Transformers:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors, the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF or !voltage! in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. "f a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will #e transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. "n an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding ($% is in proportion to the primary voltage ($& , and is given #y the ratio of the num#er of turns in the secondary ('% to the num#er of turns in the primary ('& as follows(

)y appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current (A* voltage to #e !stepped up! #y ma+ing '% greater than '&, or !stepped down! #y ma+ing '% less than '&. "n the vast ma,ority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers #eing a nota#le exception. Transformers range in si.e from a thum#nail-si.ed coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate with the same #asic principles, although the range of designs is wide. /hile new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household (!mains! voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which ma+es long distance transmission economically practical.

Basic principles The transformer is #ased on two principles( firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction . *hanging the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer is shown in the ad,acent figure. *urrent passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permea#ility, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through #oth the primary and secondary coils. Induction law The voltage induced across the secondary coil may #e calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that(

where $% is the instantaneous voltage, '% is the num#er of turns in the secondary coil and 0 e1uals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. "f the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density ) and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, #eing e1ual to the cross-sectional area

of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. %ince the same magnetic flux passes through #oth the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding e1uals

Ta+ing the ratio of the two e1uations for $% and $& gives the #asic e1uation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Ideal power equation

"f the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. "deally, the transformer is perfectly efficient2 all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. "f this condition is met, the incoming electric power must e1ual the outgoing power.

&incoming 3 "&$& 3 &outgoing 3 "%$% giving the ideal transformer e1uation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasona#le approximation. "f the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased #y the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed #y the s1uare of the turns ratio.4567 For example, if an impedance 8% is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an

impedance of

. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance 8& of the primary

circuit appears to the secondary to #e Detailed operation

The simplified description a#ove neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary current re1uired to esta#lish a magnetic field in the core, and the contri#ution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit. Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligi#le reluctance with two windings of .ero resistance. /hen a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core. The current re1uired to create the flux is termed as the magneti.ing current, since the ideal core has #een assumed to have near .ero reluctance, the magneti.ing current is negligi#le, although still re1uired to create the magnetic field. The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF across each winding. %ince the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop and so the voltages $& and $% measured at the terminals of the transformer, are e1ual to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the !#ac+ EMF!. This is due to 9en.'s law which states that the induction of EMF would always #e such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.

Applications

A ma,or application of transformers is to increase voltage #efore transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. /ires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the s1uare of the current through the wire. )y transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current form for transmission and #ac+ again afterward, transformers ena#le economic transmission of power over long distances. *onse1uently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to #e located remotely from points of demand. All #ut a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers #y the time it reaches the consumer. Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suita#le for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. %ignal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A #alun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has #alanced voltages to ground, such as #etween external ca#les and internal circuits.