1

4 INTRODUCTION [email protected]
SQL is divided into the ollo!in" Data De inition Lan"#a"e $DDL% Data &ani'#lation Lan"#a"e $D&L% Data Retrieval Lan"#a"e $DRL% Transaction Control Lan"#a"e $TCL% Data Control Lan"#a"e $DCL%

DDL (( create) alter) dro') tr#ncate) rename D&L (( insert) #'date) delete DRL (( select TCL (( commit) roll*ack) save 'oint DCL (( "rant) revoke CR+,T+ T,-L+ S.NT,/ Create ta*le 0table name1 $col1 datatype1, col2 datatype2 coln datatypen%2 +34 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent $no n#m*er $5%) name varchar $67%) marks n#m*er $8%%2 INS+RT This !ill *e #sed to insert the records into ta*le. 9e have t!o methods to insert. -y val#e method -y address method a% USIN: ;,LU+ &+T<OD Synta34 insert into 0table_name% val#es $value1, value2, value3 . Valuen%2 +34 SQL1 insert into st#dent val#es $6) =s#dha=) 677%2 SQL1 insert into st#dent val#es $5) =saketh=) 577%2 To insert a ne! record a"ain yo# have to ty'e entire insert command) i there are lot o Records this !ill *e di ic#lt. This !ill *e avoided *y #sin" address method. *%
USIN: ,DDR+SS &+T<OD

Synta34 insert into 0table_name% val#es (&col1, &col2, &col3 . &coln%2 This !ill 'rom't yo# or the val#es *#t or every insert yo# have to #se or!ard slash. +34
SQL1

insert into st#dent val#es $>no) ?>name?) >marks%2

+nter val#e or no4 6

Copy rights are reserved.

+nter val#e or name4 @a"an +nter val#e or marks4 877 old 64 insert into st#dent val#es$>no) ?>name?) >marks% ne! 64 insert into st#dent val#es$6) ?@a"an?) 877% A +nter val#e or no4 5 +nter val#e or name4 Naren +nter val#e or marks4 477 old 64 insert into st#dent val#es$>no) ?>name?) >marks% ne! 64 insert into st#dent val#es$5) ?Naren?) 477%
SQL1

c%

INS+RTIN: D,T, INTO SB+CICI+D COLU&NS USIN: ;,LU+ &+T<OD

Synta34 insert into 0table_name%$col1, col2, col3 Coln% val#es $value1, value2, value3 . Valuen%2 +34 SQL1 insert into st#dent $no) name% val#es $8) =Ramesh=%2 SQL1 insert into st#dent $no) name% val#es $4) =&adh#=%2 d%
INS+RTIN: D,T, INTO SB+CICI+D COLU&NS USIN: ,DDR+SS &+T<OD

Synta34 insert into 0table_name1 $col1, col2, col3 coln% val#es (&col1, &col2, &col3 . &coln%2 This !ill 'rom't yo# or the val#es *#t or every insert yo# have to #se or!ard slash. +34 insert into st#dent $no) name% val#es $>no) ?>name?%2 +nter val#e or no4 D +nter val#e or name4 ;is# old 64 insert into st#dent $no) name% val#es$>no) ?>name?% ne! 64 insert into st#dent $no) name% val#es$D) ?;is#?%
SQL1

A +nter val#e or no4 E +nter val#e or name4 Ratt# old 64 insert into st#dent $no) name% val#es$>no) ?>name?% ne! 64 insert into st#dent $no) name% val#es$E) ?Ratt#?%
SQL1

S+L+CTIN: D,T, Synta34 Select F rom 0table_name12 (( here F indicates all col#mns or Select col1, col2, coln rom 0table_name12 +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent2 NO N,&+ &,RGS ((( (((((( (((((((( 6 S#dha 677 5 Saketh 577 6 @a"an 877 5 Naren 477 8 Ramesh 4 &adh#

Copy rights are reserved.

D E
SQL1

;is# Ratt#

select no) name) marks rom st#dent2 NO ((( 6 5 6 5 8 4 D E N,&+ (((((( S#dha Saketh @a"an Naren Ramesh &adh# ;is# Ratt# &,RGS (((((((( 677 577 877 477

SQL1

select no) name rom st#dent2 NO ((( 6 5 6 5 8 4 D E N,&+ ((((((( S#dha Saketh @a"an Naren Ramesh &adh# ;is# Ratt#

CONDITION,L S+L+CTIONS ,ND OB+R,TORS

9e have t!o cla#ses #sed in this 9here Order *y USIN: 9<+R+ Synta34 select F rom 0table_name1 !here 0condition12 the ollo!in" are the di erent ty'es o o'erators #sed in !here cla#se. ,rithmetic o'erators Com'arison o'erators Lo"ical o'erators ,rithmetic o'erators (( hi"hest 'recedence H) () F) A Com'arison o'erators I) JI) 1) 0) 1I) 0I) 01 *et!een) not *et!een in) not in n#ll) not n#ll like Lo"ical o'erators ,nd Or (( lo!est 'recedence not a%
USIN:

I) 1) 0) 1I) 0I) JI) 01

Copy rights are reserved.

+34
SQL1

4
select F rom st#dent !here no I 52 NO ((( 5 5 N,&+ ((((((( Saketh Naren &,RGS ((((((((( 577 477

SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no 0 52 NO ((( 6 6 N,&+ ((((((( S#dha @a"an &,RGS (((((((((( 677 877

SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no 1 52 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 8 Ramesh 4 &adh# D ;is# E Ratt# &,RGS ((((((((((

SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no 0I 52 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 S#dha 5 Saketh 6 @a"an 5 Naren &,RGS (((((((((( 677 577 877 477

SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no 1I 52 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 5 Saketh 5 Naren 8 Ramesh 4 &adh# D ;is# E Ratt# &,RGS ((((((((( 577 477

SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no JI 52 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 S#dha 6 @a"an 8 Ramesh 4 &adh# D ;is# E Ratt# &,RGS (((((((((( 677 877

SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no 01 52 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 S#dha &,RGS (((((((((( 677

Copy rights are reserved.

6 8 4 D E *%
USIN: ,ND

@a"an Ramesh &adh# ;is# Ratt#

877

This !ill "ives the o#t'#t !hen all the conditions *ecome tr#e. Synta34 select F rom 0table name1 !here 0condition11 and 0condition21 and .. 0conditionn12 +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no I 5 and marks 1I 5772 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 5 Saketh 5 Naren &,RGS (((((((( 577 477

c%

USIN: OR

This !ill "ive the o#t'#t !hen either o the conditions *ecomes tr#e. Synta34 select F rom 0table_name1 !here 0condition11 and 0condition21 or .. 0conditionn12 +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no I 5 or marks 1I 5772 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 5 Saketh 6 @a"an 5 Naren &,RGS ((((((((( 577 877 477

d%

USIN: -+T9++N

This !ill "ives the o#t'#t *ased on the col#mn and its lo!er *o#nd) #''er*o#nd. Synta34 select F rom 0table_name1 !here 0col1 *et!een 0lower bound1 and 0upper bound12 +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here marks *et!een 577 and 4772 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 5 Saketh 6 @a"an 5 Naren &,RGS ((((((((( 577 877 477

e%

USIN: NOT -+T9++N

Copy rights are reserved.

This !ill "ives the o#t'#t *ased on the col#mn !hich val#es are not in its lo!er *o#nd) #''er*o#nd. Synta34 select F rom 0table_name1 !here 0col1 not *et!een 0lower bound1 and 0upper bound12 +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here marks not *et!een 577 and 4772 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 S#dha &,RGS ((((((((( 677

USIN: IN

This !ill "ives the o#t'#t *ased on the col#mn and its list o val#es s'eci ied. Synta34 select F rom 0table_name1 !here 0col1 in $ value1, value2, value3 valuen%2 +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no in $6) 5) 8%2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 S#dha 5 Saketh 6 @a"an 5 Naren 8 Ramesh &,RGS ((((((((( 677 577 877 477

"%

USIN: NOT IN

This !ill "ives the o#t'#t *ased on the col#mn !hich val#es are not in the list o val#es s'eci ied. Synta34 select F rom 0table_name1 !here 0col1 not in $ value1, value2, value3 valuen%2 +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here no not in $6) 5) 8%2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 4 &adh# D ;is# E Ratt# &,RGS (((((((((

h%

USIN: NULL

This !ill "ives the o#t'#t *ased on the n#ll val#es in the s'eci ied col#mn. Synta34 select F rom 0table_name1 !here 0col1 is n#ll2 +34

Copy rights are reserved.

SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here marks is n#ll2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 8 Ramesh 4 &adh# D ;is# E Ratt# &,RGS (((((((((

i%

USIN: NOT NULL

This !ill "ives the o#t'#t *ased on the not n#ll val#es in the s'eci ied col#mn. Synta34 select F rom 0table_name1 !here 0col1 is not n#ll2 +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 S#dha 5 Saketh 6 @a"an 5 Naren

!here marks is not n#ll2 &,RGS ((((((((( 677 577 877 477

K%

USIN: LIG+

This !ill *e #sed to search thro#"h the ro!s o data*ase col#mn *ased on the 'attern yo# s'eci y. Synta34 select F rom 0table_name1 !here 0col1 like 0pattern12 +34 i% This !ill "ive the ro!s !hose marks are 677.
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here marks like 6772 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 S#dha &,RGS ((((((((( 677

ii% This !ill "ive the ro!s !hose name start !ith LS=.
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here name like ?SM?2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 S#dha 5 Saketh &,RGS ((((((((( 677 577

iii% This !ill "ive the ro!s !hose name ends !ith Lh=.
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here name like ?Mh?2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 5 Saketh 8 Ramesh &,RGS ((((((((( 577

Copy rights are reserved.

8
i;% This !ill "ive the ro!s !hose name=s second letter start !ith La=.
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here name like ?NaM?2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 5 Saketh 6 @a"an 5 Naren 8 Ramesh 4 &adh# E Ratt# &,RGS (((((((( 577 877 477

;% This !ill "ive the ro!s !hose name=s third letter start !ith Ld=.
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here name like ?NNdM?2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 S#dha 4 &adh# &,RGS ((((((((( 677

;i% This !ill "ive the ro!s !hose name=s second letter start !ith Lt= rom endin".
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here name like ?MNtM?2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 5 Saketh E Ratt# &,RGS ((((((((( 577

;ii% This !ill "ive the ro!s !hose name=s third letter start !ith Le= rom endin".
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here name like ?MeNNM?2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 5 Saketh 8 Ramesh &,RGS ((((((((( 577

;iii% This !ill "ive the ro!s !hose name cotains 5 a=s.
SQL1

select F rom st#dent !here name like ?MaM a M?2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 @a"an &,RGS (((((((((( 877

F .o# have to s'eci y the 'atterns in like #sin" #nderscore $ N %. USIN: ORD+R -. This !ill *e #sed to orderin" the col#mns data $ascendin" or descendin"%. Synta34 Select F rom 0table_name1 order *y 0col1 desc2 -y de a#lt oracle !ill #se ascendin" order.

Copy rights are reserved.

I yo# !ant o#t'#t in descendin" order yo# have to #se desc key!ord a ter the col#mn. +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent order *y no2 NO ((( 6 6 5 5 8 4 D E N,&+ ((((((( S#dha @a"an Saketh Naren Ramesh &adh# ;is# Ratt# &,RGS ((((((((( 677 877 577 477

SQL1

select F rom st#dent order *y no desc2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( E Ratt# D ;is# 4 &adh# 8 Ramesh 5 Saketh 5 Naren 6 S#dha 6 @a"an &,RGS (((((((((

577 477 677 877

USIN: D&L
USIN: UBD,T+ This can *e #sed to modi y the ta*le data. Synta34 U'date 0table_name1 set 0col11 I val#e6) 0col21 I val#e5 !here 0condition12 +34 #'date st#dent set marks I D772 I yo# are not s'eci yin" any condition this !ill #'date entire ta*le.
SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

#'date st#dent set marks I D77 !here no I 52 #'date st#dent set marks I D77) name I ?;en#? !here no I 62

USIN: D+L+T+ This can *e #sed to delete the ta*le data tem'orarily. Synta34 Delete 0table_name1 !here 0condition12 +34 delete st#dent2 I yo# are not s'eci yin" any condition this !ill delete entire ta*le.
SQL1 SQL1

delete st#dent !here no I 52

Copy rights are reserved.

10

USIN: DDL
USIN: ,LT+R This can *e #sed to add or remove col#mns and to modi y the 'recision o the dataty'e. a%
,DDIN: COLU&N

Synta34 +34 *%
SQL1

alter ta*le 0table_name1 add 0col datatype12 alter ta*le st#dent add sdo* date2

R+&O;IN: COLU&N

Synta34 alter ta*le 0table_name1 dro' 0col datatype12 +34

SQL1

alter ta*le st#dent dro' col#mn sdo*2

c%

INCR+,SIN: OR D+CR+,SIN: BR+CISION OC , COLU&N

Synta34 alter ta*le 0table_name1 modi y 0col datatype12 +34 SQL1 alter ta*le st#dent modi y marks n#m*er$D%2 F To decrease 'recision the col#mn sho#ld *e em'ty. d%
&,GIN: COLU&N UNUS+D

Synta34 alter ta*le 0table_name1 set #n#sed col#mn 0col12 +34 SQL1 alter ta*le st#dent set #n#sed col#mn marks2 +ven tho#"h the col#mn is #n#sed still it !ill occ#'y memory. d%
DROBBIN: UNUS+D COLU&NS

Synta34 alter ta*le 0table_name1 dro' #n#sed col#mns2 +34 alter ta*le st#dent dro' #n#sed col#mns2 F .o# can not dro' individ#al #n#sed col#mns o a ta*le.
SQL1

e%

R+N,&IN: COLU&N

Synta34 alter ta*le 0table_name1 rename col#mn 0old_col_name1 to 0new_col_name12 +34

SQL1

alter ta*le st#dent rename col#mn marks to smarks2

USIN: TRUNC,T+ This can *e #sed to delete the entire ta*le data 'ermanently. Synta34

Copy rights are reserved.

tr#ncate ta*le 0table_name12 +34

SQL1

11

tr#ncate ta*le st#dent2

USIN: DROB This !ill *e #sed to dro' the data*ase o*Kect2 Synta34 Dro' ta*le 0table_name12 +34
SQL1

dro' ta*le st#dent2

USIN: R+N,&+ This !ill *e #sed to rename the data*ase o*Kect2 Synta34 rename 0oldNtable_name1 to 0new_table_name12 +34
SQL1

rename st#dent to st#d2

U SI N : T CL
USIN: CO&&IT This !ill *e #sed to save the !ork. Commit is o t!o ty'es. Im'licit +3'licit a%
I&BLICIT

This !ill *e iss#ed *y oracle internally in t!o sit#ations. 9hen any DDL o'eration is 'er ormed. 9hen yo# are e3itin" rom SQL F BLUS. *%
+/BLICIT

This !ill *e iss#ed *y the #ser. Synta34 Commit or commit !ork2 F 9hen ever yo# committed then the transaction !as com'leted. USIN: ROLL-,CG This !ill #ndo the o'eration. This !ill *e a''lied in t!o methods. U'to 'revio#s commit U'to 'revio#s roll*ack

Copy rights are reserved.

12
Synta34 Roll or roll !ork2 Or Roll*ack or roll*ack !ork2 F 9hile 'rocess is "oin" on) i s#ddenly 'o!er "oes then oracle !ill roll*ack the transaction. USIN: S,;+BOINT .o# can #se save'oints to roll*ack 'ortions o yo#r c#rrent set o transactions. Synta34 Save'oint 0savepoint_name12 +34 save'oint s62 insert into st#dent val#es$6) La=) 677%2 SQL1 save'oint s52 SQL1 insert into st#dent val#es$5) L*=) 577%2 SQL1 save'oint s82 SQL1 insert into st#dent val#es$8) Lc=) 877%2 SQL1 save'oint s42 SQL1 insert into st#dent val#es$4) Ld=) 477%2
SQL1 SQL1

-e ore roll*ack
SQL1

select F rom st#dent2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 a 5 * 8 c 4 d &,RGS (((((((((( 677 577 877 477

SQL1 SQL1

roll*ack to save'oint s82 Or roll*ack to s82

This !ill roll*ack last t!o records. select F rom st#dent2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 a 5 * &,RGS (((((((((( 677 577

SQL1

USIN: DCL
DCL commands are #sed to "rantin" and revokin" the 'ermissions. USIN: :R,NT This is #sed to "rant the 'rivile"es to other #sers. Synta34 :rant 0privile es1 on 0ob!ect_name1 to 0user_name1 O!ith "rant o'tionP2

Copy rights are reserved.

+34
SQL1 SQL1

13

"rant select on st#dent to s#dha2 (( yo# can "ive individ#al 'rivile"e "rant select) insert on st#dent to s#dha2 (( yo# can "ive set o 'rivile"es SQL1 "rant all on st#dent to s#dha2 (( yo# can "ive all 'rivile"es The s#dha #ser has to #se dot method to access the o*Kect. SQL1 select F rom saketh.st#dent2 The s#dha #ser can not "rant 'ermission on st#dent ta*le to other #sers. To "et this ty'e o o'tion #se the ollo!in". SQL1 "rant all on st#dent to s#dha !ith "rant o'tion2 No! s#dha #ser also "rant 'ermissions on st#dent ta*le. USIN: R+;OG+ This is #sed to revoke the 'rivile"es rom the #sers to !hich yo# "ranted the 'rivile"es. Synta34 Revoke 0privile es1 on 0ob!ect_name1 rom 0user_name12 +34
SQL1 revoke select on st#dent orm s#dha2 (( yo# can revoke individ#al 'rivile"e SQL1 revoke select) insert on st#dent rom s#dha2 (( yo# can revoke set o 'rivile"es SQL1 revoke all on st#dent rom s#dha2 (( yo# can revoke all 'rivile"es

USIN: ,LI,S+S
CR+,T+ 9IT< S+L+CT 9e can create a ta*le #sin" e3istin" ta*le Oalon" !ith dataP. Synta34 Create ta*le 0new_table_name1 Ocol1, col2, col3 ... colnP as select F rom 0old_table_name12 +34 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent6 as select F rom st#dent2 Creatin" ta*le !ith yo#r o!n col#mn names. create ta*le st#dent5$sno) sname) smarks% as select F rom st#dent2 Creatin" ta*le !ith s'eci ied col#mns. SQL1 create ta*le st#dent8 as select no)name rom st#dent2 Creatin" ta*le !ith o#t ta*le data. create ta*le st#dent5$sno) sname) smarks% as select F rom st#dent !here 6 I 52 In the a*ove !here cla#se "ive any condition !hich does not satis y.
SQL1

SQL1

INS+RT 9IT< S+L+CT Usin" this !e can insert e3istin" ta*le data to another ta*le in a sin"le tri'. -#t the ta*le str#ct#re sho#ld *e same. Synta34

Copy rights are reserved.

Insert into 0table11 select F rom 0table212 +34

SQL1

14

insert into st#dent6 select F rom st#dent2

Insertin" data into s'eci ied col#mns SQL1 insert into st#dent6$no) name% select no) name rom st#dent2 COLU&N ,LI,S+S Synta34 "elect #or inal_col$ #alias_name$ %rom #tableNname12 +34
SQL1 SQL1

select no sno rom st#dent2 or select no QsnoR rom st#dent2

T,-L+ ,LI,S+S I yo# are #sin" ta*le aliases yo# can #se dot method to the col#mns. Synta34 Select 0alias_name1.0col11) 0alias_name1.0col21 S 0alias_name1.0coln1 rom 0table_name1 0alias_name12 +34
SQL1

select s.no) s.name rom st#dent s2

USIN: &+R:+
&+R:+ .o# can #se mer"e command to 'er orm insert and #'date in a sin"le command. +34
SQL1

&er"e into st#dent6 s6 Usin" $select FCrom st#dent5% s5 On$s6.noIs5.no% 9hen matched then U'date set marks I s5.marks 9hen not matched then Insert $s6.no)s6.name)s6.marks% ;al#es$s5.no)s5.name)s5.marks%2

In the a*ove the t!o ta*les are !ith the same str#ct#re *#t !e can mer"e di erent str#ct#red ta*les also *#t the dataty'e o the col#mns sho#ld match. ,ss#me that st#dent6 has col#mns like no)name)marks and st#dent5 has col#mns like no) name) hno) city. SQL1 &er"e into st#dent6 s6 Usin" $select FCrom st#dent5% s5 On$s6.noIs5.no% 9hen matched then

Copy rights are reserved.

