system. However. sets can refer as well to objects other than numbers. In particular, we can speak of sets of18 iwtRODUCTION “ordered pairs" —to be defined presently—which will lead us to the important concepts of relations and functions Ordered Pai In writing a set (a, b}, we do not care about the order in which the elements a and + appear, because by definition (a, 5} = (b, a). The pair of elements a and b is in this case an unordered pair. When the ordering of a and b does carry a significance, however, we can write two different ordered pairs denoted by (a. b) and (b, a). which have the property that (a,b) # (b, a) unless a = b. Similar concepts apply to a set with more than two elements, in which c distinguish between ordered and unordered triples, quadruples, quintuples, and so forth, Ordered pairs, triples, etc., collectively can be called ordered sets Example 1 To show the age and weight of each student in a class, we can form ordered pairs (a, w), in which the first element indicates the age (in years) and the second element indicates the weight (in pounds). Then (19,127) and (127,19) would obviously mean different things. Moreover, the latter ordered pair would hardly fit any student anywhere. Example 2. When we speak of the set of the five finalists in a contest, the order in which they are listed is of no consequence and we have an unordered quintuple. But after they are judged, respectively, as the winner, first runner-up, etc., the list becomes an ordered quintuple, Ordered pairs, like other objects, can be elements of a set. Consider the rectangular (cartesian) coordinate plane in Fig. 2.4, where an x axis and a y axis cross each other at a right angle, dividing the plane into four quadrants. This xy plane is an infinite set of points. each of which represents an ordered pair whose first element is an x value and the second element a y value. Clearly, the point labeled (4, 2) is different from the point (2.4): thus ordering is significant here. With this visual understanding, we are ready to consider the process of generation of ordered pairs. Suppose, from two given sets, x = {1,2} and y = (3,4), we wish to form all the possible ordered pairs with the first element taken from set x and the second element taken from set y. The result will, of course, be the set of four ordered pairs (1,3), (1,4), (2,3), and (2,4). This set is called the cartesian product (named after Descartes), or direct product, of the sets x and y and is denoted by x X y (read: “x cross y"). It is important to remember that, while x and y are sets of numbers, the cartesian product turns out to be a set of ordered pairs. By enumeration, or by description, we may express the cartesian product alternatively as x xy = (1,3), (1.4), (2,3), (2,4) {(a,b) |a © xandb € y} or oxxXyECONOMIC MODELS 19 ‘The latter expression may in fact be taken as the general definition of cartesian product for any given sets x and y To broaden our horizon, now let both x and y include all the real numbers. Then the resulting cartesian product (23) xxy (a,b) | @€ Randb © R) will represent the set of all ordered pairs with real-valued elements. Besides, each ordered pair corresponds to a unique point in the cartesian coordinate plane of Fig. 2.4, and, conversely, each point in the coordinate plane also corresponds to a unique ordered pair in the set x xy. In view of this double uniqueness, a one-to-one correspondence is said to exist between the set of ordered pairs in the cartesian product (2.3) and the set of points in the rectangular coordinate plane. The rationale for the notation x X y is now easy to perceive; we may associate it with the crossing of the x axis and the y axis in Fig. 2.4. A simpler way of expressing the set x x y in (2.3) is to write it directly as R x R: this is also commonly denoted by R? Extending this idea, we may also define the cartesian product of three sets x. y, and z as follows: xxy X29 {(a,b.c)|aexbeyce which is a set of ordered triples. Furthermore, if the sets x, y. and z each consist of all the real numbers, the cartesian product will correspond to the set of all points in a three-dimensional space. This may be denoted by RX RX R, or (Quadrant 1) (Quagrant 1) (2.4) (4,4) . 4 . . . ~3 . . (2,2) (4,2) . 2 ° . . -1 . . 1 . . x = -10 1 2 3 4 le . (Quadrant ii) (Quadrant 1V) Figure 2420 iNrRODUCTION more simply, R°. In the following development, all the variables are taken to be real-valued; thus the framework of our discussion will generally be R*, or R',..., or R", Relations and Functions Since any ordered pair associates a y value with an x value, any collection of ordered pairs—any subset of the cartesian product (2.3)—will constitute a relation between y and x. Given an x value, one or more y values will be specified by that relation. For convenience, we shall now write the elements of x x y generally as (x, y)—rather than as (a,b), as was done in (2.3)—where both x and » are variables. Example 3 The set {(x. y)|y = 2x) is a set of ordered pairs including, for example, (1,2), (0,0), and (—1, ~2), It constitutes a relation, and its graphical counterpart is the set of points lying on the straight line y = 2x, as seen in Fig. 25. Example 4 The set ((x. y) |," [cubic function} and so forth. The superscript indicators of the powers of x are called exponents The highest power involved, i.e., the value of n, is often called the degree of the polynomial function; a quadratic function, for instance, is a second-degree polynomial, and a cubic function is a third-degree polynomial.