U'date set marks I s5.hno 9hen not matched then Insert $s6.no)s6.name)s6.marks% ;al#es$s5.no)s5.name)s5.hno%2

15

&ULTIBL+ INS+RTS
9e have ta*le called D+BT !ith the ollo!in" col#mns and data D+BTNO (((((((( 67 57 87 47 a% DN,&+ (((((((( acco#ntin" research sales o'erations LOC (((( ne! york dallas Chica"o *oston

CR+,T+ STUD+NT T,-L+ SQL1

Create

ta*le

st#dent$no

n#m*er$5%)name

varchar$5%)marks

n#m*er$8%%2 *%
&ULTI INS+RT 9IT< ,LL CI+LDS SQL1

Insert all Into st#dent val#es$6)=a=)677% Into st#dent val#es$5)=*=)577% Into st#dent val#es$8)=c=)877% Select F rom de't !here de'tnoI672

(( This inserts 8 ro!s c%

&ULTI INS+RT 9IT< SB+CICI+D CI+LDS SQL1

insert all Into st#dent $no)name% val#es$4)=d=% Into st#dent$name)marks% val#es$=e=)477% Into st#dent val#es$8)=c=)877% Select F rom de't !here de'tnoI672

(( This inserts 8 ro!s d%

&ULTI INS+RT 9IT< DUBLIC,T+ RO9S SQL1

insert all Into st#dent val#es$6)=a=)677% Into st#dent val#es$5)=*=)577% Into st#dent val#es$8)=c=)877% Select F rom de't !here de'tno 1 672

(( This inserts T ro!s *eca#se in the select statement retrieves 8 records $8 inserts or each ro! retrieved% e%
&ULTI INS+RT 9IT< CONDITIONS -,S+D SQL1

Insert all 9hen de'tno 1 67 then Into st#dent6 val#es$6)=a=)677% 9hen dname I LS,L+S= then Into st#dent5 val#es$5)=*=)577%

Copy rights are reserved.

9hen loc I LN+9 .ORG= then Into st#dent8 val#es$8)=c=)877% Select F rom de't !here de'tno1672

16

(( This inserts 4 ro!s *eca#se the irst condition satis ied 8 times) second condition satis ied once and the last none. %
&ULTI INS+RT 9IT< CONDITIONS -,S+D ,ND +LS+ SQL1

Insert all 9hen de'tno 1 677 then Into st#dent6 val#es$6)=a=)677% 9hen dname I LS= then Into st#dent5 val#es$5)=*=)577% 9hen loc I LN+9 .ORG= then Into st#dent8 val#es$8)=c=)877% +lse Into st#dent val#es$4)=d=)477% Select F rom de't !here de'tno1672

(( This inserts 8 records *eca#se the else satis ied 8 times "%
&ULTI INS+RT 9IT< CONDITIONS -,S+D ,ND CIRST SQL1

Insert irst 9hen de'tno I 57 then Into st#dent6 val#es$6)=a=)677% 9hen dname I LR+S+,RC<= then Into st#dent5 val#es$5)=*=)577% 9hen loc I LN+9 .ORG= then Into st#dent8 val#es$8)=c=)877% Select F rom de't !here de'tnoI572

(( This inserts 6 record *eca#se the irst cla#se avoid to check the remainin" conditions once the condition is satis ied. h%
&ULTI INS+RT 9IT< CONDITIONS -,S+D) CIRST ,ND +LS+ SQL1

Insert irst 9hen de'tno I 87 then Into st#dent6 val#es$6)=a=)677% 9hen dname I LR= then Into st#dent5 val#es$5)=*=)577% 9hen loc I LN+9 .ORG= then Into st#dent8 val#es$8)=c=)877% +lse Into st#dent val#es$4)=d=)477% Select F rom de't !here de'tnoI572

(( This inserts 6 record *eca#se the else cla#se satis ied once

i%

&ULTI INS+RT 9IT< &ULTI-L+ T,-L+S SQL1

Insert all Into st#dent6 val#es$6)=a=)677% Into st#dent5 val#es$5)=*=)577%

Copy rights are reserved.

Into st#dent8 val#es$8)=c=)877% Select F rom de't !here de'tnoI672 (( This inserts 8 ro!s

17

FF .o# can #se m#lti ta*les !ith s'eci ied ields) !ith d#'licate ro!s) !ith conditions) !ith irst and else cla#ses.

CUNCTIONS
C#nctions can *e cate"oriUed as ollo!s. Sin"le ro! #nctions :ro#' #nctions

SIN:L+ RO9 CUNCTIONS Sin"le ro! #nctions can *e cate"oriUed into ive. These !ill *e a''lied or each ro! and 'rod#ces individ#al o#t'#t or each ro!. N#meric #nctions Strin" #nctions Date #nctions &iscellaneo#s #nctions Conversion #nctions

NU&+RIC CUNCTIONS

a%
,-S

,*s Si"n SVrt &od Nvl Bo!er +3' Ln Lo" Ceil Cloor Ro#nd Tr#nk -itand :reatest Least Coalesce

,*sol#te val#e is the meas#re o the ma"nit#de o val#e. ,*sol#te val#e is al!ays a 'ositive n#m*er. Synta34 a*s $value% +34
SQL1

select a*s$D%) a*s$(D%) a*s$7%) a*s$n#ll% rom d#al2

Copy rights are reserved.

,-S$D% ,-S$(D% (((((((((( (((((((((( D D *%

SI:N

,-S$7% ,-S$NULL% (((((((((( ((((((((((((( 7

18

Si"n "ives the si"n o a val#e. Synta34 si"n $value% +34

SQL1

select si"n$D%) si"n$(D%) si"n$7%) si"n$n#ll% rom d#al2 SI:N$D% SI:N$(D% (((((((((( (((((((((( 6 (6 SI:N$7% SI:N$NULL% (((((((((( (((((((((((((( 7

c%

SQRT

This !ill "ive the sV#are root o the "iven val#e. Synta34 sVrt $value% +34
SQL1

(( here val#e m#st *e 'ositive.

select sVrt$4%) sVrt$7%) sVrt$n#ll%) sVrt$6% rom d#al2 SQRT$4% (((((((((( 5 SQRT$7% SQRT$NULL% (((((((((( ((((((((((((((( 7 SQRT$6% (((((((((( 6

d%

&OD

This !ill "ive the remainder. Synta34 mod $value, divisor% +34
SQL1

rom d#al2

select mod$W)4%) mod$6)D%) mod$n#ll)n#ll%) mod$7)7%) mod$(W)4% &OD$W)4% &OD$6)D% &OD$NULL)NULL% (((((((((((( (((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((( 8 6 &OD$7)7% &OD$(W)4% ((((((((((( ((((((((((((( 7 (8

e%

N;L

This !ill s#*stit#tes the s'eci ied val#e in the 'lace o n#ll val#es. Synta34 nvl $null_col, replacement_value% +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent2 NO N,&+ ((( ((((((( 6 a 5 * 8 c &,RGS ((((((((( 677 577

(( here or 8rd ro! marks val#e is n#ll

SQL1

select no) name) nvl$marks)877% rom st#dent2

Copy rights are reserved.

19
NO N,&+ N;L$&,RGS)877% ((( ((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((( 6 a 677 5 * 577 8 c 877
SQL1

select nvl$6)5%) nvl$5)8%) nvl$4)8%) nvl$D)4% rom d#al2 N;L$6)5% (((((((((( 6 N;L$5)8% (((((((((( 5 N;L$4)8% (((((((((( 4 N;L$D)4% (((((((((( D

SQL1

select nvl$7)7%) nvl$6)6%) nvl$n#ll)n#ll%) nvl$4)4% rom d#al2 N;L$7)7% (((((((((( 7 N;L$6)6% N;L$n#ll)n#ll% N;L$4)4% (((((((((( ((((((((((((((((( (((((((((( 6 4

BO9+R

Bo!er is the a*ility to raise a val#e to a "iven e3'onent. Synta34 'o!er $value, e&ponent% select 'o!er$5)D%) 'o!er$7)7%) 'o!er$6)6%) 'o!er$n#ll)n#ll%) 'o!er$5)(D% rom d#al2
SQL1

+34

BO9+R$5)D% BO9+R$7)7% BO9+R$6)6% BO9+R$NULL)NULL% BO9+R$5)(D% (((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( ((((( ((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((( 85 6 6 .7865D "%
+/B

This !ill raise e val#e to the "ive 'o!er. Synta34 e3' $value% +34
SQL1

select e3'$6%) e3'$5%) e3'$7%) e3'$n#ll%) e3'$(5% rom d#al2 +/B$6% +/B$5% +/B$7% +/B$NULL% (((((((( ((((((((( (((((((( ((((((((((((( 5.W6X5X6X8 W.8XT7DE6 6 +/B$(5% (((((((((( .68D88D5X8

h%

LN

This is *ased on nat#ral or *ase e lo"arithm. Synta34 ln $value% 'ositive only. +34
SQL1

(( here val#e m#st *e "reater than Uero !hich is

select ln$6%) ln$5%) ln$n#ll% rom d#al2 LN$6% LN$5% LN$NULL%

Copy rights are reserved.

((((((( ((((((( (((((((((((( 7 .ET864W6X6 Ln and +3' are reci'rocal to each other. $8% I 57.7XDD8ET LN $57.7XDD8ET% I 8
+/B

20

i%

LO:

This is *ased on 67 *ased lo"arithm. Synta34 lo" $67) value% (( here val#e m#st *e "reater than Uero !hich is 'ositive only. +34
SQL1

select lo"$67)677%) lo"$67)5%) lo"$67)6%) lo"$67)n#ll% rom d#al2 LO:$67)677% LO:$67)5% LO:$67)6% LO:$67)NULL% ((((((((((((((( ((((((((((( (((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((( 5 .87675TTTE 7

LN

$val#e% I

LO:

$+/B$6%) val#e%

SQL1

select ln$8%) lo"$e3'$6%)8% rom d#al2 LN$8% LO:$+/B$6%)8% ((((((( ((((((((((((((((( 6.7TXE655T 6.7TXE655T

K%

C+IL

This !ill 'rod#ce a !hole n#m*er that is "reater than or eV#al to the s'eci ied val#e. Synta34 ceil $value% +34
SQL1

d#al2

select ceil$D%) ceil$D.6%) ceil$(D%) ceil$ (D.6%) ceil$7%) ceil$n#ll% rom C+IL$D% C+IL$D.6% ((((((((( ((((((((((( D E C+IL$(D% C+IL$(D.6% (((((((((( (((((((((((( (D (D C+IL$7% C+IL$NULL% (((((((( (((((((((((((( 7

k%

CLOOR

This !ill 'rod#ce a !hole n#m*er that is less than or eV#al to the s'eci ied val#e. Synta34 loor $value% +34
SQL1

select loor$D%) loor$D.6%) loor$(D%) loor$ (D.6%) loor$7%) loor$n#ll%

rom d#al2 CLOOR$D% CLOOR$D.6% CLOOR$(D% CLOOR$(D.6% CLOOR$7% CLOOR$NULL% ((((((((((( ((((((((((((( (((((((((((( (((((((((((((( ((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( D D (D (E 7

Copy rights are reserved.

l%

21
ROUND

This !ill ro#nds n#m*ers to a "iven n#m*er o di"its o 'recision. Synta34 ro#nd $value, precision% +34
SQL1

rom d#al2

select ro#nd$658.584D%) ro#nd$658.584D)5%) ro#nd$658.58D4)5%

ROUND$658.584D% ROUND$658.584D)7% ROUND$658.584D)5% ROUND$658.58D4)5% ((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((( 658 658 658.58 658.54
SQL1

8%)

select ro#nd$658.584D)(6%) ro#nd$658.584D)(5%) ro#nd$658.584D)( ro#nd$658.584D)(4% rom d#al2

ROUND$658.584D)(6% ROUND$658.584D)(5% ROUND$658.584D)(8% ROUND$658.584D)(4% (((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((((( 657 677 7 7
SQL1

select ro#nd$658)7%) ro#nd$658)6%) ro#nd$658)5% rom d#al2 ROUND$658)7% ROUND$658)6% ROUND$658)5% ((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( 658 658 658

SQL1

select ro#nd$(658)7%) ro#nd$(658)6%) ro#nd$(658)5% rom d#al2 ROUND$(658)7% ROUND$(658)6% ROUND$(658)5% (((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((( (658 (658 (658

select ro#nd$658)(6%) ro#nd$658)(5%) ro#nd$658)(8%) ro#nd$(658)( 6%) ro#nd$(658)( 5%) ro#nd$(658)(8% rom d#al2
SQL1

ROUND$658)(6% ROUND$658)(5% ROUND$658)(8% ROUND$(658)(6% ROUND$(658)(5% ROUND$(658)(8% ((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( 657 677 7 (657 (677 7 SQL1 select ro#nd$n#ll)n#ll%) ro#nd$7)7%) ro#nd$6)6%) ro#nd$(6)(6%) ro#nd$(5)(5% rom d#al2 ROUND$NULL)NULL% ROUND$7)7% ROUND$6)6% ROUND$(6)(6% ROUND$(5)(5% ((((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( 7 6 7 7

Copy rights are reserved.

m%

22
TRUNC

This !ill tr#ncates or cho's o

di"its o 'recision rom a n#m*er.

Synta34 tr#nc $value, precision% +34

SQL1

d#al2

select tr#nc$658.584D%) tr#nc$658.584D)5%) tr#nc$658.58D4)5% rom TRUNC$658.584D% TRUNC$658.584D)5% TRUNC$658.58D4)5% ((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((( 658 658.58 658.58

SQL1

select tr#nc$658.584D)(6%) tr#nc$658.584D)(5%) tr#nc$658.584D)(8%) tr#nc$658.584D)(4% rom d#al2

TRUNC$658.584D)(6% TRUNC$658.584D)(5% TRUNC$658.584D)(8% TRUNC$658.584D)(4% (((((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((((( 657 677 7 7
SQL1

select tr#nc$658)7%) tr#nc$658)6%) tr#nc$658)5% rom d#al2 TRUNC$658)7% TRUNC$658)6% TRUNC$658)5% (((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((( 658 658 658

SQL1

select tr#nc$(658)7%) tr#nc$(658)6%) tr#nc$(658)5% rom d#al2 TRUNC$(658)7% TRUNC$(658)6% TRUNC$(658)5% ((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((( (658 (658 (658

SQL1 select tr#nc$658)(6%) tr#nc$658)(5%) tr#nc$658)(8%) tr#nc$(658)(6%) tr#nc$(658)5%) tr#nc$(658)(8% rom d#al2

TRUNC$658)(6% TRUNC$658)(5% TRUNC$658)(8% TRUNC$(658)(6% TRUNC$( 658)5% TRUNC$( 658)(8% ((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( 657 677 7 (657 (658 7
SQL1 select tr#nc$n#ll)n#ll%) tr#nc$7)7%) tr#nc$6)6%) tr#nc$(6)(6%) tr#nc$( 5)(5% rom d#al2

7 n%

TRUNC$NULL)NULL% TRUNC$7)7% TRUNC$6)6% TRUNC$(6)(6% TRUNC$(5)(5% ((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( 7 6 7

-IT,ND

This !ill 'er orm *it!ise and o'eration. Synta34 *itand $value1, value2%

Copy rights are reserved.

23
SQL1 select *itand$5)8%) *itand$7)7%) *itand$6)6%) *itand$n#ll)n#ll%) *itand$(5)(8% rom d#al2 -IT,ND$5)8% -IT,ND$7)7% -IT,ND$6)6% -IT,ND$NULL)NULL% -IT,ND$(5)(8% (((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((( 5 7 6 (4

+34

o%

:R+,T+ST

This !ill "ive the "reatest n#m*er. Synta34 "reatest $value1, value2, value3 valuen% +34
SQL1

select "reatest$6) 5) 8%) "reatest$(6) (5) (8% rom d#al2 :R+,T+ST$6)5)8% :R+,T+ST$(6)(5)(8% (((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((( 8 (6

'%
L+,ST

I all the val#es are Ueros then it !ill dis'lay Uero. I all the 'arameters are n#lls then it !ill dis'lay nothin". I any o the 'arameters is n#ll it !ill dis'lay nothin".

This !ill "ive the least n#m*er. Synta34 least $value1, value2, value3 valuen% +34
SQL1

select least$6) 5) 8%) least$(6) (5) (8% rom d#al2

V%

L+,ST$6)5)8% L+,ST$(6)(5)(8% (((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((( 6 (8 I all the val#es are Ueros then it !ill dis'lay Uero. I all the 'arameters are n#lls then it !ill dis'lay nothin". I any o the 'arameters is n#ll it !ill dis'lay nothin".

CO,L+SC+

This !ill ret#rn irst non(n#ll val#e. Synta34 coalesce $value1, value2, value3 valuen% +34
SQL1

select coalesce$6)5)8%) coalesce$n#ll)5)n#ll)D% rom d#al2 CO,L+SC+$6)5)8% CO,L+SC+$NULL)5)NULL)D% ((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 6 5

STRIN: CUNCTIONS

Initca' U''er

Copy rights are reserved.

24
a%
INITC,B

Lo!er Len"th R'ad L'ad Ltrim Rtrim Trim Translate Re'lace So#nde3 Concat $ L YY L Concatenation o'erator% ,scii Chr S#*str Instr Decode :reatest Least Coalesce

This !ill ca'italiUe the initial letter o the strin". Synta34 initca' $strin % +34
SQL1

select initca'$?com'#ter?% rom d#al2 INITC,B ((((((((((( Com'#ter

*%

UBB+R

This !ill convert the strin" into #''ercase. Synta34 #''er $strin % +34
SQL1

select #''er$?com'#ter?% rom d#al2 UBB+R (((((((((((

CO&BUT+R

c%

LO9+R

This !ill convert the strin" into lo!ercase. Synta34 lo!er $strin % +34
SQL1

select lo!er$?CO&BUT+R?% rom d#al2

LO9+R ((((((((((( com'#ter d%

L+N:T<

Copy rights are reserved.

25
This !ill "ive len"th o the strin". Synta34 len"th $strin % +34
SQL1

select len"th$?com'#ter?% rom d#al2 L+N:T< ((((((((((( X

e%

RB,D

This !ill allo!s yo# to 'ad the ri"ht side o a col#mn !ith any set o characters. Synta34 r'ad $strin , len t' (, paddin _c'ar)% +34
SQL1

select r'ad$?com'#ter?)6D)?F?%) r'ad$?com'#ter?)6D)?FZ?% rom d#al2 RB,D$?CO&BUT+R? RB,D$?CO&BUT+R? (((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((( com'#terFFFFFFF com'#terFZFZFZF

(( De a#lt 'addin" character !as *lank s'ace. %

LB,D

This !ill allo!s yo# to 'ad the le t side o a col#mn !ith any set o characters. Synta34 l'ad $strin , len t' (, paddin _c'ar)% +34
SQL1

select l'ad$?com'#ter?)6D)?F?%) l'ad$?com'#ter?)6D)?FZ?% rom d#al2 LB,D$?CO&BUT+R? LB,D$?CO&BUT+R? ((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((( FFFFFFFcom'#ter FZFZFZFcom'#ter

(( De a#lt 'addin" character !as *lank s'ace. "%

LTRI&

This !ill trim o

#n!anted characters rom the le t end o strin". (,unwanted_c'ars)%

Synta34 ltrim $strin +34

SQL1

select ltrim$?com'#ter?)?co?%) ltrim$?com'#ter?)?com?% rom d#al2 LTRI&$ LTRI& (((((((( ((((((((( m'#ter '#ter

SQL1

d#al2

select ltrim$?com'#ter?)?'#ter?%) ltrim$?com'#ter?)?om'#ter?% rom LTRI&$?C LTRI&$?C (((((((((( (((((((((( com'#ter com'#ter

Copy rights are reserved.

26
strin". h% (( I yo# haven=t s'eci y any #n!anted characters it !ill dis'lay entire

RTRI&

This !ill trim o

#n!anted characters rom the ri"ht end o strin". (, unwanted_c'ars)%

Synta34 rtrim $strin +34

SQL1

select rtrim$?com'#ter?)?er?%) rtrim$?com'#ter?)?ter?% rom d#al2 RTRI&$ RTRI& (((((((( ((((((((( com'#t com'# select rtrim$?com'#ter?)?com'#t=%) rtrim$?com'#ter?)?com'#te?% rom

SQL1

d#al2 RTRI&$?C RTRI&$?C (((((((((( (((((((((( com'#ter com'#ter (( I yo# haven=t s'eci y any #n!anted characters it !ill dis'lay entire strin". i%
TRI&

This !ill trim o

#n!anted characters rom the *oth sides o strin".

Synta34 trim $unwanted_c'ars rom strin % +34

SQL1

select trim$ ?i? rom ?indiani?% rom d#al2 TRI&$ ((((( ndian

SQL1

select trim$ leadin"?i? rom ?indiani?% rom d#al2 TRI&$L (((((( ndiani select trim$ trailin"?i? rom ?indiani?% rom d#al2 TRI&$T (((((( Indian

(( this !ill !ork

as

LTRI&

SQL1

(( this !ill !ork

as

RTRI&

K%

TR,NSL,T+

This !ill re'lace the set o characters) character *y character. Synta34 translate $strin , old_c'ars, new_c'ars% +34 SQL1 select translate$?india?)?in?)?3y?% rom d#al2

Copy rights are reserved.

TR,NS (((((((( 3yd3a k%

R+BL,C+

27

This !ill re'lace the set o characters) strin" *y strin". Synta34 re'lace $strin , old_c'ars (, new_c'ars)% +34 SQL1 select re'lace$?india?)?in?)?3y?%) re'lace$Lindia=)=in=% rom d#al2 R+BL,C+ R+BL,C+ ((((((((((( ((((((((((( /ydia dia

l%

SOUND+/

This !ill *e #sed to ind !ords that so#nd like other !ords) e3cl#sively #sed in !here cla#se. Synta34 so#nde3 $strin % +34
SQL1

select F rom em' !here so#nde3$ename% I so#nde3$?S&IT?%2 @O((((( CL+RG &:R <IR+D,T+ ((((( (((((((((((( WT75 6W(D+C(X7 S,L D+BTNO ((((((((( (((((((((( D77 57

+&BNO +N,&+ (((((((( (((((((( W8ET S&IT< m%

CONC,T

This !ill *e #sed to com*ine t!o strin"s only. Synta34 concat $strin 1, strin 2% +34
SQL1

select concat$?com'#ter?)? o'erator?% rom d#al2 CONC,T$?CO&BUT+R? ((((((((((((((((((((((((( com'#ter o'erator

I yo# !ant to com*ine more than t!o strin"s yo# have to #se concatenation o'erator $YY%.
SQL1

select ?ho!? YY ? are? YY ? yo#? rom d#al2 ?<O9?YY?,R+ ((((((((((((((( ho! are yo#

n%

,SCII

This !ill ret#rn the decimal re'resentation in the data*ase character set o the irst character o the strin". Synta34 ascii $strin % +34
SQL1

select ascii$?a?%) ascii$?a''le?% rom d#al2 ,SCII$?,?% ,SCII$?,BBL+?%

Copy rights are reserved.

(((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((( TW TW o%
C<R

28

This !ill ret#rn the character havin" the *inary eV#ivalent to the strin" in either the data*ase character set or the national character set. Synta34 chr $number% +34
SQL1

select chr$TW% rom d#al2 C<R ((((( a

'%

SU-STR

This !ill *e #sed to e3tract s#*strin"s. Synta34 s#*str $strin , start_c'r_count (, no_o%_c'ars)% +34
SQL1 select s#*str$?com'#ter?)5%) s#*str$?com'#ter?)5)D%) s#*str$?com'#ter?)8)W% rom d#al2

SU-STR$ SU-ST SU-STR (((((((((( ((((((( (((((((( om'#ter om'#t m'#ter I no_o%_c'ars 'arameter is ne"ative then it !ill dis'lay nothin". I *oth 'arameters e3ce't strin are n#ll or Ueros then it !ill dis'lay nothin". I no_o%_c'ars 'arameter is "reater than the len"th o the strin" then it i"nores and calc#lates *ased on the or"inal strin" len"th. I start_c'r_count is ne"ative then it !ill e3tract the s#*strin" rom ri"ht end. 6 C (X 5 O (W 8 & (E 4 B (D D U (4 E T (8 W + (5 X R (6

V%

INSTR

This !ill allo!s yo# or searchin" thro#"h a strin" or set o characters. Synta34 instr $strin , searc'_str (, start_c'r_count (, occurrence) )% +34 SQL1 select instr$?in ormation?)?o?)4)6%) instr$?in ormation?)?o?)4)5% rom d#al2 INSTR$?INCOR&,TION?)?O?)4)6% INSTR$?INCOR&,TION?)?O?)4)5% (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 4 67

Copy rights are reserved.

29
I yo# are not s'eci yin" start_c'r_count and occurrence then it !ill start search rom the *e"innin" and inds irst occ#rrence only. I *oth 'arameters start_c'r_count and occurrence are n#ll) it !ill dis'lay nothin".

r%

D+COD+

Decode !ill act as val#e *y val#e s#*stit#tion. Cor every val#e o ield) it !ill checks or a match in a series o i Athen tests. Synta34 decode $value, i%1, t'en1, i%2, t'en2, . else%2 +34
SQL1

select sal) decode$sal)D77)?Lo!?)D777)?<i"h?)?&edi#m?% rom em'2 S,L ((((( D77 5D77 5777 8D77 8777 D777 4777 D777 6X77 6577 5777 5W77 5577 8577 D+COD+ ((((((((( Lo! &edi#m &edi#m &edi#m &edi#m <i"h &edi#m <i"h &edi#m &edi#m &edi#m &edi#m &edi#m &edi#m

SQL1

select decode$6)6)8%) decode$6)5)8)4)4)E% rom d#al2 D+COD+$6)6)8% D+COD+$6)5)8)4)4)E% ((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((((( 8 E

s%

I the n#m*er o 'arameters are odd and di erent then decode !ill dis'lay nothin". I the n#m*er o 'arameters are even and di erent then decode !ill dis'lay last val#e. I all the 'arameters are n#ll then decode !ill dis'lay nothin". I all the 'arameters are Ueros then decode !ill dis'lay Uero.

:R+,T+ST

This !ill "ive the "reatest strin". Synta34 "reatest $strn 1, strin 2, strin 3 strin n% +34
SQL1

d#al2

select "reatest$?a?) ?*?) ?c?%) "reatest$?satish?)?srin#?)?saketh?% rom

:R+,T :R+,T ((((((( (((((((

Copy rights are reserved.

c t%
L+,ST

srin#

30

I all the 'arameters are n#lls then it !ill dis'lay nothin". I any o the 'arameters is n#ll it !ill dis'lay nothin".

This !ill "ive the least strin". Synta34 "reatest $strn 1, strin 2, strin 3 strin n% +34
SQL1

select least$?a?) ?*?) ?c?%) least$?satish?)?srin#?)?saketh?% rom d#al2 L+,ST L+,ST ((((((( ((((((( a saketh

#%

I all the 'arameters are n#lls then it !ill dis'lay nothin". I any o the 'arameters is n#ll it !ill dis'lay nothin".

CO,L+SC+

This !ill "ives the irst non(n#ll strin". Synta34 coalesce $strn 1, strin 2, strin 3 strin n% +34
SQL1

select coalesce$?a?)?*?)?c?%) coalesce$n#ll)?a?)n#ll)?*?% rom d#al2 CO,L+SC+ CO,L+SC+ ((((((((((( ((((((((((( a a

D,T+ CUNCTIONS

Sysdate C#rrentNdate C#rrentNtimestam' Systimestam' Localtimestam' D*timeUone SessiontimeUone ToNchar ToNdate ,ddNmonths &onthsN*et!een Ne3tNday LastNday +3tract :reatest Least Ro#nd Tr#nc Ne!Ntime Coalesce

Oracle de a#lt date ormat is DD(&ON(... 9e can chan"e the de a#lt ormat to o#r desired ormat *y #sin" the ollo!in" command.

Copy rights are reserved.

SQL1

alter session set nlsNdateN ormat I LDD(&ONT<(....=2 -#t this !ill e3'ire once the session !as closed.

31

a%

S.SD,T+

This !ill "ive the c#rrent date and time. +34 SQL1 select sysdate rom d#al2 S.SD,T+ ((((((((((( 54(D+C(7E *%
CURR+NTND,T+

This !ill ret#rns the c#rrent date in the session=s timeUone. +34
SQL1

select c#rrentNdate rom d#al2 CURR+NTND,T+ (((((((((((((((((( 54(D+C(7E

c%

CURR+NTNTI&+ST,&B

This !ill ret#rns the c#rrent timestam' !ith the active time Uone in ormation. +34
SQL1

select c#rrentNtimestam' rom d#al2 CURR+NTNTI&+ST,&B ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54(D+C(7E 78.45.46.8X88ET ,& H7D487

d%

S.STI&+ST,&B

This !ill ret#rns the system date) incl#din" ractional seconds and time Uone o the data*ase. +34
SQL1

select systimestam' rom d#al2 S.STI&+ST,&B ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54(D+C(7E 78.4T.86.X877TT ,& H7D487

e%

LOC,LTI&+ST,&B

This !ill ret#rns local timestam' in the active time Uone in ormation) !ith no time Uone in ormation sho!n. +34
SQL1

select localtimestam' rom d#al2 LOC,LTI&+ST,&B ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54(D+C(7E 78.44.6X.D75XW4 ,&

Copy rights are reserved.

32
D-TI&+[ON+

This !ill ret#rns the c#rrent data*ase time Uone in UTC ormat. $Coordinated Universal Time% +34
SQL1

select d*timeUone rom d#al2 D-TI&+[ON+ ((((((((((((((( (7W477

"%

S+SSIONTI&+[ON+

This !ill ret#rns the val#e o the c#rrent session=s time Uone. +34
SQL1

select sessiontimeUone rom d#al2 S+SSIONTI&+[ON+ ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( H7D487

h%

TONC<,R

This !ill *e #sed to e3tract vario#s date ormats. The availa*le date ormats as ollo!s. Synta34 toNchar $date) %ormat%
D,T+ COR&,TS D DD DDD && &ON &ONT< R& D. D,. . .. ... .... S.... I I. I.. I... .) ... .+,R CC Q 9 99 I9 << &I SS

((

(( No o days in !eek (( No o days in month (( No o days in year (( No o month (( Three letter a**reviation o month (( C#lly s'elled o#t month (( Roman n#meral month (( Three letter a**reviated day (( C#lly s'elled o#t day (( Last one di"it o the year (( Last t!o di"its o the year (( Last three di"its o the year (( C#ll o#r di"it year Si"ned year (( One di"it year rom ISO standard (( T!o di"it year rom ISO standard (( Three di"it year rom ISO standard (( Co#r di"it year rom ISO standard (( .ear !ith comma (( C#lly s'elled o#t year (( Cent#ry (( No o V#arters (( No o !eeks in month (( No o !eeks in year (( No o !eeks in year rom ISO standard (( <o#rs (( &in#tes (( Seconds

Copy rights are reserved.

CC

or B& or B.& ,D or -C ,.D or -.C

,& ,.& C&

or day
T< SB SBT< T<SB

(( (( (( (( (( (( (( (( (( ((

Cractional seconds Dis'lays ,& or B& de'endin" #'on time o day Dis'lays ,.& or B.& de'endin" #'on time o day Dis'lays ,D or -C de'endin" #'on the date Dis'lays ,D or -C de'endin" #'on the date Bre i3 to month or day) s#''resses 'addin" o month

33

S# i3 to a n#m*er s# i3 to a n#m*er to *e s'elled o#t S# i3 com*ination o T< and SB to *e *oth s'elled o#t same as SBT<

+34
SQL1

select toNchar$sysdate)?dd month yyyy hh4mi4ss am dy?% rom d#al2 TONC<,R$S.SD,T+)?DD &ONT< ....<<4&I (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54 decem*er 577E 75478458 'm s#n

SQL1

select toNchar$sysdate)?dd month year?% rom d#al2 TONC<,R$S.SD,T+)?DD&ONT<.+,R?% ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54 decem*er t!o tho#sand si3

SQL1

select toNchar$sysdate)?dd mmonth year?% rom d#al2 TONC<,R$S.SD,T+)?DD C&&ONT< .+,R?% ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54 decem*er t!o tho#sand si3

SQL1

select toNchar$sysdate)?ddth DDT<?% rom d#al2 TONC<,R$S (((((((((((( 54th 54T< select toNchar$sysdate)?dds'th DDSBT<?% rom d#al2 TONC<,R$S.SD,T+)?DDSBT<DDSBT< (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( t!enty( o#rth T9+NT.(COURT<

SQL1

SQL1

select toNchar$sysdate)?dds' Dds' DDSB ?% rom d#al2 TONC<,R$S.SD,T+)?DDSBDDSBDDSB?% (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( t!enty( o#r T!enty(Co#r T9+NT.(COUR

i%

TOND,T+

This !ill *e #sed to convert the strin" into data ormat. Synta34 toNdate $date%
SQL1 select toNchar$toNdate$?54AdecA577E?)?ddAmonAyyyy?%) ?dd F month F day?% rom d#al2

+34

TONC<,R$TOND,T+$?54AD+CA57

Copy rights are reserved.

(((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54 F decem*er F S#nday (( I yo# are not #sin" toNchar oracle !ill dis'lay o#t'#t in de a#lt date ormat. K%
,DDN&ONT<S

34

This !ill add the s'eci ied months to the "iven date. Synta34 addNmonths $date, no_o%_mont's% +34
SQL1

d#al2

select addNmonths$toNdate$?66(Kan(6TT7?)?dd(mon(yyyy?%) D% rom ,DDN&ONT<S (((((((((((((((( 66(@UN(T7

SQL1

select addNmonths$toNdate$?66(Kan(6TT7?)?dd(mon(yyyy?%) (D% rom ,DDN&ONT< ((((((((((((((( 66(,U:(XT

d#al2

k%

I no_o%_mont's is Uero then it !ill dis'lay the same date. I no_o%_mont's is n#ll then it !ill dis'lay nothin".

&ONT<SN-+T9++N

This !ill "ive di erence o months *et!een t!o dates. Synta34 monthsN*et!een $date1, date2% +34
SQL1 select monthsN*et!een$toNdate$?66(a#"(6TT7?)?dd(mon(yyyy?%) toNdate$?66(Kan( 6TT7?)?dd(mon(yyyy?%% rom d#al2

&ONT<SN-+T9++N$TOND,T+$?66(,U:(6TT7?)?DD(&ON( ....?%)TOND,T+$?66(@,N(6TT7?)?DD(&ON(....?%% (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((( W SQL1 select monthsN*et!een$toNdate$?66(Kan(6TT7?)?dd(mon(yyyy?%) toNdate$?66(a#"( 6TT7?)?dd(mon(yyyy?%% rom d#al2 &ONT<SN-+T9++N$TOND,T+$?66(@,N(6TT7?)?DD(&ON( ....?%)TOND,T+$?66(,U:(6TT7?)?DD(&ON(....?%% (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((( (W l%
N+/TND,.

This !ill 'rod#ce ne3t day o the "iven day rom the s'eci ied date. Synta34 ne3tNday $date, day%

Copy rights are reserved.

35
+34
SQL1

select ne3tNday$toNdate$?54(dec(577E?)?dd(mon(yyyy?%)?s#n?% rom N+/TND,.$ ((((((((((((( 86(D+C(7E

d#al2

(( I the day 'arameter is n#ll then it !ill dis'lay nothin". m%

L,STND,.

This !ill 'rod#ce last day o the "iven date. Synta34 lastNday $date% +34
SQL1

select lastNday$toNdate$?54(dec(577E?)?dd(mon(yyyy?%)?s#n?% rom L,STND,.$ ((((((((((((( 86(D+C(7E

d#al2

n%

+/TR,CT

This is #sed to e3tract a 'ortion o the date val#e. Synta34 e3tract $$year Y month Y day Y ho#r Y min#te Y second%) date% +34 SQL1 select e3tract$year rom sysdate% rom d#al2 +/TR,CT$.+,RCRO&S.SD,T+% (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 577E (( .o# can e3tract only one val#e at a time. o%
:R+,T+ST

This !ill "ive the "reatest date. Synta34 "reatest $date1, date2, date3 daten%
SQL1 select "reatest$toNdate$?66(Kan(T7?)?dd(mon(yy?%)toNdate$?66(mar( T7?)?dd(mon( yy?%)toNdate$?66(a'r(T7?)?dd(mon(yy?%% rom d#al2

+34

:R+,T+ST$ ((((((((((((( 66(,BR(T7 '%

L+,ST

This !ill "ive the least date. Synta34 least $date1, date2, date3 daten% +34
SQL1 select least$toNdate$?66(Kan(T7?)?dd(mon(yy?%)toNdate$?66(mar( T7?)?dd(mon(

Copy rights are reserved.

yy?%)toNdate$?66(a'r(T7?)?dd(mon(yy?%% rom d#al2 L+,ST$ ((((((((((((( 66(@,N(T7 V%

ROUND

36

Ro#nd !ill ro#nds the date to !hich it !as eV#al to or "reater than the "iven date. Synta34 ro#nd $date, (day Y month Y year*% I the second 'arameter !as year then ro#nd !ill checks the month o the "iven date in the ollo!in" ran"es.
@,N @UL (( (( @UN D+C

I the month alls *et!een @,N and @UN then it ret#rns the irst day o the c#rrent year. I the month alls *et!een @UL and D+C then it ret#rns the irst day o the ne3t year. I the second 'arameter !as mont' then ro#nd !ill checks the day o the "iven date in the ollo!in" ran"es. 6 6E (( (( 6D 86

I the day alls *et!een 6 and 6D then it ret#rns the irst day o the c#rrent month. I the day alls *et!een 6E and 86 then it ret#rns the irst day o the ne3t month. I the second 'arameter !as day then ro#nd !ill checks the !eek day o the "iven date in the ollo!in" ran"es.
SUN T<U (( (( 9+D SUN

I the !eek day alls *et!een SUN and 9+D then it ret#rns the 'revio#s s#nday. I the !eekday alls *et!een T<U and SUN then it ret#rns the ne3t s#nday. I the second 'arameter !as n#ll then it ret#rns nothin". I the yo# are not s'eci yin" the second 'arameter then ro#nd !ill resets the time to the *e"inin" o the c#rrent day in case o #ser s'eci ied date. I the yo# are not s'eci yin" the second 'arameter then ro#nd !ill resets the time to the *e"inin" o the ne3t day in case o sysdate.
SQL1 select ro#nd$toNdate$?54(dec(74?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?year?%) ro#nd$toNdate$?66(mar( 7E?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?year?% rom d#al2

+34

ROUND$TON ROUND$TON

Copy rights are reserved.

(((((((((((( ((((((((((((((( 76(@,N(7D 76(@,N(7E SQL1 select ro#nd$toNdate$?66(Kan(74?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?month?%) ro#nd$toNdate$?6X(Kan( 74?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?month?% rom d#al2 ROUND$TON ROUND$TON ((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((( 76(@,N(74 76(C+-(74
SQL1 select ro#nd$toNdate$?5E(dec(7E?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?day?%) ro#nd$toNdate$?5T(dec( 7E?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?day?% rom d#al2

37

ROUND$TON ROUND$TON (((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( 54(D+C(7E 86(D+C(7E

SQL1 select toNchar$ro#nd$toNdate$?54(dec(7E?)?dd(mon(yy?%%) ?dd mon yyyy hh4mi4ss am?% rom d#al2

TONC<,R$ROUND$TOND,T+$? ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54 dec 577E 65477477 am r%

TRUNC

Tr#nc !ill cho's o date.

the date to !hich it !as eV#al to or less than the "iven

Synta34 tr#nc $date, (day Y month Y year*% I the second 'arameter !as year then it al!ays ret#rns the irst day o the c#rrent year. I the second 'arameter !as mont' then it al!ays ret#rns the irst day o the c#rrent month. I the second 'arameter !as day then it al!ays ret#rns the 'revio#s s#nday. I the second 'arameter !as n#ll then it ret#rns nothin". I the yo# are not s'eci yin" the second 'arameter then tr#nk !ill resets the time to the *e"inin" o the c#rrent day.

+34
SQL1 select tr#nc$toNdate$?54(dec(74?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?year?%) tr#nc$toNdate$?66(mar( 7E?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?year?% rom d#al2

TRUNC$TON TRUNC$TON ((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( 76(@,N(74 76(@,N(7E

SQL1 select tr#nc$toNdate$?66(Kan(74?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?month?%) tr#nc$toNdate$?6X(Kan( 74?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?month?% rom d#al2

TRUNC$TON TRUNC$TON ((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( 76(@,N(74 76(@,N(74

Copy rights are reserved.

select tr#nc$toNdate$?5E(dec(7E?)?dd(mon(yy?%)?day?%) tr#nc$toNdate$?5T(dec(7E?)?dd( mon(yy?%)?day?% rom d#al2

SQL1

38

TRUNC$TON TRUNC$TON ((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( 54(D+C(7E 54(D+C(7E

SQL1 select toNchar$tr#nc$toNdate$?54(dec(7E?)?dd(mon(yy?%%) ?dd mon yyyy hh4mi4ss am?% rom d#al2

TONC<,R$TRUNC$TOND,T+$? ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54 dec 577E 65477477 am s%

N+9NTI&+

This !ill "ive the desired timeUone=s date and time. Synta34 ne!Ntime $date, current_time+one, desired_time+one% ,vaila*le timeUones are as ollo!s.
TI&+[ON+S ,STA,DT -STA-DT CSTACDT +STA+DT :&T <STA<DT &STA&DT NST BSTABDT .STA.DT

(( (( (( (( (( (( (( (( (( ((

,tlantic standardAday li"ht time -erin" standardAday li"ht time Central standardAday li"ht time +astern standardAday li"ht time :reen!ich mean time ,laska(<a!aii standardAday li"ht time &o#ntain standardAday li"ht time Ne! o#ndland standard time Baci ic standardAday li"ht time .#kon standardAday li"ht time

SQL1 select toNchar$ne!Ntime$sysdate)?"mt?)?yst?%)?dd mon yyyy hh4mi4ss am?% rom d#al2

+34

TONC<,R$N+9NTI&+$S.SD,T ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 54 dec 577E 754D6457 'm

SQL1 select toNchar$ne!Ntime$sysdate)?"mt?)?est?%)?dd mon yyyy hh4mi4ss am?% rom d#al2 TONC<,R$N+9NTI&+$S.SD,T ((((((((((((((((((((((( 54 dec 577E 7E4D645E 'm

t%

CO,L+SC+

This !ill "ive the irst non(n#ll date. Synta34 coalesce $date1, date2, date3 daten%
SQL1 select coalesce$?65(Kan(T7?)?68(Kan(TT?%) coalesce$n#ll)?65(Kan( T7?)?58(mar(TX?)n#ll% rom d#al2

+34

Copy rights are reserved.