* The order in which the several terms appear to the right of the equals sign is inconsequential; * In the several equations just cited, the last coefficient (a,.) is always assumed to be nonzero: otherwise the function would degenerate into a lower-degree polynomial,ECONOMIC MODELS 25 they may be arranged in descending order of power instead. Also, even though we have put the symbol y on the left, itis also acceptable to write f(x) in its place When plotted in the coordinate plane, a linear function will appear as a straight line, as illustrated in Fig. 2.8a. When x = 0, the linear function yields y = ao; thus the ordered pair (0, ay) is on the line. This gives us the so-called “ y intercept” (or vertical intercept), because it is at this point that the vertical axis intersects the line. The other coefficient, a, measures the slope (the steepness of incline) of our line. This means that a unit increase in x will result in an increment in y in the amount of a, What Fig. 2.84 illustrates is the case of a, > 0, involving a positive slope and thus an upward-sloping line; if a, 0, the curve will “open” the other way. displaying a valley rather than a hill, The graph of a cubie function will, in general, manifest two wiggles, as illustrated in Fig. 2.8c. These functions will be used quite frequently in the economic models discussed below. Rational Functions A function such as wernt in which y is expressed as a ratio of two polynomials in the variable x, is known as a rational function (again, meaning ratio-nal). According to this definition, any polynomial function must itself be a rational function, because it can always be expressed as a ratio to 1, which is a constant function, A special rational function that has interesting applications in economics is the function a OO ed which plots as a rectangular hyperbola, as in Fig, 2.8d. Since the product of the wo variables is always a fixed constant in this case, this function may be used to represent that special demand curve—with price and quantity Q on the two axes—for which the total expenditure PQ is constant at all levels of price. (Such a demand curve is the one with a unitary elasticity at each point on the curve.) Another application is to the average fixed cost (AFC) curve. With AFC on one axis and output Q on the other. the AFC curve must be rectangular-hyperbolic because AFC x Q(= total fixed cost) is a fixed constant. The rectangular hyperbola drawn from xy = a never meets the axes, even if extended indefinitely upward and to the right. Rather, the curve approaches the axes asymptotically: as y becomes very large, the curve will come ever closer to theLinear Quadratic Slope = a (Case of a2 0) (a () Cubic Rectangular hyperboli o” B10) () (a) Exponential Logarthoe ya" » ~ogy, x (bay ° “0 te) i Figure 28ECONOMIC MODELS. 27 y axis but never actually reach it, and similarly for the x axis, The axes constitute the asymprores of this function Nonalgebraic Functions Any function expressed in terms of polynomials and/or roots (such as square root) of polynomials is an algebraic function. Accordingly, the functions discussed thus far are all algebraic, A function such as y = ¥x* + 3 is not rational, yet it is algebraic. However, exponential functions such as y = b‘, in which the independent variable appears in the exponent, are nonalgebraic. The closely related logarithmic functions, such as y = log,x, are also nonalgebraic. These two types of function will be explained in detail in Chap. 10, but their general graphic shapes are indicated in Fig. 28¢ and f. Other types of nonalgebraic function are the rrigonometric (or circular) functions, which we shall discuss in Chap. 15 in connection with dynamic analysis. We should add here that nonalgebraic func- tions are also known by the more esoteric name of transcendental functions A Digression on Exponents In discussing polynomial functions, we introduced the term exponents as indica tors of the power to which a variable (or number) is to be raised. The expression 6? means that 6 is to be raised to the second power; that is, 6 is to be multiplied by itself, or 6 = 6 X 6 = 36. In general, we define XU SXK XK KY sv terens and as a special case, we note that x' = x, From the general definition. it follows that exponents obey the following rules: Rule I x™ Xx" = x (for example, x* x x x) Proor x" xx"= (xXx xX x|[xK ax xx) XX XX m+ m terms Rule ; "(e#0) | forexample, “> = m terms mR KKK PROOF == ———— = XXNX KE xm XXxxoXe \ _ — ~ mn ~ terms28. INTRODUCTION because the m terms in the denominator cancel out m of the m terms in the numerator. Note that the case of x = 0 is ruled out in the statement of this rule. This is because when x = 0, the expression x”/x" would involve division by zero, which is undefined, What if m

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