39
CO,L+SC+$ CO,L+SC+$ ((((((((((((( (((((((((((( 65(Kan(T7 65(Kan(T7

&ISC+LL,N+OUS CUNCTIONS

a%
UID

Uid User ;siUe Rank DenseNrank

This !ill ret#rns the inte"er val#e corres'ondin" to the #ser c#rrently lo""ed in. +34
SQL1

select #id rom d#al2 UID (((((((((( 86T

*%

US+R

This !ill ret#rns the lo"in=s #ser name. +34

SQL1

select #ser rom d#al2 US+R (((((((((((((((( S,G+T<

c%

;SI[+

This !ill ret#rns the n#m*er o *ytes in the e3'ression. +34

SQL1

select vsiUe$658%) vsiUe$?com'#ter?%) vsiUe$?65(Kan(T7?% rom d#al2 ;SI[+$658% ;SI[+$?CO&BUT+R?% ;SI[+$?65(@,N(T7?% ((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((( 8 X T

d%

R,NG

This !ill "ive the non(seV#ential rankin". +34

SQL1

select ro!n#m)sal rom $select sal rom em' order *y sal desc%2 RO9NU& S,L (((((((((( (((((((((( 6 D777 5 8777 8 8777

Copy rights are reserved.

4 D E W X T 67 66 65 68 64 6D
SQL1

5TWD 5XD7 54D7 6E77 6D77 6877 65D7 65D7 6677 6777 TD7 X77

40

select rank$5TWD% !ithin "ro#'$order *y sal desc% rom em'2 R,NG$5TWD%9IT<IN:ROUB$ORD+R-.S,LD+SC% ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 4

d%

D+NS+NR,NG

This !ill "ive the seV#ential rankin". +34

SQL1

select denseNrank$5TWD% !ithin "ro#'$order *y sal desc% rom em'2 D+NS+NR,NG$5TWD%9IT<IN:ROUB$ORD+R-.S,LD+SC% ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 8

CON;+RSION CUNCTIONS

a%
-INNTONNU&

-inNtoNn#m Chartoro!id Ro!idtochar ToNn#m*er ToNchar ToNdate

This !ill convert the *inary val#e to its n#merical eV#ivalent. Synta34 *inNtoNn#m$ binary_bits% +34
SQL1

select *inNtoNn#m$6)6)7% rom d#al2

*%

-INNTONNU&$6)6)7% (((((((((((((((((((((((( E I all the *its are Uero then it 'rod#ces Uero. I all the *its are n#ll then it 'rod#ces an error.

C<,RTORO9ID

This !ill convert a character strin" to act like an internal oracle ro! identi ier or ro!id. c%
RO9IDTOC<,R

This !ill convert an internal oracle ro! identi ier or ro!id to character strin".

Copy rights are reserved.

d%

41
TONNU&-+R

This !ill convert a char or varchar to n#m*er. e%

TONC<,R

This !ill convert a n#m*er or date to character strin". %

TOND,T+

This !ill convert a n#m*er) char or varchar to a date. :ROUB CUNCTIONS S#m ,v" &a3 &in Co#nt

:ro#' #nctions !ill *e a''lied on all the ro!s *#t 'rod#ces sin"le o#t'#t. a%
SU&

This !ill "ive the s#m o the val#es o the s'eci ied col#mn. Synta34 s#m $column% +34
SQL1

select s#m$sal% rom em'2 SU&$S,L% (((((((((( 8XE77

*%

,;:

This !ill "ive the avera"e o the val#es o the s'eci ied col#mn. Synta34 av" $column% +34
SQL1

select av"$sal% rom em'2 ,;:$S,L% ((((((((((((((( 5WDW.645XE

c%

&,/

This !ill "ive the ma3im#m o the val#es o the s'eci ied col#mn. Synta34 ma3 $column% +34
SQL1

select ma3$sal% rom em'2 &,/$S,L% (((((((((( D777

Copy rights are reserved.

d%

42
&IN

This !ill "ive the minim#m o the val#es o the s'eci ied col#mn. Synta34 min $column% +34 SQL1 select min$sal% rom em'2 &IN$S,L% (((((((((( D77
COUNT

e%

This !ill "ive the co#nt o the val#es o the s'eci ied col#mn. Synta34 co#nt $column% +34
SQL1

select co#nt$sal%)co#nt$F% rom em'2 COUNT$S,L% COUNT$F% (((((((((((((( (((((((((((( 64 64

CONSTR,INTS
Constraints are cate"oriUed as ollo!s. Domain inte"rity constraints Not n#ll Check +ntity inte"rity constraints UniV#e Brimary key Re erential inte"rity constraints Corei"n key Constraints are al!ays attached to a col#mn not a ta*le. 9e can add constraints in three !ays. Col#mn level Ta*le level ,lter level (( alon" !ith the col#mn de inition (( a ter the ta*le de inition (( #sin" alter command

9hile addin" constraints yo# need not s'eci y the name *#t the ty'e only) oracle !ill internally name the constraint. I yo# !ant to "ive a name to the constraint) yo# have to #se the constraint cla#se. NOT NULL This is #sed to avoid n#ll val#es. 9e can add this constraint in col#mn level only. +34
SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% not n#ll) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% constraint nn not n#ll) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%%2

Copy rights are reserved.

C<+CG This is #sed to insert the val#es *ased on s'eci ied condition. 9e can add this constraint in all three levels. +34
COLU&N L+;+L

43

SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8% check $marks 1 877%%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8% constraint ch check$marks 1 877%%2 T,-L+ L+;+L SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) check $marks 1 877%%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) constraint ch check$marks 1 877%%2 ,LT+R L+;+L SQL1 SQL1

alter ta*le st#dent add check$marks1877%2 alter ta*le st#dent add constraint ch check$marks1877%2

UNIQU+ This is #sed to avoid d#'licates *#t it allo! n#lls. 9e can add this constraint in all three levels. +34
COLU&N L+;+L

SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% #niV#e) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% constraint #n #niV#e) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%%2 T,-L+ L+;+L SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) #niV#e$no%%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) constraint #n #niV#e$no%%2 ,LT+R L+;+L SQL1 SQL1

alter ta*le st#dent add #niV#e$no%2 alter ta*le st#dent add constraint #n #niV#e$no%2

BRI&,R. G+. This is #sed to avoid d#'licates and n#lls. This !ill !ork as com*ination o #niV#e and not n#ll. Brimary key al!ays attached to the 'arent ta*le.

Copy rights are reserved.

9e can add this constraint in all three levels. +34

COLU&N L+;+L SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% 'rimary key) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% constraint 'k 'rimary key) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%%2 T,-L+ L+;+L SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) 'rimary key$no%%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) constraint 'k 'rimary key$no%%2 ,LT+R L+;+L SQL1 SQL1

44

alter ta*le st#dent add 'rimary key$no%2 alter ta*le st#dent add constraint 'k 'rimary key$no%2

COR+I:N G+. This is #sed to re erence the 'arent ta*le 'rimary key col#mn !hich allo!s d#'licates. Corei"n key al!ays attached to the child ta*le. 9e can add this constraint in ta*le and alter levels only. +34
T,-L+ L+;+L

SQL1 create ta*le em'$em'no n#m*er$5%) ename varchar$67%) de'tno n#m*er$5%) 'rimary key$em'no%) orei"n key$de'tno% re erences de't$de'tno%%2 SQL1 create ta*le em'$em'no n#m*er$5%) ename varchar$67%) de'tno n#m*er$5%) constraint 'k 'rimary key$em'no%) constraint k orei"n key$de'tno% re erences de't$de'tno%%2 ,LT+R L+;+L

alter ta*le em' add orei"n key$de'tno% re erences de't$de'tno%2 alter ta*le em' add constraint k orei"n key$de'tno% re erences de't$de'tno%2
SQL1 SQL1

Once the 'rimary key and orei"n key relationshi' has *een created then yo# can not remove any 'arent record i the de'endent childs e3ists. USIN: ON D+LT+ C,SC,D+ -y #sin" this cla#se yo# can remove the 'arent record even it childs e3ists. -eca#se !hen ever yo# remove 'arent record oracle a#tomatically removes all its de'endent records rom child ta*le) i this cla#se is 'resent !hile creatin" orei"n key constraint. +34
T,-L+ L+;+L

Copy rights are reserved.

45
SQL1 create ta*le em'$em'no n#m*er$5%) ename varchar$67%) de'tno n#m*er$5%) 'rimary key$em'no%) orei"n key$de'tno% re erences de't$de'tno% on delete cascade%2 SQL1 create ta*le em'$em'no n#m*er$5%) ename varchar$67%) de'tno n#m*er$5%) constraint 'k 'rimary key$em'no%) constraint k orei"n key$de'tno% re erences de't$de'tno% on delete cascade%2 ,LT+R L+;+L SQL1 alter ta*le em' add orei"n key$de'tno% re erences de't$de'tno% on delete cascade2 SQL1 alter ta*le em' add constraint k orei"n key$de'tno% re erences de't$de'tno% on delete cascade2

CO&BOSIT+ G+.S , com'osite key can *e de ined on a com*ination o col#mns. 9e can de ine com'osite keys on entity inte"rity and re erential inte"rity constraints. Com'osite key can *e de ined in ta*le and alter levels only. +34
UNIQU+ $T,-L+ L+;+L%

SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) #niV#e$no)name%%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) constraint #n #niV#e$no)name%%2 UNIQU+ $,LT+R L+;+L% SQL1 SQL1

alter ta*le st#dent add #niV#e$no)name%2 alter ta*le st#dent add constraint #n #niV#e$no)name%2

BRI&,R. G+. $T,-L+ L+;+L% SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) 'rimary key$no)name%%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% ) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) constraint 'k 'rimary key$no)name%%2 BRI&,R. G+. $,LT+R L+;+L% SQL1 SQL1

alter ta*le st#dent add 'rimary key$no)anme%2 alter ta*le st#dent add constraint 'k 'rimary key$no)name%2

COR+I:N G+. $T,-L+ L+;+L% SQL1 create ta*le em'$em'no n#m*er$5%) ename varchar$67%) de'tno n#m*er$5%) dname varchar$67%) 'rimary key$em'no%) orei"n key$de'tno)dname% re erences de't$de'tno)dname%%2

Copy rights are reserved.

create ta*le em'$em'no n#m*er$5%) ename varchar$67%) de'tno n#m*er$5%) dname varchar$67%) constraint 'k 'rimary key$em'no%) constraint k orei"n key$de'tno)dname% re erences de't$de'tno)dname%%2
SQL1 COR+I:N G+. $,LT+R L+;+L%

46

SQL1 alter ta*le em' add orei"n key$de'tno)dname% re erences de't$de'tno)dname%2 SQL1 alter ta*le em' add constraint k orei"n key$de'tno)dname% re erences de't$de'tno)dname%2

D+C+RR,-L+ CONSTR,INTS +ach constraint has t!o additional attri*#tes to s#''ort de erred checkin" o constraints. De erred initially immediate De erred initially de erred

De erred initially immediate checks or constraint violation at the time o insert. De erred initially de erred checks or constraint violation at the time o commit. +34
SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) constraint #n #niV#e$no% de erred initially immediate%2 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%) name varchar$67%) marks n#m*er$8%) constraint #n #niV#e$no% de erred initially de erred%2 SQL1 alter ta*le st#dent add constraint #n #niV#e$no% de erra*le initially de erred2

set constraints all immediate2 This !ill ena*le all the constraints violations at the time o insertin". SQL1 set constraints all de erred2 This !ill ena*le all the constraints violations at the time o commit.
SQL1

OB+R,TIONS 9IT< CONSTR,INTS Bossi*le o'erations !ith constraints as ollo!s.

+N,-L+

+na*le Disa*le +n orce Dro'

This !ill ena*le the constraint. -e ore ena*le) the constraint !ill check the e3istin" data. +34
SQL1

alter ta*le st#dent ena*le constraint #n2

DIS,-L+

This !ill disa*le the constraint.

Copy rights are reserved.

+34
SQL1 +NCORC+

47
alter ta*le st#dent ena*le constraint #n2

This !ill en orce the constraint rather than ena*le or #t#re inserts or #'dates. This !ill not check or e3istin" data !hile en orcin" data. +34
SQL1 DROB

alter ta*le st#dent en orce constraint #n2

This !ill remove the constraint. +34 SQL1 alter ta*le st#dent dro' constraint #n2 Once the ta*le is dro''ed) constraints a#tomatically !ill dro'.

C,S+ ,ND D+C,ULT

C,S+ Case is similar to decode *#t easier to #nderstand !hile "oin" thro#"h codin" +34
SQL1

Select sal) Case sal 9hen D77 then Llo!= 9hen D777 then Lhi"h= +lse Lmedi#m= +nd case Crom em'2 S,L ((((( D77 5D77 5777 8D77 8777 D777 4777 D777 6X77 6577 5777 5W77 5577 8577 C,S+ (((((((( lo! medi#m medi#m medi#m medi#m hi"h medi#m hi"h medi#m medi#m medi#m medi#m medi#m medi#m

D+C,ULT ,e%ault can *e considered as a s#*stit#te *ehavior o not null constraint !hen a''lied to ne! ro!s *ein" entered into the ta*le. 9hen yo# de ine a col#mn !ith the de%ault key!ord ollo!ed *y a val#e) yo# are act#ally tellin" the data*ase that) on insert i a ro! !as not assi"ned a val#e or this col#mn) #se the de a#lt val#e that yo# have s'eci ied. De a#lt is a''lied only d#rin" insertion o ne! ro!s.

Copy rights are reserved.

48
+34
SQL1 SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5% de a#lt 66)name varchar$5%%2 insert into st#dent val#es$6)?a?%2 insert into st#dent$name% val#es$?*?%2 select F rom st#dent2 NO N,&+ (((((( ((((((((( 6 a 66 *

SQL1 SQL1

insert into st#dent val#es$n#ll) Lc=%2 select F rom st#dent2

NO N,&+ (((((( ((((((((( 6 a 66 * C (( De a#lt can not override n#lls.

,-STR,CT D,T, T.B+S

Some times yo# may !ant ty'e !hich holds all ty'es o data incl#din" n#m*ers) chars and s'ecial characters somethin" like this. .o# can not achieve this #sin" 're(de ined ty'es. .o# can de ine c#stom ty'es !hich holds yo#r desired data. +34 S#''ose in a ta*le !e have address col#mn !hich holds hno and city in ormation. 9e !ill de ine a c#stom ty'e !hich holds *oth n#meric as !ell as char data.
CR+,TIN: ,DT SQL1

create ty'e addr as o*Kect$hno n#m*er$8%)city varchar$67%%2 A

CR+,TIN: T,-L+ -,S+D ON ,DT SQL1

create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$5%)address addr%2

INS+RTIN: D,T, INTO ,DT T,-L+S SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

insert into st#dent val#es$6)?a?)addr$666)?hyd?%%2 insert into st#dent val#es$5)?*?)addr$555)?*an"?%%2 insert into st#dent val#es$8)?c?)addr$888)?delhi?%%2

S+L+CTIN: D,T, CRO& ,DT T,-L+S SQL1

select F rom st#dent2

NO N,&+ ,DDR+SS$<NO) CIT.% ((( ((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((((( 6 a ,DDR$666) ?hyd?% 5 * ,DDR$555) ?*an"?% 8 c ,DDR$888) ?delhi?%

Copy rights are reserved.

SQL1

select no)name)s.address.hno)s.address.city rom st#dent s2

49

NO N,&+ ,DDR+SS.<NO ,DDR+SS.CIT. (((( ((((((( ((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( 6 a 666 hyd 5 * 555 *an" 8 c 888 delhi
UBD,T+ 9IT< ,DT T,-L+S SQL1

#'date st#dent s set s.address.city I ?*om*ay? !here s.address.hno I select no)name)s.address.hno)s.address.city rom st#dent s2 NO N,&+ ,DDR+SS.<NO ,DDR+SS.CIT. (((( ((((((( ((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( 6 a 666 hyd 5 * 555 *an" 8 c 888 *om*ay

8882
SQL1

D+L+T+ 9IT< ,DT T,-L+S SQL1 SQL1

delete st#dent s !here s.address.hno I 6662 select no)name)s.address.hno)s.address.city rom st#dent s2 NO N,&+ ,DDR+SS.<NO ,DDR+SS.CIT. (((( ((((((( ((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( 5 * 555 *an" 8 c 888 *om*ay

DROBBIN: ,DT SQL1

dro' ty'e addr2

O-@+CT ;I+9S ,ND &+T<ODS

O-@+CT ;I+9S I yo# !ant to im'lement o*Kects !ith the e3istin" ta*le) o*Kect vie!s come into 'ict#re. .o# de ine the o*Kect and create a vie! !hich relates this o*Kect to the e3istin" ta*le nothin" *#t ob!ect view. O*Kect vie!s are #sed to relate the #ser de ined o*Kects to the e3istin" ta*le. +34 6% ,ss#me that the ta*le st#dent has already *een created !ith the ollo!in" col#mns SQL1 create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$67%)hno n#m*er$8%)city varchar$67%%2 5% Create the ollo!in" ty'es SQL1 create ty'e addr as o*Kect$hno n#m*er$5%)city varchar$67%%2A SQL1 create ty'e st#d as o*Kect$name varchar$67%)address addr%2A 8% Relate the o*Kects to the st#dent ta*le *y creatin" the o*Kect vie! SQL1 create vie! st#dentNov$no)st#dNin o% as select no)st#d$name)addr$hno)city%% rom st#dent2 4% No! yo# can insert data into st#dent ta*le in t!o !ays a% -y re"#lar insert SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$6)=s#dha=)666)=hyd=%2 *% -y #sin" o*Kect vie!

Copy rights are reserved.

SQL1

Insert into st#dentNov val#es$6)st#d$Ls#dha=)addr$666)=hyd=%%%2

50

&+T<ODS .o# can de ine methods !hich are nothin" *#t #nctions in ty'es and a''ly in the ta*les !hich holds the ty'es2 +34 6% De inin" methods in ty'es SQL1 Create ty'e st#d as o*Kect$name varchar$67%)marks n#m*er$8%) &em*er #nction makrsN $marks in n#m*er% ret#rn n#m*er) Bra"ma restrictNre erences$marksN )!nds)rnds)!n's) n's%%2A 5% De inin" ty'e *ody SQL1 Create ty'e *ody st#d as &em*er #nction marksN $marks in n#m*er% ret#rn n#m*er is -e"in Ret#rn $marksH677%2 +nd marksN 2 +nd2A 8% Create a ta*le #sin" st#d ty'e SQL1 Create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)in o st#d%2 4% Insert some data into st#dent ta*le SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$6)st#d$Ls#dha=)677%%2 D% Usin" method in select SQL1 Select s.in o.marksN $s.in o.marks% rom st#dent s2 (( <ere !e are #sin" the 'ra"ma restrictNre erences to avoid the !rites to the data*ase.

;,RR,.S ,ND N+ST+D T,-L+S

;,RR,.S , varyin" array allo!s yo# to store re'eatin" attri*#tes o a record in a sin"le ro! *#t !ith limit. +34 6% 9e can create varrays #sin" oracle ty'es as !ell as #ser de ined ty'es. a% ;array #sin" 're(de ined ty'es SQL1 Create ty'e va as varray$D% o varchar$67%2A *% ;arrays #sin" #ser de ined ty'es SQL1 Create ty'e addr as o*Kect$hno n#m*er$8%)city varchar$67%%2A SQL1 Create ty'e va as varray$D% o addr2A 5% Usin" varray in ta*le SQL1 Create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$67%)address va%2 8% Insertin" val#es into varray ta*le SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$6)=s#dha=)va$addr$666)=hyd=%%%2 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$5)=Ka"an=)va$addr$666)=hyd=%)addr$555)=*an"=%%%2 4% Selectin" data rom varray ta*le SQL1 Select F rom st#dent2 (( This !ill dis'lay varray col#mn data alon" !ith varray and adt2 SQL1 Select no)name) s.F rom st#dent s6) ta*le$s6.address% s2 (( This !ill dis'lay in "eneral ormat D% Instead o s.F yo# can s'eci y the col#mns in varray SQL1 Select no)name) s.hno)s.city rom st#dent s6)ta*le$s6.address% s2 (( U'date and delete not 'ossi*le in varrays. (( <ere !e #sed ta*le #nction !hich !ill take the varray col#mn as in'#t or 'rod#cin" o#t'#t e3cl#din" varray and ty'es.

Copy rights are reserved.

51
N+ST+D T,-L+S , nested ta*le is) as its name im'lies) a ta*le !ithin a ta*le. In this case it is a ta*le that is re'resented as a col#mn !ithin another ta*le. Nested ta*le has the same e ect o varrays *#t has no limit. +34 6% 9e can create nested ta*les #sin" oracle ty'es and #ser de ined ty'es !hich has no limit a% Nested ta*les #sin" 're(de ined ty'es SQL1 Create ty'e nt as ta*le o varchar$67%2A *% Nested ta*les #sin" #ser de ined ty'es SQL1 Create ty'e addr as o*Kect$hno n#m*er$8%)city varchar$67%%2A SQL1 Create ty'e nt as ta*le o addr2A 5% Usin" nested ta*le in ta*le SQL1 Create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$67%)address nt% nested ta*le address store as st#dentNtem'2 8% Insertin" val#es into ta*le !hich has nested ta*le SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es $6)=s#dha=)nt$addr$666)=hyd=%%%2 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es $5)=Ka"an=)nt$addr$666)=hyd=%)addr$555)=*an"=%%%2 4% Selectin" data rom ta*le !hich has nested ta*le SQL1 Select F rom st#dent2 (( This !ill dis'lay nested ta*le col#mn data alon" !ith nested ta*le and
SQL1

adt2

Select no)name) s.F rom st#dent s6) ta*le$s6.address% s2 (( This !ill dis'lay in "eneral ormat D% Instead o s.F yo# can s'eci y the col#mns in nested ta*le SQL1 Select no)name) s.hno)s.city rom st#dent s6)ta*le$s6.address% s2 E% Insertin" nested ta*le data to the e3istin" ro! SQL1 Insert into ta*le$select address rom st#dent !here noI6% val#es$addr$DDD)=chennai=%%2 W% U'date in nested ta*les SQL1 U'date ta*le$select address rom st#dent !here noI5% s set s.cityI=*om*ay= !here s.hno I 5552 X% Delete in nested ta*le SQL1 Delete ta*le$select address rom st#dent !here noI8% s !here s.hnoI8882 D,T, &OD+L ,LLNCOLLNT.B+S ,LLNT.B+S D-,NCOLLNT.B+S D-,NT.B+S US+RNCOLLNT.B+S US+RNT.B+S

CL,S<-,CG QU+R.
Used to retrieve the data !hich has *een already committed !ith o#t "oin" or recovery. Clash*acks are o t!o ty'es Time *ase lash*ack SCN *ased lash*ack $SCN stands or System Chan"e N#m*er%

Copy rights are reserved.

52
+34 6% Usin" time *ased lash*ack a% SQL1 Select F rom st#dent2 (( This !ill dis'lay all the ro!s *% SQL1 Delete st#dent2 c% SQL1 Commit2 (( this !ill commit the !ork. d% SQL1 Select F rom st#dent2 (( <ere it !ill dis'lay nothin" e% Then e3ec#te the ollo!in" 'roced#res SQL1 +3ec d*msN lash*ack.ena*leNatNtime$sysdate(5A6447% % SQL1 Select F rom st#dent2 (( <ere it !ill dis'lay the lost data (( The lost data !ill come *#t the c#rrent system time !as #sed "% SQL1 +3ec d*msN lash*ack.disa*le (( <ere !e have to disa*le the lash*ack to ena*le it a"ain 5% Usin" SCN *ased lash*ack a% Declare a varia*le to store SCN SQL1 ;aria*le s n#m*er *% :et the SCN SQL1 +3ec 4s 4I e3ec d*msN lash*ack."etNsystemNchan"eNn#m*er c% To see the SCN SQL1 Brint s d% Then e3ec#te the ollo!in" 'roced#res SQL1 +3ec d*msN lash*ack.ena*leNatNsystemNchan"eNn#m*er$4s% SQL1 +3ec d*msN lash*ack.disa*le

+/T+RN,L T,-L+S
.o# can #ser e3ternal ta*le eat#re to access e3ternal iles as i they are ta*les inside the data*ase. 9hen yo# create an e3ternal ta*le) yo# de ine its str#ct#re and location !ith in oracle. 9hen yo# V#ery the ta*le) oracle reads the e3ternal ta*le and ret#rns the res#lts K#st as i the data had *een stored !ith in the data*ase. ,CC+SSIN: +/T+RN,L T,-L+ D,T, To access e3ternal iles rom !ithin oracle) yo# m#st irst #se the create directory command to de ine a directory o*Kect 'ointin" to the e3ternal ile location Users !ho !ill access the e3ternal iles m#st have the read and !rite 'rivile"e on the directory. +34
CR+,TIN: DIR+CTOR. ,ND OS L+;+L CIL+ SQL1 SQL1 SQL1 SQL1 SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

SVl'l#s systemAmana"er Create directory sakethNdir as LA;isd*Avisd*AT.5.7Ae3ternal=2 :rant all on directory sakethNdir to saketh2 Conn sakethAsaketh S'ool de't.lst Select de'tno YY L)= YY dname YY L)= YY loc rom de't2 S'ool o

CR+,TIN: +/T+RN,L T,-L+

Copy rights are reserved.

53
SQL1

Create ta*le de'tNe3t $de'tno n#m*er$5%) Dname varchar$64%) Loc varchar$68%% Or"aniUation e3ternal $ ty'e oracleNloader De a#lt directory sakethNdir ,ccess 'arameters $ records delimited *y ne!line Cields terminated *y Q)R $ de'tno n#m*er$5%) Dname varchar$64%) Loc varchar$68%%% Location $LA;isd*Avisd*AT.5.7Ade't.lst=%%2

S+L+CTIN: D,T, CRO& +/T+RN,L T,-L+

select F rom de'tNe3t2 This !ill read rom de't.lst !hich is a o'eratin" system level ile.
SQL1 LI&IT,TIONS ON +/T+RN,L T,-L+S

a% .o# can not 'er orm insert) #'date) and delete o'erations a% Inde3in" not 'ossi*le *% Constraints not 'ossi*le
-+N+CITS OC +/T+RN,L T,-L+S

a% Q#eries o e3ternal ta*les com'lete very V#ickly even tho#"h a #ll ta*le scan id reV#ired !ith each access *% .o# can Koin e3ternal ta*les to each other or to standard ta*les

R+C D+R+C ;,LU+

R+C The re #nction allo!s re erencin" o e3istin" ro! o*Kects. +ach o the ro! o*Kects has an o*Kect id val#e assi"ned to it. The o*Kect id assi"ned can *e seen *y #sin" re #nction.

D+R+C The dere #nction 'er orms o''osite action. It takes a re erence val#e o o*Kect id and ret#rns the val#e o the ro! o*Kects.

;,LU+ +ven tho#"h the 'rimary ta*le is o*Kect ta*le) still it dis'lays the ro!s in "eneral ormat. To dis'lay the entire str#ct#re o the o*Kect) this !ill *e #sed.

+34 6% create vendotNadt ty'e SQL1 Create ty'e vendorNadt as o*Kect $vendorNcode n#m*er$5%) vendorNname varchar$5%) vendorNaddress varchar$67%%2A 5% create o*Kect ta*les vendors and vendors6 SQL1 Create ta*le vendors o vendorNadt2 SQL1 Create ta*le vendors6 o vendorNadt2 8% insert the data into o*Kect ta*les

Copy rights are reserved.

insert into vendors val#es$6) La=) Lhyd=%2 SQL1 insert into vendors val#es$5) L*=) L*an"=%2 SQL1 insert into vendors6 val#es$8) Lc=) Ldelhi=%2 SQL1 insert into vendors6 val#es$4) Ld=) Lchennai=%2 4% create another ta*le orders !hich holds the vendorNadt ty'e also. SQL1 Create ta*le orders $orderNno n#m*er$5%) vendorNin o re vendorNadt%2 Or SQL1 Create ta*le orders $orderNno n#m*er$5%) vendorNin o re vendorNadt !ith ro!id%2
SQL1

54

D% insert the data into orders ta*le The vendorNin o col#mn in the ollo!in" synta3es !ill store o*Kect id o any ta*le !hich is re erenced *y vendorNadt o*Kect $ *oth vendors and vendors6%.
SQL1 insert into orders val#es$66)$select re $v% rom vendors v !here vendorNcode I 6%%2 SQL1 insert into orders val#es$65)$select re $v% rom vendors v !here vendorNcode I 5%%2 SQL1 insert into orders val#es$68)$select re $v6% rom vendors6 v6 !here vendorNcode I 6%%2 SQL1 insert into orders val#es$64)$select re $v6% rom vendors6 v6 !here vendorNcode I 6%%2 E% To see the o*Kect ids o vendor ta*le SQL1 Select re $;% rom vendors v2 W% I yo# see the vendorNin o o orders it !ill sho! only the o*Kect ids not the val#es) to see the val#es SQL1 Select dere $o.vendorNin o% rom orders o2 X% +ven tho#"h the vendors ta*le is o*Kect ta*le it !ill not sho! the adt alon" !ith data) to see the data alon" !ith the adt SQL1Select F rom vendors2 This !ill "ive the data !itho#t adt. SQL1Select val#e$v% rom vendors v2 This !ill "ive the col#mns data alon" !ih the ty'e.

R+C CONSTR,INTS Re can also acts as constraint. +ven tho#"h vendors6 also holdin" vendorNadt) the orders ta*le !ill store the o*Kect ids o vendors only *eca#se it is constrained to that ta*le only. The vendorNin o col#mn in the ollo!in" synta3es !ill store o*Kect ids o vendors only. Create ta*le orders $orderNno n#m*er$5%) vendorNin o re vendorNadt sco'e is vendors%2 Or SQL1 Create ta*le orders $orderNno n#m*er$5%) vendorNin o re vendorNadt constraint k re erences vendors%2
SQL1

O-@+CT ;I+9S 9IT< R+C+R+NC+S

Copy rights are reserved.

To im'lement the o*Kects and the re constraints to the e3istin" ta*les) !hat !e can do\ Sim'ly dro' the *oth ta*les and recreate !ith o*Kects and re constrains.

55

-#t yo# can achieve this !ith o#t dro''in" the ta*les and !itho#t losin" the data *y creatin" o*Kect vie!s !ith re erences. +34 a% Create the ollo!in" ta*les SQL1 Create ta*le st#dent6$no n#m*er$5% 'rimary key)name varchar$5%)marks n#m*er$8%%2 SQL1 Create ta*le st#dent5$no n#m*er$5% 'rimary key)hno n#m*er$8%)city varchar$67%)id n#m*er$5%) orei"n Gey$id% re erences st#dent6$no%%2 *% Insert the records into *oth ta*les SQL1 insert into st#dent6$6)=a=)677%2 SQL1 insert into st#dent6$5)=*=)577%2 SQL1 insert into st#dent5$66)666)=hyd=)6%2 SQL1 insert into st#dent5$65)555)=*an"=)5%2 SQL1 insert into st#dent5$68)888)=*om*ay=)6%2 c% Create the ty'e SQL1 create or re'lace ty'e st#d as o*Kect$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$5%)marks n#m*er$8%%2A d% :eneratin" OIDs SQL1 Create or re'lace vie! st#dent6Nov o st#d !ith o*Kect identi ier$or id% $no% as Select F rom St#dent62 e% :eneratin" re erences SQL1 Create or re'lace vie! st#dent5Nov as select no)hno)city)makeNre $st#dent6Nov)id% id rom St#dent52 d% Q#ery the ollo!in" SQL1 select F rom st#dent6Nov2 SQL1 select re $s% rom st#dent6Nov s2 SQL1 select val#es$s% rom st#dent6Nov2 SQ1 select F rom st#dent5Nov2 SQL1 select dere $s.id% rom st#dent5Nov s2

B,RTITIONS
, sin"le lo"ical ta*le can *e s'lit into a n#m*er o 'hysically se'arate 'ieces *ased on ran"es o key val#es. +ach o the 'arts o the ta*le is called a 'artition. , non('artitioned ta*le can not *e 'artitioned later. T.B+S Ran"e 'artitions List 'artitions <ash 'artitions S#* 'artitions

,D;,NT,:+S Red#cin" do!ntime or sched#led maintenance) !hich allo!s maintenance o'erations to *e carried o#t on selected 'artitions !hile other 'artitions are availa*le to #sers.

Copy rights are reserved.

56
Red#cin" do!ntime d#e to data ail#re) ail#re o a 'artic#lar 'artition !ill no !ay a ect other 'artitions. Bartition inde'endence allo!s or conc#rrent #se o the vario#s 'artitions or vario#s '#r'oses.

,D;,NT,:+S OC B,RTITIONS -. STORIN: T<+& IN DICC+R+NT T,-L+SB,C+S Red#ces the 'ossi*ility o data corr#'tion in m#lti'le 'artitions. -ack #' and recovery o each 'artition can *e done inde'endently.

DIS,D;,NT,:+S Bartitioned ta*les cannot contain any col#mns !ith lon" or lon" ra! dataty'es) LO- ty'es or o*Kect ty'es.

R,N:+ B,RTITIONS a% Creatin" ran"e 'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$5%% 'artition *y ran"e$no% $'artition '6 val#es less than$67%) 'artition '5 val#es less than$57%) 'artition '8 val#es less than$87%)'artition '4 val#es less than$ma3val#e%%2 FF i yo# are #sin" ma3val#e or the last 'artition) yo# can not add a 'artition. *% Insertin" records into ran"e 'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$6)=a=%2 (( this !ill "o to '6 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$66)=*=%2 (( this !ill "o to '5 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$56)=c=%2 (( this !ill "o to '8 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$86)=d=%2 (( this !ill "o to '4 c% Retrievin" records rom ran"e 'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Select F rom st#dent2 SQL1 Select F rom st#dent 'artition$'6%2 d% Bossi*le o'erations !ith ran"e 'artitions ,dd Dro' Tr#ncate Rename S'lit &ove +3chan"e e% ,ddin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent add 'artition 'D val#es less than$47%2 % Dro''in" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent dro' 'artition '42 "% Renamin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent rename 'artition '8 to 'E2 h% Tr#ncate a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent tr#ncate 'artition 'E2 i% S'littin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent s'lit 'artition '5 at$6D% into $'artition '56)'artition '55%2 K% +3chan"in" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent e3chan"e 'artition '6 !ith ta*le st#dent52 k% &ovin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent move 'artition '56 ta*les'ace sakethNts2 LIST B,RTITIONS

Copy rights are reserved.

a% Creatin" list 'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$5%% 'artition *y list$no% $'artition '6 val#es$6)5)8)4)D%) 'artition '5 val#es$E)W)X)T)67%)'artition '8 val#es$66)65)68)64)6D%) 'artition '4 val#es$6E)6W)6X)6T)57%%2 *% Insertin" records into list 'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$6)=a=%2 (( this !ill "o to '6 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$E)=*=%2 (( this !ill "o to '5 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$66)=c=%2 (( this !ill "o to '8 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$6E)=d=%2 (( this !ill "o to '4 c% Retrievin" records rom list 'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Select F rom st#dent2 SQL1 Select F rom st#dent 'artition$'6%2 d% Bossi*le o'erations !ith list 'artitions ,dd Dro' Tr#ncate Rename &ove +3chan"e e% ,ddin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent add 'artition 'D val#es$56)55)58)54)5D%2 % Dro''in" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent dro' 'artition '42 "% Renamin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent rename 'artition '8 to 'E2 h% Tr#ncate a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent tr#ncate 'artition 'E2 i% +3chan"in" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent e3chan"e 'artition '6 !ith ta*le st#dent52 K% &ovin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent move 'artition '5 ta*les'ace sakethNts2 <,S< B,RTITIONS a% Creatin" hash 'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$5%% 'artition *y hash$no% 'artitions D2 <ere oracle a#tomatically "ives 'artition names like S.SNB6 S.SNB5 S.SNB8 S.SNB4 S.SNBD *% Insertin" records into hash 'artitioned ta*le it !ill insert the records *ased on hash #nction calc#lated *y takin" the 'artition key SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$6)=a=%2 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$E)=*=%2 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$66)=c=%2 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$6E)=d=%2 c% Retrievin" records rom hash 'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Select F rom st#dent2 SQL1 Select F rom st#dent 'artition$sysN'6%2 d% Bossi*le o'erations !ith hash 'artitions ,dd Tr#ncate Rename

57

Copy rights are reserved.

58
&ove +3chan"e e% ,ddin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent add 'artition 'E 2 % Renamin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent rename 'artition 'E to 'W2 "% Tr#ncate a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent tr#ncate 'artition 'W2 h% +3chan"in" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent e3chan"e 'artition sysN'6 !ith ta*le st#dent52 i% &ovin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent move 'artition sysN'5 ta*les'ace sakethNts2 SU-(B,RTITIONS 9IT< R,N:+ ,ND <,S< S#*'artitions cla#se is #sed *y hash only. 9e can not create s#*'artitions !ith list and hash 'artitions. a% Creatin" s#*'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$5%)marks n#m*er$8%% Bartition *y ran"e$no% s#*'artition *y hash$name% s#*'artitions 8 $Bartition '6 val#es less than$67%)'artition '5 val#es less than$57%%2 This !ill create t!o 'artitions '6 and '5 !ith three s#*'artitions or each 'artition B6 ] S.SNSU-B6 S.SNSU-B5 S.SNSU-B8 B5 ] S.SNSU-B4 S.SNSU-BD S.SNSU-BE FF i yo# are #sin" ma3val#e or the last 'artition) yo# can not add a 'artition. *% Insertin" records into s#*'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$6)=a=%2 (( this !ill "o to '6 SQL1 Insert into st#dent val#es$66)=*=%2 (( this !ill "o to '5 c% Retrievin" records rom s#*'artitioned ta*le SQL1 Select F rom st#dent2 SQL1 Select F rom st#dent 'artition$'6%2 SQL1 Select F rom st#dent s#*'artition$sysNs#*'6%2 d% Bossi*le o'erations !ith s#*'artitions ,dd Dro' Tr#ncate Rename S'lit e% ,ddin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent add 'artition '8 val#es less than$87%2 % Dro''in" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent dro' 'artition '82 "% Renamin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent rename 'artition '5 to '82 h% Tr#ncate a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent tr#ncate 'artition '62 i% S'littin" a 'artition SQL1 ,lter ta*le st#dent s'lit 'artition '8 at$6D% into $'artition '86)'artition '85%2 D,T, &OD+L

Copy rights are reserved.

59
,LLNINDNB,RTITIONS ,LLNINDNSU-B,RTITIONS ,LLNT,-NB,RTITIONS ,LLNT,-NSU-B,RTITIONS D-,NINDNB,RTITIONS D-,NINDNSU-B,RTITIONS D-,NT,-NB,RTITIONS D-,NT,-NSU-B,RTITIONS US+RNINDNB,RTITIONS US+RNINDNSU-B,RTITIONS US+RNT,-NB,RTITIONS US+RNT,-NSU-B,RTITIONS

:ROUB -. ,ND <,;IN:

:ROUB -. Usin" "ro#' *y) !e can create "ro#'s o related in ormation. Col#mns #sed in select m#st *e #sed !ith "ro#' *y) other!ise it !as not a "ro#' *y e3'ression. +34
SQL1

select de'tno) s#m$sal% rom em' "ro#' *y de'tno2 D+BTNO SU&$S,L% (((((((((( (((((((((( 67 XWD7 57 67XWD 87 T477

SQL1

select de'tno)Ko*)s#m$sal% rom em' "ro#' *y de'tno)Ko*2 D+BTNO (((((((((( 67 67 67 57 57 57 87 87 87 @OSU&$S,L% ((((((((( (((((((((( CL+RG 6877 &,N,:+R 54D7 BR+SID+NT D777 ,N,L.ST E777 CL+RG 6T77 &,N,:+R 5TWD CL+RG TD7 &,N,:+R 5XD7 S,L+S&,N DE77

<,;IN: This !ill !ork as !here cla#se !hich can *e #sed only !ith "ro#' *y *eca#se o a*sence o !here cla#se in "ro#' *y. +34 SQL1 select de'tno)Ko*)s#m$sal% tsal rom em' "ro#' *y de'tno)Ko* havin" s#m$sal% 1 87772 D+BTNO @OTS,L (((((((((( ((((((((( (((((((((( 67 BR+SID+NT D777 57 ,N,L.ST E777 87 S,L+S&,N DE77

Copy rights are reserved.

select de'tno)Ko*)s#m$sal% tsal rom em' "ro#' *y de'tno)Ko* havin" s#m$sal% 1 8777 order *y Ko*2
SQL1

60

D+BTNO (((((((((( 57 67 87 ORD+R OC +/+CUTION

@OTS,L ((((((((( (((((((((( ,N,L.ST E777 BR+SID+NT D777 S,L+S&,N DE77

:ro#' the ro!s to"ether *ased on "ro#' *y cla#se. Calc#late the "ro#' #nctions or each "ro#'. Choose and eliminate the "ro#'s *ased on the havin" cla#se. Order the "ro#'s *ased on the s'eci ied col#mn.

ROLLUB :ROUBIN: CU-+

These are the enhancements to the "ro#' *y eat#re. USIN: ROLLUB This !ill "ive the salaries in each de'artment in each Ko* cate"ory alon" !ih the total salary or individ#al de'artments and the total salary o all the de'artments.
SQL1

Select de'tno)Ko*)s#m$sal% rom em' "ro#' *y roll#'$de'tno)Ko*%2 D+BTNO (((((((((( 67 67 67 67 57 57 57 57 87 87 87 87 @OSU&$S,L% ((((((((( (((((((((( CL+RG 6877 &,N,:+R 54D7 BR+SID+NT D777 XWD7 ,N,L.ST E777 CL+RG 6T77 &,N,:+R 5TWD 67XWD CL+RG TD7 &,N,:+R 5XD7 S,L+S&,N DE77 T477 5T75D

USIN: :ROUBIN: In the a*ove V#ery it !ill "ive the total salary o the individ#al de'artments *#t !ith a *lank in the Ko* col#mn and "ives the total salary o all the de'artments !ith *lanks in de'tno and Ko* col#mns. To re'lace these *lanks !ith yo#r desired strin" "ro#'in" !ill *e #sed SQL1 select decode$"ro#'in"$de'tno%)6)?,ll De'ts?)de'tno%)decode$"ro#'in"$Ko*%)6)?,ll Ko*s?)Ko*%)s#m$sal% rom em' "ro#' *y roll#'$de'tno)Ko*%2

Copy rights are reserved.

61
D+COD+$:ROUBIN:$D+BTNO%)6)?,LLD+BTS?)D+B D+COD+$:R SU&$S,L% ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((( 67 CL+RG 6877 67 &,N,:+R 54D7 67 BR+SID+NT D777 67 ,ll Ko*s XWD7 57 ,N,L.ST E777 57 CL+RG 6T77 57 &,N,:+R 5TWD 57 ,ll Ko*s 67XWD 87 CL+RG TD7 87 &,N,:+R 5XD7 87 S,L+S&,N DE77 87 ,ll Ko*s T477 ,ll De'ts ,ll Ko*s 5T75D :ro#'in" !ill ret#rn 6 i the col#mn !hich is s'eci ied in the "ro#'in" #nction has *een #sed in roll#'. :ro#'in" !ill *e #sed in association !ith decode. USIN: CU-+ This !ill "ive the salaries in each de'artment in each Ko* cate"ory) the total salary or individ#al de'artments) the total salary o all the de'artments and the salaries in each Ko* cate"ory. select decode$"ro#'in"$de'tno%)6)=,ll De'ts=)de'tno%)decode$"ro#'in"$Ko*%)6)=,ll @o*s=)Ko*%)s#m$sal% rom em' "ro#' *y c#*e$de'tno)Ko*%2
SQL1

D+COD+$:ROUBIN:$D+BTNO%)6)?,LLD+BTS?)D+B D+COD+$:R ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 67 CL+RG 67 &,N,:+R 67 BR+SID+NT 67 ,ll @o*s 57 ,N,L.ST 57 CL+RG 57 &,N,:+R 57 ,ll @o*s 87 CL+RG 87 &,N,:+R 87 S,L+S&,N 87 ,ll @o*s ,ll De'ts ,N,L.ST ,ll De'ts CL+RG ,ll De'ts &,N,:+R ,ll De'ts BR+SID+NT ,ll De'ts S,L+S&,N ,ll De'ts ,ll @o*s

SU&$S,L% (((((((((((( 6877 54D7 D777 XWD7 E777 6T77 5TWD 67XWD TD7 5XD7 DE77 T477 E777 46D7 X5WD D777 DE77 5T75D

S+T OB+R,TORS
T.B+S Union

Copy rights are reserved.

62
Union all Intersect &in#s

UNION This !ill com*ine the records o m#lti'le ta*les havin" the same str#ct#re. +34 SQL1 select F rom st#dent6 #nion select F rom st#dent52 UNION ,LL This !ill com*ine the records o m#lti'le ta*les havin" the same str#ct#re *#t incl#din" d#'licates. +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent6 #nion all select F rom st#dent52

INT+RS+CT This !ill "ive the common records o m#lti'le ta*les havin" the same str#ct#re. +34
SQL1

select F rom st#dent6 intersect select F rom st#dent52

&INUS This !ill "ive the records o a ta*le !hose records are not in other ta*les havin" the same str#ct#re. +34 SQL1 select F rom st#dent6 min#s select F rom st#dent52

;I+9S
, vie! is a data*ase o*Kect that is a lo"ical re'resentation o a ta*le. It is delivered rom a ta*le *#t has no stora"e o its o!n and o ten may *e #sed in the same manner as a ta*le. , vie! takes the o#t'#t o the V#ery and treats it as a ta*le) there ore a vie! can *e tho#"ht o as a stored V#ery or a virt#al ta*le. T.B+S Sim'le vie! Com'le3 vie! rom one ta*le !here as com'le3 vie! can *e

Sim'le vie! can *e created created rom m#lti'le ta*les. 9<. ;I+9S\

Brovides additional level o sec#rity *y restrictin" 'redetermined set o ro!s andAor col#mns o a ta*le. <ide the data com'le3ity. Sim'li y commands or the #ser.

access

to

;I+9S 9IT<OUT D&L Read only vie! ;ie! !ith "ro#' *y ;ie! !ith a""re"ate #nctions

Copy rights are reserved.

63
+34
SQL1 SQL1

;ie! !ith ro!n#m Bartition vie! ;ie! !ith distinct

Create vie! de'tNv as select F rom de't !ith read only2 Create vie! de'tNv as select de'tno) s#m$sal% tNsal rom em' "ro#' *y

de'tno2
SQL1

Create vie! st#d as select ro!n#m no) name) marks rom st#dent2 Create vie! st#dent as select F rom st#dent6 #nion select F rom st#dent52 SQL1 Create vie! st#d as select distinct no)name rom st#dent2 ;I+9S 9IT< D&L
SQL1

;ie! !ith not n#ll col#mn 'ossi*le

((

insert !ith o#t not n#ll col#mn not (( #'date not n#ll col#mn to n#ll is not

'ossi*le

(( delete 'ossi*le ;ie! !ith o#t not n#ll col#mn !hich !as in *ase ta*le (( insert not 'ossi*le (( #'date) delete 'ossi*le ;ie! !ith e3'ression (( insert ) #'date not 'ossi*le (( delete 'ossi*le ;ie! !ith #nctions $e3ce't a""re"ate% (( insert) #'date not 'ossi*le (( delete 'ossi*le ;ie! !as created *#t the #nderlyin" ta*le !as dro''ed then !e !ill "et the messa"e like Q vie! has errors R. ;ie! !as created *#t the *ase ta*le has *een altered *#t still the vie! !as !ith the initial de inition) !e have to re'lace the vie! to a ect the chan"es. Com'le3 vie! $vie! !ith more than one ta*le% (( insert not 'ossi*le (( #'date) delete 'ossi*le $not al!ays% CR+,TIN: ;I+9 9IT<OUT <,;IN: T<+ -,S+ T,-L+ Create orce vie! st#d as select FCrom st#dent2 (( Once the *ase ta*le !as created then the vie! is validated.
SQL1

;I+9 9IT< C<+CG OBTION CONSTR,INT Create vie! st#d as select F rom st#dent !here marks I D77 !ith check o'tion constraint Ck2 ( Insert 'ossi*le !ith marks val#e as D77 ( U'date 'ossi*le e3cl#din" marks col#mn ( Delete 'ossi*le
SQL1

DROBBIN: ;I+9S
SQL1

dro' vie! de'tNv2

S.NON.& ,ND S+QU+NC+

S.NON.& , synonym is a data*ase o*Kect) !hich is #sed as an alias or a ta*le) vie! or seV#ence.

Copy rights are reserved.

T.B+S

64

Brivate B#*lic Brivate synonym is availa*le to the 'artic#lar #ser !ho creates. B#*lic synonym is created *y D-, !hich is availa*le to all the #sers.
,D;,NT,:+S

<ide the name and o!ner o the o*Kect. Brovides location trans'arency or remote o*Kects o data*ase.

a distri*#ted

CR+,T+ ,ND DROB SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

create synonym s6 or em'2 create '#*lic synonym s5 or em'2 dro' synonym s62

S+QU+NC+ , seV#ence is a data*ase o*Kect) !hich can "enerate #niV#e) seV#ential inte"er val#es. It can *e #sed to a#tomatically "enerate 'rimary key or #niV#e key val#es. , seV#ence can *e either in an ascendin" or descendin" order. Synta34 Create seV#ence 0se-_name1 Oincrement *ty nP Ostart !ith nP Oma3val#e nP Ominval#e nP OcycleAnocycleP OcacheAnocacheP2 -y de al#lt the seV#ence starts !ith 6) increments *y 6 !ith minval#e o 6 and !ith nocycle) nocache. Cache o'tion 're(alloocates a set o seV#ence n#m*ers and retains them in memory or aster access. +34 create seV#ence s2 create seV#ence s increment *y 67 start !ith 677 minval#e D ma3val#e 577 cycle cache 572
SQL1 SQL1 USIN: S+QU+NC+ SQL1 SQL1

create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$67%%2 insert into st#dent val#es$s.ne3tval) Lsaketh=%2 Initially c#rrval is not de ined and ne3tval is startin" val#e. , ter that ne3tval and c#rrval are al!ays eV#al.

CR+,TIN: ,LB<,(NU&+RIC S+QU+NC+ SQL1 SQL1

create seV#ence s start !ith 6665842 Insert into st#dent val#es $s.ne3tval YY translate $s.ne3tval)=6584DEWXT7=)=a*cde "hiK=%%2

,LT+RIN: S+QU+NC+

9e can alter the seV#ence to 'er orm the ollo!in". Set or eliminate minval#e or ma3val#e. Chan"e the increment val#e. Chan"e the n#m*er o cached seV#ence n#m*ers.

Copy rights are reserved.

+34
SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

65
alter seV#ence s minval#e D2 alter seV#ence s increment *y 52 alter seV#ence s cache 672

DROBBIN: S+QU+NC+ SQL1

dro' seV#ence s2

@OINS
The '#r'ose o a Koin is to com*ine the data across ta*les. , Koin is act#ally 'er ormed *y the !here cla#se !hich com*ines the s'eci ied ro!s o ta*les. I a Koin involves in more than t!o ta*les then oracle Koins irst t!o ta*les *ased on the Koins condition and then com'ares the res#lt !ith the ne3t ta*le and so on. T.B+S +V#i Koin Non(eV#i Koin Sel Koin Nat#ral Koin Cross Koin O#ter Koin Le t o#ter Ri"ht o#ter C#ll o#ter Inner Koin Usin" cla#se On cla#se

,ss#me that !e have the ollo!in" ta*les. SQL1 select F rom de't2 D+BTNO DN,&+ LOC (((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( 67 mkt hyd 57 in *an" 87 hr *om*ay
SQL1

select F rom em'2 +N,&+ (((((((((( saketh s#dha Ka"an madh# @O&:R D+BTNO (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( analyst 444 67 clerk 888 57 mana"er 666 67 en"ineer 555 47

+&BNO (((((((((( 666 555 888 444 +QUI @OIN

, Koin !hich contains an LI= o'erator in the Koins condition. +34

SQL1 select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc e.de'tnoId.de'tno2

rom em' e)de't d !here LOC

+&BNO

+N,&+

@O-

DN,&+

Copy rights are reserved.

(((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( 666 saketh analyst mkt hyd 888 Ka"an mana"er mkt hyd 555 s#dha clerk in *an" USIN: CL,US+
SQL1

66

select em'no)ename)Ko* )dname)loc rom em' e Koin de't d #sin"$de'tno%2 +&BNO +N,&+ @O- DN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( 666 saketh analyst mkt hyd 888 Ka"an mana"er mkt hyd 555 s#dha clerk in *an"

ON CL,US+ select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc on$e.de'tnoId.de'tno%2

SQL1

rom

em'

Koin

de't

+&BNO +N,&+ @O- DN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( 666 saketh analyst mkt hyd 888 Ka"an mana"er mkt hyd 555 s#dha clerk in *an" NON(+QUI @OIN , Koin !hich contains an o'erator other than LI= in the Koins condition. +34
SQL1 select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc rom em' e)de't d !here e.de'tno 1 d.de'tno2

+&BNO +N,&+ @ODN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( 555 s#dha clerk mkt hyd 444 madh# en"ineer mkt hyd 444 madh# en"ineer in *an" 444 madh# en"ineer hr *om*ay S+LC @OIN @oinin" the ta*le itsel is called sel Koin. +34
SQL1

select e6.em'no)e5.ename)e6.Ko*)e5.de'tno rom em' e6)em' e5 e6.em'noIe5.m"r2 +&BNO (((((((((( 666 555 888 444 +N,&+ @OD+BTNO (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( Ka"an analyst 67 madh# clerk 47 s#dha mana"er 57 saketh en"ineer 67

!here

N,TUR,L @OIN

Nat#ral Koin com'ares all the common col#mns.

Copy rights are reserved.

67
+34
SQL1

select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc rom em' nat#ral Koin de't2 +&BNO +N,&+ @ODN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( 666 saketh analyst mkt hyd 888 Ka"an mana"er mkt hyd 555 s#dha clerk in *an"

CROSS @OIN This !ill "ives the cross 'rod#ct. +34

SQL1

select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc rom em' cross Koin de't2 +&BNO +N,&+ @ODN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( 666 saketh analyst mkt hyd 555 s#dha clerk mkt hyd 888 Ka"an mana"er mkt hyd 444 madh# en"ineer mkt hyd 666 saketh analyst in *an" 555 s#dha clerk in *an" 888 Ka"an mana"er in *an" 444 madh# en"ineer in *an" 666 saketh analyst hr *om*ay 555 s#dha clerk hr *om*ay 888 Ka"an mana"er hr *om*ay 444 madh# en"ineer hr *om*ay

OUT+R @OIN O#ter Koin "ives the non(matchin" records alon" !ith matchin" records.
L+CT OUT+R @OIN

This !ill dis'lay the all matchin" records and the records !hich are in le t hand side ta*le those that are not in ri"ht hand side ta*le. +34 select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc rom em' e le t o#ter Koin de't d on$e.de'tnoId.de'tno%2 Or SQL1 select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc rom em' e)de't d !here e.de'tnoId.de'tno$H%2
SQL1

+&BNO (((((((((( 666 888 555 444

RI:<T OUT+R @OIN

+N,&+ (((((((((( saketh Ka"an s#dha madh#

@ODN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( analyst mkt hyd mana"er mkt hyd clerk in *an" en"ineer

This !ill dis'lay the all matchin" records and the records !hich are in ri"ht hand side ta*le those that are not in le t hand side ta*le.

Copy rights are reserved.

+34
SQL1

68

select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc rom em' e ri"ht o#ter Koin de't d on$e.de'tnoId.de'tno%2 Or SQL1 select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc rom em' e)de't d !here e.de'tno$H% I d.de'tno2 +&BNO (((((((((( 666 888 555
CULL OUT+R @OIN

+N,&+ @ODN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( saketh analyst mkt hyd Ka"an mana"er mkt hyd s#dha clerk in *an" hr *om*ay

This !ill dis'lay the all matchin" records and the non(matchin" records rom *oth ta*les. +34
SQL1

select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc rom em' e #ll o#ter Koin de't d on$e.de'tnoId.de'tno%2 +&BNO +N,&+ @ODN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( 888 Ka"an mana"er mkt hyd 666 saketh analyst mkt hyd 555 s#dha clerk in *an" 444 madh# en"ineer hr *om*ay

INN+R @OIN This !ill dis'lay all the records that have matched. +34
SQL1 select em'no)ename)Ko*)dname)loc #sin"$de'tno%2

rom em' inner Koin de't

+&BNO (((((((((( 666 888 555

+N,&+ @ODN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( saketh analyst mkt hyd Ka"an mana"er mkt hyd s#dha clerk in *an"

SU-QU+RI+S ,ND +/ISTS

SU-QU+RI+S Nestin" o V#eries) one !ithin the other is termed as a s#*V#ery. , statement containin" a s#*V#ery is called a 'arent V#ery. S#*V#eries are #sed to retrieve data rom ta*les that de'end on the val#es in the ta*le itsel .
T.B+S

Sin"le ro! s#*V#eries &#lti ro! s#*V#eries &#lti'le s#*V#eries

Copy rights are reserved.

69
Correlated s#*V#eries
SIN:L+ RO9 SU-QU+RI+S

In sin"le ro! s#*V#ery) it !ill ret#rn one val#e. +34

SQL1

select F rom em' !here sal 1 $select sal rom em' !here em'no I +&BNO +N,&+ @O&:R <IR+D,T+ S,L CO&&

WDEE%2 D+BTNO ((((((((((

(((((((((( (((((((((( ((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((((( ((((((( (((((((((( WWXX WX8T WT75 SCOTT ,N,L.ST WDEE 6T(,BR(XW 8777 GIN: BR+SID+NT 6W(NO;(X6 D777 CORD ,N,L.ST WDEE 78(D+C(X6 8777 57 67 57

&ULTI RO9 SU-QU+RI+S

In m#lti ro! s#*V#ery) it !ill ret#rn more than one val#e. In s#ch cases !e sho#ld incl#de o'erators like any) all) in or not in *et!een the com'arision o'erator and the s#*V#ery.

+34

SQL1 select F rom em' !here sal 1 any $select sal rom em' !here sal *et!een 5D77 and 4777%2

((((((((((

+&BNO +N,&+ @O&:R <IR+D,T+ S,L CO&& D+BTNO (((((((((( (((((((((( ((((((((( (((((((((( ((((((((((( (((((((( (((((((((( WDEE WWXX WX8T WT75 @ON+S &,N,:+R WX8T 75(,BR(X6 5TWD SCOTT ,N,L.ST WDEE 6T(,BR(XW 8777 GIN: BR+SID+NT 6W(NO;(X6 D777 CORD ,N,L.ST WDEE 78(D+C(X6 8777 57 57 67 57

SQL1 select F rom em' !here sal 1 all $select sal rom em' !here sal *et!een 5D77 and 4777%2

+&BNO D+BTNO ((((((((((

+N,&+

@O-

&:R

<IR+D,T+

S,L

CO&&

(((((((((( (((((((((( ((((((((( (((((((((( ((((((((((((( (((((( (((((((((( WX8T GIN: BR+SID+NT 6W(NO;(X6 D777 67

&ULTIBL+ SU-QU+RI+S

There is no limit on the n#m*er o s#*V#eries incl#ded in a !here cla#se. It allo!s nestin" o a V#ery !ithin a s#*V#ery. +34
SQL1

select F rom em' !here sal I $select ma3$sal% rom em' !here sal 0 ma3$sal% rom em'%%2 +&BNO +N,&+ @O&:R <IR+D,T+ S,L CO&&

$select

D+BTNO

Copy rights are reserved.

(((((((((( (((((((((( ((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((((( ((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( WWXX WT75 SCOTT ,N,L.ST WDEE CORD ,N,L.ST WDEE 6T(,BR(XW 8777 78(D+C(X6 8777 57 57

70

CORR+L,T+D SU-QU+RI+S

, s#*V#ery is eval#ated once or the entire 'arent statement !here as a correlated s#*V#ery is eval#ated once or every ro! 'rocessed *y the 'arent statement. +34 SQL1 select distinct de'tno rom em' e !here D 0I $select co#nt$ename% rom em' !here e.de'tno I de'tno%2 D+BTNO (((((((((( 57 87 +/ISTS +3ists #nction is a test or e3istence. This is a lo"ical test or the ret#rn o ro!s rom a V#ery. +34 S#''ose !e !ant to dis'lay the de'artment n#m*ers !hich has more than 4 em'loyees. SQL1 select de'tno)co#nt$F% rom em' "ro#' *y de'tno havin" co#nt$F% 1 42 D+BTNO ((((((((( 57 87 COUNT$F% (((((((((( D E

Crom the a*ove V#ery can yo# !ant to dis'lay the names o em'loyees\ select de'tno)ename) co#nt$F% rom em' "ro#' *y de'tno)ename havin" co#nt$F% 1 42
SQL1

no ro!s selected The a*ove V#ery ret#rns nothin" *eca#se com*ination o de'tno and ename never ret#rn more than one co#nt. The sol#tion is to #se e3ists !hich ollo!s. select de'tno)ename rom em' e6 !here e3ists $select F rom em' e5 !here e6.de'tnoIe5.de'tno "ro#' *y e5.de'tno havin" co#nt$e5.ename% 1 4% order *y de'tno)ename2
SQL1

D+BTNO (((((((((( 57 57 57 57 57 87 87

+N,&+ (((((((((( ,D,&S CORD @ON+S SCOTT S&IT< ,LL+N -L,G+

Copy rights are reserved.

87 87 87 87 NOT +/ISTS

@,&+S &,RTIN TURN+R 9,RD

71

select de'tno)ename rom em' e6 !here not e3ists $select F rom em' e5 !here e6.de'tnoIe5.de'tno "ro#' *y e5.de'tno havin" co#nt$e5.ename% 1 4% order *y de'tno)ename2
SQL1

D+BTNO +N,&+ ((((((((( (((((((((( 67 CL,RG 67 GIN: 67 &ILL+R

9,LGUB TR++S ,ND INLIN+ ;I+9

9,LGUB TR++S Usin" hierarchical V#eries) yo# can retrieve data *ased on a nat#ral hierarchical relationshi' *et!een ro!s in a ta*le. <o!ever) !here a hierarchical relationshi' e3ists *et!een the ro!s o a ta*le) a 'rocess called tree !alkin" ena*les the hierarchy to *e constr#cted. +34
SQL1 select ename YY ?II1? YY 'rior ename) level rom em' start !ith ename I ?GIN:? connect *y 'rior em'noIm"r2

+N,&+YY?II1?YYBRIOR+N,& (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( GIN:II1 @ON+SII1GIN: SCOTTII1@ON+S ,D,&SII1SCOTT CORDII1@ON+S S&IT<II1CORD -L,G+II1GIN: ,LL+NII1-L,G+ 9,RDII1-L,G+ &,RTINII1-L,G+ TURN+RII1-L,G+ @,&+SII1-L,G+ CL,RGII1GIN: &ILL+RII1CL,RG

L+;+L (((((((( 6 5 8 4 8 4 5 8 8 8 8 8 5 8

In the a*ove Start !ith cla#se s'eci ies the root ro! o the ta*le. Level 'se#do col#mn "ives the 6 or root ) 5 or child and so on. Connect *y 'rior cla#se s'eci ies the col#mns !hich has 'arent(child relationshi'. INLIN+ ;I+9 OR TOB(N ,N,L.SIS In the select statement instead o ta*le name) re'lacin" the select statement is kno!n as inline vie!.

Copy rights are reserved.

72
+34
SQL1

Select ename) sal) ro!n#m rank rom $select F rom em' order *y sal%2 +N,&+ S,L R,NG (((((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( S&IT< X77 6 @,&+S TD7 5 ,D,&S 6677 8 9,RD 65D7 4 &,RTIN 65D7 D &ILL+R 6877 E TURN+R 6D77 W ,LL+N 6E77 X CL,RG 54D7 T -L,G+ 5XD7 67 @ON+S 5TWD 66 SCOTT 8777 65 CORD 8777 68 GIN: D777 64

LOCGS
Locks are the mechanisms #sed to 'revent destr#ctive interaction *et!een #sers accessin" same reso#rce sim#ltaneo#sly. Locks 'rovides hi"h de"ree o data conc#rrency. T.B+S Ro! level locks Ta*le level locks

RO9 L+;+L LOCGS In the ro! level lock a ro! is locked e3cl#sively so that other cannot modi y the ro! #ntil the transaction holdin" the lock is committed or rolled *ack. This can *e done *y #sin" select.. or #'date cla#se. +34
SQL1

select F rom em' !here sal 1 8777 or #'date o comm.2

T,-L+ L+;+L LOCGS , ta*le level lock !ill 'rotect ta*le data there*y "#aranteein" data inte"rity !hen data is *ein" accessed conc#rrently *y m#lti'le #sers. , ta*le lock can *e held in several modes.
S<,R+ LOCG

Share lock Share #'date lock +3cl#sive lock

, share lock locks the ta*le allo!in" other #sers to only V#ery *#t not insert) #'date or delete ro!s in a ta*le. &#lti'le #sers can 'lace share locks on the same reso#rce at the same time. +34
SQL1

lock ta*le em' in share mode2

Copy rights are reserved.

S<,R+ UBD,T+ LOCG

73

It locks ro!s that are to *e #'dated in a ta*le. It 'ermits other #sers to conc#rrently V#ery) insert ) #'date or even lock other ro!s in the same ta*le. It 'revents the other #sers rom #'datin" the ro! that has *een locked. +34
SQL1

lock ta*le em' in share #'date mode2

+/CLUSI;+ LOCG

+3cl#sive lock is the most restrictive o ta*les locks. 9hen iss#ed *y any #ser) it allo!s the other #ser to only V#ery. It is similar to share lock *#t only one #ser can 'lace e3cl#sive lock on a ta*le at a time. +34
SQL1

lock ta*le em' in share e3cl#sive mode2

NO9,IT I one #ser locked the ta*le !itho#t no!ait then another #ser tryin" to lock the same ta*le then he has to !ait #ntil the #ser !ho has initially locked the ta*le iss#es a commit or roll*ack statement. This delay co#ld *e avoided *y a''endin" a no!ait cla#se in the lock ta*le command. +34
SQL1

lock ta*le em' in e3cl#sive mode no!ait.

D+,DLOCG , deadlock occ#rs !hen t!o #sers have a lock each on se'arate o*Kect) and they !ant to acV#ire a lock on the each other=s o*Kect. 9hen this ha''ens) the irst #ser has to !ait or the second #ser to release the lock) *#t the second #ser !ill not release it #ntil the lock on the irst #ser=s o*Kect is reed. In s#ch a case) oracle detects the deadlock a#tomatically and solves the 'ro*lem *y a*ortin" one o the t!o transactions.

IND+/+S
Inde3 is ty'ically a listin" o key!ords accom'anied *y the location o in ormation on a s#*Kect. 9e can create inde3es e3'licitly to s'eed #' SQL statement e3ec#tion on a ta*le. The inde3 'oints directly to the location o the ro!s containin" the val#e. 9<. IND+/+S\ Inde3es are most #se #l on lar"er ta*les) on col#mns that are likely to a''ear in !here cla#ses as sim'le eV#ality. T.B+S UniV#e inde3 Non(#niV#e inde3 -tree inde3 -itma' inde3 Com'osite inde3 Reverse key inde3 C#nction(*ased inde3 Descendin" inde3 Domain inde3 O*Kect inde3 Cl#ster inde3 Te3t inde3 Inde3 or"aniUed ta*le

Copy rights are reserved.

74
Bartition inde3 Local inde3 Local 're i3ed Local non('re i3ed :lo*al inde3 :lo*al 're i3ed :lo*al non('re i3ed

UNIQU+ IND+/ UniV#e inde3es "#arantee that no t!o ro!s o a ta*le have d#'licate val#es in the col#mns that de ine the inde3. UniV#e inde3 is a#tomatically created !hen 'rimary key or #niV#e constraint is created. +34
SQL1

create #niV#e inde3 st#dNind on st#dent$sno%2

NON(UNIQU+ IND+/ Non(UniV#e inde3es do not im'ose the a*ove restriction on the col#mn val#es. +34
SQL1

create inde3 st#dNind on st#dent$sno%2

-TR++ IND+/ or ,SC+NDIN: IND+/ The de a#lt ty'e o inde3 #sed in an oracle data*ase is the *tree inde3. , *tree inde3 is desi"ned to 'rovide *oth ra'id access to individ#al ro!s and V#ick access to "ro#'s o ro!s !ithin a ran"e. The *tree inde3 does this *y 'er ormin" a s#ccession o val#e com'arisons. +ach com'arison eliminates many o the ro!s. +34
SQL1

create inde3 st#dNind on st#dent$sno%2

-IT&,B IND+/ This can *e #sed or lo! cardinality col#mns4 that is col#mns in !hich the n#m*er o distinct val#es is snall !hen com'ared to the n#m*er o the ro!s in the ta*le. +34
SQL1

create *itma' inde3 st#dNind on st#dent$se3%2

CO&BOSIT+ IND+/ , com'osite inde3 also called a concatenated inde3 is an inde3 created on m#lti'le col#mns o a ta*le. Col#mns in a com'osite inde3 can a''ear in any order and need not *e adKacent col#mns o the ta*le. +34
SQL1

create *itma' inde3 st#dNind on st#dent$sno) sname%2

R+;+RS+ G+. IND+/ , reverse key inde3 !hen com'ared to standard inde3) reverses each *yte o the col#mn *ein" inde3ed !hile kee'in" the col#mn order. 9hen the col#mn is inde3ed in reverse mode then the col#mn val#es !ill *e stored in an inde3 in di erent *locks as the startin" val#e di ers. S#ch an arran"ement can hel'

Copy rights are reserved.

avoid 'er ormance de"radations in inde3es !here modi ications to the inde3 are concentrated on a small set o *locks. +34
SQL1

75

create inde3 st#dNind on st#dent$sno) reverse%2

9e can re*#ild a reverse key inde3 into normal inde3 #sin" the noreverse key!ord. +34
SQL1

alter inde3 st#dNind re*#ild noreverse2

CUNCTION -,S+D IND+/ This !ill #se res#lt o the #nction as key instead o #sin" col#mn as the val#e or the key. +34
SQL1

create inde3 st#dNind on st#dent$#''er$sname%%2

D+SC+NDIN: IND+/ The order #sed *y -(tree inde3es has *een ascendin" order. .o# can cate"oriUe data in -(tree inde3 in descendin" order as !ell. This eat#re can *e #se #l in a''lications !here sortin" o'erations are reV#ired. +34
SQL1

create inde3 st#dNind on st#dent$sno desc%2

T+/T IND+/ Q#eryin" te3t is di erent rom V#eryin" data *eca#se !ords have shades o meanin") relationshi's to other !ords) and o''osites. .o# may !ant to search or !ords that are near each other) or !ords that are related to thers. These V#eries !o#ld *e e3tremely di ic#lt i all yo# had availa*le !as the standard relational o'erators. -y e3tendin" SQL to incl#de te3t inde3es) oracle te3t 'ermits yo# to ask very com'le3 V#estions a*o#t the te3t. To #se oracle te3t) yo# need to create a te&t inde& on the col#mn in !hich the te3t is stored. Te3t inde3 is a collection o ta*les and inde3es that store in ormation a*o#t the te3t stored in the col#mn.
T.B+S

There are several di erent ty'es o inde3es availa*le in oracle Ti. The irst) CONT+/T is s#''orted in oracle Xi as !ell as oracle Ti. ,s o oracle Ti) yo# can #se the CT/C,T te3t inde3 o #rther enhance yo#r te3t inde3 mana"ement and V#ery ca'a*ilities.
CONT+/T CT/C,T CT/RUL+

The CT/C,T inde3 ty'e s#''orts the transactional synchroniUation o data *et!een the *ase ta*le and its te3t inde3. 9ith CONT+/T inde3es) yo# need to man#ally tell oracle to #'date the val#es in the te3t inde3 a ter data chan"es in *ase ta*le. CT/C,T inde3 ty'es do not "enerate score val#es d#rin" the te3t V#eries.
<O9 TO CR+,T+ T+/T IND+/\

Copy rights are reserved.

.o# can create a te3t inde3 via a s'ecial version o the create inde3 comman. Cor conte3t inde3) s'eci y the ct3sys.conte3t inde3 ty'e and or ct3cat inde3) s'eci y the ct3sys.ct3cat inde3 ty'e. +34 S#''ose yo# have a ta*le called -OOGS !ith the ollo!in" col#mns Title) ,#thor) In o.
SQL1 SQL1

76

create inde3 *ookNinde3 on *ooks$in o% inde3ty'e is ct3sys.conte3t2 create inde3 *ookNinde3 on *ooks$in o% inde3ty'e is ct3sys.ct3cat2

T+/T QU+RI+S

Once a te3t inde3 is created on the in o col#mn o ca'a*ilities increase dynamically.

CONT,INS > C,TS+,RC< CONT,INS

-OOGS

ta*le) te3t(searchin"

#nction takes t!o 'arameters ] the col#mn name and the search

strin". Synta34 Contains$inde&ed_column, searc'_str%2 I yo# create a CT/C,T inde3) #se the C,TS+,RC< #nction in 'lace o CONT,INS. C,TS+,RC< takes three 'arameters ] the col#mn name) the search strin" and the inde3 set. Synta34 Contains$inde&ed_column, searc'_str, inde&_set%2
<O9 , T+/T Q+UR. 9ORGS\

9hen a #nction s#ch as CONT,INS or C,TS+,RC< is #sed in V#ery) the te3t 'ortion o the V#ery is 'rocessed *y oracle te3t. The remainder o the V#ery is 'rocessed K#st like a re"#lar V#ery !ithin the data*ase. The res#lt o the te3t V#ery 'rocessin" and the re"#lar V#ery 'rocessin" are mer"ed to ret#rn a sin"le set o records to the #ser.
S+,RC<IN: COR ,N +/,CT &,TC< OC , 9ORD

The ollo!in" V#eries !ill search "reater than Uero.

SQL1 SQL1

or a !ord called L'r'erty= !hose score is

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty=% 1 72 select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L'ro'erty=) n#ll% 1 72

S#''ose i yo# !ant to kno! the score o the L'ro'erty= in each *ook) i score val#es or individ#al searches ran"e rom 7 to 67 or each occ#rrence o the strin" !ithin the te3t then #se the score #nction.
SQL1

select title) score$67% rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty=) 67% 1 72

S+,RC<IN: COR ,N +/,CT &,TC< OC &ULTIBL+ 9ORDS

The ollo!in" V#eries !ill search or t!o !ords.

SQL1 SQL1

72

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty ,ND harvests=% 1 72 select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L'ro'erty ,ND harvests=) n#ll% 1

Copy rights are reserved.

Instead o #sin" ,ND yo# co#ld hae #sed an am'ersand$>%. -e ore #sin" this method) set de ine o so the > character !ill not *e seen as 'art o a varia*le name. set de ine o select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty > harvests=% 1 72 SQL1 select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L'ro'erty harvests=) n#ll% 1 72
SQL1 SQL1

77

The ollo!in" V#eries !ill search or more than t!o !ords. select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty ,ND harvests ,ND !orkers=% 1 72 SQL1 select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L'ro'erty harvests !orkers=) n#ll% 1 72
SQL1

The ollo!in" V#eries !ill search or either o the t!o !ords.

SQL1

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty

OR

harvests=% 1 72

Instead o OR yo# can #se a vertical line $Y%. SQL1 select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty Y harvests=% 1 72 SQL1 select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L'ro'erty Y harvests=) n#ll% 1 72 In the ollo!in" V#eries the ,CCU&$acc#m#late% o'erator adds to"ether the scores o the individ#al searches and com'ares the acc#m#lated score to the threshold val#e.
SQL1 SQL1

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty ,CCU& harvests=% 1 72 select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L'ro'erty ,CCU& harvests=) n#ll% yo# can #se a comma$)%.

1 72 Instead o
SQL1 SQL1 OR

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty ) harvests=% 1 72 select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L'ro'erty ) harvests=) n#ll% 1 72

In the ollo!in" V#eries the &INUS o'erator s#*tracts the score o the second term=s search rom the score o the irst term=s search.
SQL1 SQL1

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty &INUS harvests=% 1 72 select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L'ro'erty NOT harvests=) n#ll% 1 yo# can #se ] and instead o yo# can #se ^.

72 Instead o
SQL1 SQL1 &INUS NOT

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L'ro'erty ( harvests=% 1 72 select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L'ro'erty ^ harvests=) n#ll% 1 72

S+,RC<IN: COR ,N +/,CT &,TC< OC , B<R,S+

The ollo!in" V#eries !ill search or the 'hrase. I the search 'hrase incl#des a reserved !ord !ithin oracle te3t) the yo# m#st #se c#rly *races $_`% to enclose te3t.
SQL1

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) Ltransactions _and` inances=% 1

72

select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) Ltransactions _and` inances=) n#ll% 1 72

SQL1

.o# can enclose the entire 'hrase !ithin c#rly *races) in !hich case any reserved !ords !ithin the 'hrase !ill *e treated as 'art o the search criteria.

Copy rights are reserved.

SQL1

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L_transactions and inances`=% 1

78

72

select F rom *ooks !here catsearch$in o) L_transactions and inances`=) n#ll% 1 72

SQL1 S+,RC<IN: COR 9ORDS T<,T ,R+ N+,R +,C< OT<+R

The ollo!in" V#eries !ill search or the !ords that are in *et!een the search terms.
SQL1

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L!orkers

N+,R

N+,R

harvests=% 1 72

Instead o
SQL1

yo# can #se 2.

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L!orkers 2 harvests=% 1 72 !ords

In CONT+/T inde3 V#eries) yo# can s'eci y the ma3im#m n#m*er o *et!een the search terms.
SQL1

72

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) LN+,R$$!orkers) harvests%)67%= 1

USIN: 9ILDC,RDS DURIN: S+,RC<+S

.o# can #se !ildcards to e3'and the list o valid search terms #sed d#rin" yo#r V#ery. @#st as in re"#lar te3t(strin" !ildcard 'rocessin") t!o !ildcards are availa*le. M N
SQL1 SQL1

( (

'ercent si"n2 m#lti'le(character !ildcard #nderscore2 sin"le(character !ildcard

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L!orkerM=% 1 72 select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L!orkNNN=% 1 72

S+,RC<IN: COR 9ORDS T<,T S<,R+ T<+ S,&+ ST+&

Rather e3'and the list Sam'le Blay

SQL1

than #sin" !ildcards) yo# can #se stem(e3'ansion ca'a*ilities to the list o te3t strin"s. :iven the Lstem= o a !ord) oracle !ill e3'and o !ords to search or to incl#de all !ords havin" the same stem. e3'ansions are sho! here. 'lays 'layin" 'layed 'lay #l

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) Lamana"e=% 1 72

S+,RC<IN: COR CU[[. &,TC<+S

, #UUy match e3'ands the s'eci ied search term to incl#de !ords that are s'elled similarly *#t that do not necessarily have the same !ord stem. C#UUy matches are most hel' #l !hen the te3t contains miss'ellin"s. The miss'ellin"s can *e either in the searched te3t or in the search strin" s'eci ied *y the #ser d#rin" the V#ery. The ollo!in" V#eries !ill not ret#rn anythin" *eca#se its search does not contain the !ord Lhardest=.
SQL1

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) Lhardest=% 1 72

It does) ho!ever) contains the !ord Lharvest=. , #UUy match !ill ret#rn the *ooks containin" the !ord Lharvest= even tho#"h Lharvest= has a di erent !ord stem thant the !ord #sed as the search term.

Copy rights are reserved.

To #se a #UUy match) 'recede the search term !ith a V#estion mark) !ith no s'ace *et!een the V#estion mark and the *e"innin" o the search term.
SQL1

79

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) L\hardest=% 1 72

S+,RC<IN: COR 9ORDS T<,T SOUND LIG+ OT<+R 9ORDS

SOUND+/) e3'ands search terms *ased on ho! the !ord so#nds. The SOUND+/ e3'ansion method #ses the same te3t(matchin" lo"ic availa*le via the SOUND+/ #nction in SQL. To #se the SOUND+/ o'tion) yo# m#st 'recede the search term !ith an e3clamation mark$J%.
SQL1

select F rom *ooks !here contains$in o) LJ"rate=% 1 72

IND+/ S.NC<RONI[,TION

9hen #sin" CONT+/T inde3es) yo# need to mana"e the te3t inde3 contents2 the te3t inde3es are not #'dated !hen the *ase ta*le is #'dated. 9hen the ta*le !as #'dated) its te3t inde3 is o#t o sync !ith the *ase ta*le. To sync o the inde3) e3ec#te the S.NCNIND+/ 'roced#re o the CT/NDDL 'acka"e.
SQL1

e3ec

CT/NDDL.S.NCNIND+/$L*ookNinde3=%2

IND+/ S+TS

<istorically) 'ro*lems !ith V#eries o te3t inde3es have occ#rred !hen other criteria are #sed alon"side te3t searches as 'art o the !here cla#se. To im'rove the mi3ed V#ery ca'a*ility) oracle eat#res inde3 sets. The inde3es !ithin the inde3 set may *e str#ct#red relational col#mns or on te3t col#mns. To create an inde3 set) #se the CT/NDDL 'acka"e to create the inde3 set and add inde3es to it. 9hen yo# create a te3t inde3) yo# can then s'eci y the inde3 set it *elon"s to.
SQL1

e3ec CT/NDDL.CR+,T+NIND+/NS+T$L*ooksNinde3Nset=%2

The add non(te3t inde3es.

SQL1

e3ec

CT/NDDL.,DDNIND+/$L*ooksNinde3Nset=)

LtitleNinde3=%2

No! create a CT/C,T te3t inde3. S'eci y ct3sys.ct3cat as the inde3 ty'e) and list the inde3 set in the 'arameters cla#se. create inde3 *ookNinde3 on *ooks$in o% inde3ty'e is ct3sys.ct3cat 'arameters$Linde3 set *ooksNinde3Nset=%2
SQL1

IND+/(OR:,NI[+D T,-L+ ,n inde3(or"aniUed ta*le kee's its data sorted accordin" to the 'rimary key col#mn val#es or the ta*le. Inde3(or"aniUed ta*les store their data as i the entire ta*le !as stored in an inde3. ,n inde3(or"aniUed ta*le allo!s yo# to store the entire ta*le=s data in an inde3. +34 SQL1 create ta*le st#dent $sno n#m*er$5%)sname varchar$67%)smarks n#m*er$8% constraint 'k 'rimary key$sno% or"aniUation inde32 B,RTITION IND+/

Copy rights are reserved.

Similar to 'artitionin" ta*les) oracle allo!s yo# to 'artition inde3es too. Like ta*le 'artitions) inde3 'artitions co#ld *e in di erent ta*les'aces.
LOC,L IND+/+S

80

+34

Local key!ord tells oracle to create a se'arte inde3 or each 'artition. In the local 're i3ed inde3 the 'artition key is s'eci ied on the le t 're i3. 9hen the #nderlyin" ta*le is 'artitioned *aes on) say t!o col#mns then the inde3 can *e 're i3ed on the irst col#mn s'eci ied. Local 're i3ed inde3es can *e #niV#e or non #niV#e. Local inde3es may *e easier to mana"e than "lo*al inde3es. create inde3 st#dNinde3 on st#dent$sno% local2

SQL1

:LO-,L IND+/+S

+34

, "lo*al inde3 may contain val#es rom m#lti'le 'artitions. ,n inde3 is "lo*al 're i3ed i it is 'artitioned on the le t 're i3 o the inde3 col#mns. The "lo*al cla#se allo!s yo# to create a non('artitioned inde3. :lo*al inde3es may 'er orm #niV#eness checks aster than local $'artitioned% inde3es. .o# cannot create "lo*al inde3es or hash 'artitions or s#*'artitions. create inde3 st#dNinde3 on st#dent$sno% "lo*al2

SQL1

Similar to ta*le 'artitions) it is 'ossi*le to move them rom one device to another. -#t #nlike ta*le 'artitions) movement o inde3 'artitions reV#ires individ#al reconstr#ction o the inde3 or each 'artition $only in the case o "lo*al inde3%. +34
SQL1

alter inde3 st#dNind re*#ild 'artition '5

Inde3 'artitions cannot *e dro''ed man#ally. They are dro''ed im'licitly !hen the data they re er to is dro''ed rom the 'artitioned ta*le.

&ONITORIN: US+ OC IND+/+S Once yo# t#rned on the monitorin" the #se o !hether the ta*le is hittin" the inde3 or not. inde3es) then !e can check

To monitor the #se o inde3 #se the oll!in" synta3. Synta34 alter inde3 inde&_name monitorin" #sa"e2 then check or the details in ;aO-@+CTNUS,:+ vie!. I yo# !ant to sto' monitorin" #se the ollo!in". Synta34 alter inde3 inde&_name nomonitorin" #sa"e2 D,T, &OD+L ,LLNIND+/+S

Copy rights are reserved.

81
D-,NIND+/+S US+RNIND+/+S ,LLNIND(COLU&NS D-,(INDNCOLU&NS US+RNINDNCOLU&NS ,LLNB,RTNIND+/+S D-,NB,RTNIND+/+S US+RNB,RTNIND+/+S ;aO-@+CTNUS,:+

SQLFBLUS CO&&N,NDS
These commands does not reV#ire statement terminator and a''lica*le to the sessions ) those !ill *e a#tomatically cleared !hen session !as closed. -R+,G This !ill *e #sed to *reak#' the data de'endin" on the "ro#'in". Synta34 -reak or *re Oon 0col#mn_name1 on re'ortP CO&BUT+ This !ill *e #sed to 'er orm "ro#' #nctions on the data. Synta34 Com'#te or com' O"ro#'N #nction o column_name on breakin _column_name or re'ortP TTITL+ This !ill "ive the to' title or yo#r re'ort. .o# can on or o the ttitle.

Synta34 Ttitle or ttit Ole t Y center Y ri"htP title_name ski' n ot'er_c'aracters Ttitle or ttit Oon or o P -TITL+ This !ill "ive the *ottom title or yo#r re'ort. .o# can on or o the *title.

Synta34 -title or *tit Ole t Y center Y ri"htP title_name ski' n ot'er_c'aracters -title or *tit Oon or o P +34 SQL1 *re on de'tno ski' 6 on re'ort SQL1 com' s#m o sal on de'tno SQL1 com' s#m o sal on re'ort SQL1 ttitle center ?+&BLO.++ D+T,ILS? ski'6 center ?((((((((((((((((? SQL1 *title center ?FF T<,NGQ FF? SQL1 select F rom em' order *y de'tno2 O#t'#t4 +&BLO.++ D+T,ILS (((((((((((((((((((((((

Copy rights are reserved.

82
+&BNO (((((((((( WWX5 WX8T WT84 FFFFFFFFFF W8ET WXWE WT75 WWXX WDEE FFFFFFFFFF W4TT WETX WED4 WT77 WX44 WD56 FFFFFFFFFF s#m FF T<,NGQ FF CL+,R This !ill clear the e3istin" *# ers or *reak or com'#tations or col#mns ormattin". Synta34 Clear or cle *# er Y *re Y com' Y col2 +34 clear *# er -# er cleared SQL1 clear *re -reaks cleared SQL1 clear com' Com'#tes cleared SQL1 clear col Col#mns cleared
SQL1

+N,&+ @O&:R <IR+D,T+ S,L CO&& D+BTNO (((((((((( ((((((((( ((((((( (((((((((((((( (((((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( CL,RG &,N,:+R WX8T 7T(@UN(X6 54D7 67 GIN: BR+SID+NT 6W(NO;(X6 D777 &ILL+R CL+RG WWX5 58(@,N(X5 6877 (((((((((( XWD7 S&IT< CL+RG ,D,&S CL+RG CORD ,N,L.ST SCOTT ,N,L.ST @ON+S &,N,:+R WT75 6W(D+C(X7 WWXX 58(&,.(XW WDEE 78(D+C(X6 WDEE 6T(,BR(XW WX8T 75(,BR(X6 X77 6677 8777 8777 5TWD (((((((((( 67XWD ,LL+N S,L+S&,N -L,G+ &,N,:+R &,RTIN S,L+S&,N @,&+S CL+RG TURN+R S,L+S&,N 9,RD S,L+S&,N WETX 57(C+-(X6 WX8T 76(&,.(X6 WETX 5X(S+B(X6 WETX 78(D+C(X6 WETX 7X(S+B(X6 WETX 55(C+-(X6 6E77 5XD7 65D7 TD7 6D77 65D7 (((((((((( T477 (((((((((( 5T75D 877 6477 7 D77 s#m s#m 57

s#m 87

C<,N:+ This !ill *e #sed to re'lace any strin"s in Synta34

SQL

statements.

Chan"e or cAold_strin Anew_strin re'eats many times then new_strin re'laces the irst strin"

I the old_strin only.

Copy rights are reserved.

+34 select F rom det2 select F rom det F +RROR at line 64 OR,(77T454 ta*le or vie! does not e3ist
SQL1

83

cAdetAde't 6F select F rom de't SQL1 A

SQL1

D+BTNO DN,&+ (((((((((( (((((((((((((((( 67 ,CCOUNTIN: 57 R+S+,RC< 87 S,L+S 47 OB+R,TIONS COLU&N

LOC ((((((((((( N+9 .ORG ,LL,S C<IC,:O -OSTON

This !ill *e #sed to increase or decrease the !idth o the ta*le col#mns. Synta34 Col#mn or col 0column_name1 ormat 0num_%ormatYte&t_%ormat1 +34
SQL1 SQL1

col de'tno ormat TTT col dname ormat a67

S,;+ This !ill *e #sed to save yo#r c#rrent SQL statement as SQL Scri't ile. Synta34 Save or sav 0%ile_name1.Oe3tensionP re'lace or re' I yo# !ant to save the ilename !ith e3istin" ilename the yo# have to #se re'lace o'tion. -y de a#lt it !ill take s-l as the e3tension. +34 SQL1 save ss Created ile ss.sVl SQL1 save ss re'lace 9rote ile ss.sVl +/+CUT+ This !ill *e #sed to e3ec#te stored s#*'ro"rams or 'acka"ed s#*'ro"rams. Synta34 +3ec#te or e3ec 0subpro ram_name1 +34
SQL1

e3ec sam'leN'roc

SBOOL This !ill record the data !hen yo# s'ool on) #'to !hen yo# say s'ool o . -y de a#lt it !ill "ive lst as e3tension. Synta34

Copy rights are reserved.

S'ool on Y o +34
SQL1 SQL1

Y o#t Y 0%ile_name1.O+3tensionP

84

s'ool on select F rom de't2 D+BTNO DN,&+ LOC ((((((((( (((((((((((((( (((((((((( 67 ,CCOUNTIN: N+9 .ORG 57 R+S+,RC< D,LL,S 87 S,L+S C<IC,:O 47 OB+R,TIONS -OSTON

SQL1 SQL1

s'ool o ed on.lst
SQL1

select F rom de't2

D+BTNO DN,&+ LOC ((((((((( (((((((((((((( (((((((((( 67 ,CCOUNTIN: N+9 .ORG 57 R+S+,RC< D,LL,S 87 S,L+S C<IC,:O 47 OB+R,TIONS -OSTON
SQL1

s'ool o

LIST This !ill "ive the c#rrent

SQL

statement.

Synta34 List or li Ostart_line_numberP Oend_line_numberP +34 select 5 F 8 rom 4 de't2 SQL1 list 6 select 5 F 8 rom 4F de't SQL1 list 6 6F select SQL1 list 8 8F rom
SQL1 SQL1

list 6 8 6 select 5 F 8F rom

INBUT This !ill insert the ne! line to the c#rrent Synta34 In'#t or in 0strin 1
SQL

statement.

Copy rights are reserved.

+34 select F list 6F select F SQL1 in'#t rom de't SQL1 list 6 select F 5F rom de't
SQL1 SQL1

85

,BB+ND This !ill adds a ne! strin" to the e3istin" strin" in the any s'ace. Synta34 ,''end or a'' 0strin 1 +34 select F list 6F select F SQL1 a''end rom de't 6F select F rom de't
SQL1 SQL1 SQL1 SQL

statement !itho#t

list 6F select F rom de't

D+L+T+ This !ill delete the c#rrent

SQL

statement lines.

Synta34 Delete or del 0start_line_number1 O0end_line_number1P +34 select F rom de't !here de'tno 1672 SQL1 list 6 select 5 F 8 rom 4 de't D !here E de'tno WF 167 SQL1 del 6 SQL1 list 6 F 5 rom 8 de't 4 !here D de'tno EF 167 SQL1 del 5 SQL1 list
SQL1

5 8 4 D E W

Copy rights are reserved.

6 F 5 de't 8 !here 4 de'tno DF 167 SQL1 del 5 4 SQL1 list 6 F 5F 167 SQL1 del SQL1 list 6 F ;,RI,-L+ This !ill *e #sed to declare a varia*le. Synta34 ;aria*le or var 0variable_name1 0variable_type1 +34
SQL1 SQL1

86

var de'tNname varchar$6D% select dname into de'tNname rom de't !here de'tno I 672

BRINT This !ill *e #sed to 'rint the o#t'#t o the varia*les that !ill *e declared at level. Synta34 Brint 0variable_name1 +34
SQL1 SQL

'rint de'tNname D+BTNN,&+ (((((((((((((( ,CCOUNTIN:

ST,RT This !ill *e #sed to e3ec#te

SQL

scri'ts.

Synta34 start 0 ilename_name1.sVl +34

SQL1 SQL1

start ss.sVl @ss.sVl

(( this !ill e3ec#te sVl scri't iles only.

<OST This !ill *e #sed to interact !ith the Synta34 <ost OoperationP +34
SQL1 SQL1 OS

level rom

SQL.

host host dir

Copy rights are reserved.

S<O9 Usin" this) yo# can see several commands that #se the set command and stat#s. Synta34 Sho! all Y 0set_command1 +34 sho! all a''in o is OCC and set to bSQLFBl#sb arraysiUe 6D a#tocommit OCC a#to'rint OCC a#torecovery OCC a#totrace OCC *lockterminator b.b $he3 5e% *title OCC and is the irst e! characters o the ne3t S+L+CT statement cmdse' OCC colse' b b com'ati*ility version N,TI;+ concat b.b $he3 5e% co'ycommit 7 COB.T.B+C<+CG is ON de ine b>b $he3 5E% descri*e D+BT< 6 LIN+NU& OCC IND+NT ON echo OCC edit ile ba iedt.*# b em*edded OCC esca'e OCC C++D-,CG ON or E or more ro!s la""er OCC l#sh ON
SQL1

87

sho veri y veri y OCC

SQL1

RUN This !ill r#ns the command in the *# er. Synta34 R#n Y A +34
SQL1 SQL1

r#n A

STOR+ This !ill save all the set command stat#ses in a ile. Synta34 Store set 0 ilename1.Oe3tensionP OcreateP Y Ore'laceP Y Oa''endP +34 store set myNsettin"s.scmd Created ile myNsettin"s.scmd SQL1 store set myNsettin"s.cmd re'lace 9rote ile myNsettin"s.cmd SQL1 store set myNsettin"s.cmd a''end ,''ended ile to myNsettin"s.cmd
SQL1

Copy rights are reserved.

88
COLDN,CT+R This !ill old the col#mns one a ter the other. Synta34 Col#mn 0column_name1 oldNa ter Ono_o%_linesP +34
SQL1 SQL1 SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

col de'tno oldNa ter 6 col dname oldNa ter 6 col loc oldNa ter 6 set headin" o select F rom de't2 67 ,CCOUNTIN: N+9 .ORG 57 R+S+,RC< D,LL,S 87 S,L+S C<IC,:O 47 OB+R,TIONS -OSTON

COLDN-+COR+ This !ill old the col#mns one *e ore the other. Synta34 Col#mn 0column_name1 oldN*e ore Ono_o%_linesP D+CIN+ This !ill "ive the list o all the varia*les c#rrently de ined. Synta34 De ine Ovaria*leNnameP +34 de ine D+CIN+ ND,T+ I b6E(&,.(7Wb $C<,R% D+CIN+ NCONN+CTNID+NTICI+R I boracleb $C<,R% D+CIN+ NUS+R I bSCOTTb $C<,R% D+CIN+ NBRI;IL+:+ I bb $C<,R% D+CIN+ NSQLBLUSNR+L+,S+ I b6776777577b $C<,R% D+CIN+ N+DITOR I bNote'adb $C<,R% D+CIN+ NON;+RSION I bOracle Data*ase 67" +nter'rise +dition Release 67.6.7.5.7 ] Brod#ction 9ith the Bartitionin") OL,B and Data &inin" o'tionsb $C<,R% D+CIN+ NONR+L+,S+ I b6776777577b $C<,R%
SQL1

S+T CO&&,NDS
Copy rights are reserved.

89
These commands does not reV#ire statement terminator and a''lica*le to the sessions ) those !ill *e a#tomatically cleared !hen session !as closed. LIN+SI[+ This !ill *e #sed to set the linesiUe. De a#lt linesiUe is X7. Synta34 Set linesiUe 0value1 +34
SQL1

set linesiUe 677

B,:+SI[+ This !ill *e #sed to set the 'a"esiUe. De a#lt 'a"esiUe is 64. Synta34 Set 'a"esiUe 0value1 +34
SQL1

set 'a"esiUe 87

D+SCRI-+ This !ill *e #sed to see the o*Kect=s str#ct#re. Synta34 Descri*e or desc 0ob!ect_name1 +34
SQL1

desc de't

Name N#ll\ Ty'e ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((( D+BTNO NOT NULL NU&-+R$5% DN,&+ ;,RC<,R5$64% LOC ;,RC<,R5$68% B,US+ 9hen the dis'layed data contains h#ndreds or tho#sands o lines) !hen yo# select it then it !ill a#tomatically scrolls and dis'lays the last 'a"e data. To 'revent this yo# can #se this 'a#se o'tion. -y #sin" this it !ill dis'lay the data corres'oindin" to the 'a"esiUe !ith a *reak !hich !ill contin#e *y hittin" the ret#rn key. -y de a#lt this !ill *e o . Synta34 Set 'a#se on Y o +34
SQL1

set 'a#se on

C++D-,CG This !ill "ive the in ormation re"ardin" ho!many ro!s yo# selected the o*Kect. -y de a#lt the eed*ack messa"e !ill *e dis'layed) only !hen the o*Kect contains more than D ro!s.

Copy rights are reserved.

Synta34 Set eed*ack 0value1 +34

SQL1 SQL1

90

set eed*ack 4 select F rom de't2

D+BTNO DN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( 67 ,CCOUNTIN: N+9 .ORG 57 R+S+,RC< D,LL,S 87 S,L+S C<IC,:O 47 OB+R,TIONS -OSTON 4 ro!s selected. <+,DIN: I yo# !ant to dis'lay data !itho#t headin"s) then yo# can achieve !ith this. -y de a#lt headin" is on. Synta34 Set headin" on Y o +34
SQL1 SQL1

set headin" o select F rom de't2 67 57 87 47 ,CCOUNTIN: R+S+,RC< S,L+S OB+R,TIONS N+9 .ORG D,LL,S C<IC,:O -OSTON

S+R;+ROUTBUT This !ill *e #sed to dis'lay the o#t'#t o the BLASQL 'ro"rams. -y de a#lt this !ill *e o . Synta34 Set servero#t'#t on Y o +34
SQL1

set servero#t'#t on

TI&+ This !ill *e #sed to dis'lay the time. -y de a#lt this !ill *e o . Synta34 Set time on Y o +34 set time on 6T4DE488 SQL1
SQL1

TI&IN: This !ill "ive the time taken to e3ec#te the c#rrent this !ill *e o . Synta34 Set timin" on Y o
SQL

statement. -y de a#lt

Copy rights are reserved.

91
+34
SQL1 SQL1

set timin" on select F rom de't2

D+BTNO DN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( 67 ,CCOUNTIN: N+9 .ORG 57 R+S+,RC< D,LL,S 87 S,L+S C<IC,:O 47 OB+R,TIONS -OSTON +la'sed4 77477477.7E SQLBRO&BT This !ill *e #sed to chan"e the Synta34 Set sVl'rom't 0prompt1 +34
SQL1 set OR,CL+1 SQL

'rom't.

sVl'rom't ?OR,CL+1?

SQLC,S+ This !ill *e #sed to chan"e the case o the is mi3ed. Synta34 Set sVlcase #''er Y mi3ed Y lo!er +34
SQL1 SQL

statements. -y de a#lt the case

set sVlcase #''er

SQLT+R&IN,TOR This !ill *e #sed to chan"e the terminator o the terminator is 2.

SQL

statements. -y de a#lt the

Synta34 Set sVlterminator 0termination_c'aracter1 +34

SQL1 SQL1

set sVlterminator 4 select F rom de't4

D+CIN+ -y de a#lt i the > character inds then it !ill treat as *ind varia*le and ask or the in'#t. S#''ose yo#r !ant to treat it as a normal character !hile insertin" data) then yo# can 'revent this *y #sin" the de ine o'tion. -y de a#lt this !ill *e on Synta34 Set de ine on Y o +34
SQL1insert

into de't val#es$D7)?R>D?)?<.D?%2

Copy rights are reserved.

+nter val#e or d4 old 64 insert into de't val#es$D7)?R>D?)?<.D?% ne! 64 INS+RT INTO D+BT ;,LU+S$D7)?R?)?<.D?%
SQL1 SQL1insert

92

val#e

set de ine o into de't val#es$D7)?R>D?)?<.D?%2

(( here it !on=t ask or

N+9B,:+ This !ill sho!s ho! many *lank lines !ill *e le t *e ore the re'ort. -y de a#lt it !ill leave one *lank line. Synta34 Set ne!'a"e 0value1 +34
SQL1

set ne!'a"e 67

The Uero val#e or ne!'a"e does not 'rod#ce Uero *lank lines instead it s!itches to a s'ecial 'ro'erty !hich 'rod#ces a to'(o ( orm character $he3 68% K#st *e ore the date on each 'a"e. &ost modern 'rinters res'ond to this *y movin" immediately to the to' o the ne3t 'a"e) !here the 'ritin" o the re'ort !ill *e"in. <+,DS+B This allo! yo# to indicate !here yo# !ant to *reak a 'a"e title or a col#mn headin" that r#ns lon"er than one line. The de a#lt headin" se'arator is vertical *ar $Y%. Synta34 Set headse' 0separation_c'ar1 +34
SQL1

select F rom de't2

D+BTNO DN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((((((( ((((((((((((( 67 ,CCOUNTIN: N+9 .ORG 57 R+S+,RC< D,LL,S 87 S,L+S C<IC,:O 47 OB+R,TIONS -OSTON
SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

set headset' J col dname headin" ?D+B,RT&+NT J N,&+? A LOC (((((((((( N+9 .ORG D,LL,S C<IC,:O -OSTON

D+B,RT&+NT D+BTNO N,&+ (((((((((( ((((((((((((((((( 67 ,CCOUNTIN: 57 R+S+,RC< 87 S,L+S 47 OB+R,TIONS +C<O

9hen #sin" a *ind varia*le) the this is o .

SQL

statement is maintained *y echo. -y de a#lt

Copy rights are reserved.

93
Synta34 Set echo on Y o ;+RIC. 9hen #sin" a *ind varia*le) the old and ne! statements !ill *e maintained *y veri y. -y de a#lt this is on. Synta34 Set veri y on Y o +34

select F rom de't !here de'tno I >dno2 +nter val#e or dno4 67 old 64 select F rom de't !here de'tno I >dno ne! 64 select F rom de't !here de'tno I 67
SQL1

D+BTNO DN,&+ LOC (((((((((( (((((((((((((((( ((((((((((( 67 ,CCOUNTIN: N+9 .ORG set veri y o select F rom de't !here de'tno I >dno2 +nter val#e or dno4 57
SQL1 SQL1

D+BTNO DN,&+ LOC (((((((((( ((((((((((((( ((((((((((( 57 R+S+,RC< D,LL,S BNO This !ill "ive dis'lays the 'a"e n#m*ers. -y de a#lt the val#e !o#ld *e Uero. +34
SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

col hiredate ne!Nval#e 3today no'rint ormat a6 tr#nc ttitle le t 3today ri"ht ?'a"e? sVl.'no select F rom em' !here de'tno I 672 'a"e 6

7T(@UN(X6

+&BNO +N,&+ @O&:R S,L CO&& D+BTNO (((((((((( (((((((((( ((((((((((((((( ((((((((( ((((( (((((((((( (((((((((( WWX5 CL,RG &,N,:+R WX8T 54D7 67 WX8T GIN: BR+SID+NT D777 67 WT84 &ILL+R CL+RG WWX5 6877 67 In the a*ove no'rint tells SQLBLUS not to dis'lay this col#mn !hen it 'rints the res#lts o the SQL statement. Dates that have *een re ormatted *y TONC<,R "et a de a#lt !idth o a*o#t 677 characters. -y chan"in" the ormat to a6 tr#nc) yo# minimiUe this e ect. N+9N;,LU+ inserts contents o the col#mn retrieved *y the SQL statement into a varia*le called 3today.

SB+CI,L CIL+S
LO:IN.sVl

Copy rights are reserved.

I yo# !o#ld like SQLBLUS to de ine yo#r o!n environmental settin"s) '#t all the reV#ired commands in a ile named lo"in.sVl. This is a s'ecial ilename that SQLBLUS al!ays looks or !henever it starts #'. I it inds lo"in.sVl) it e3ec#tes any commands in it as i yo# had entered then *y hand. .o# can '#t any command in lo"in.sVl that yo# can #se in SQLBLUS) incl#din" SQLBLUS commands and SQL statements. ,ll ot them e3ec#ted *e ore SQLBLUS "ives yo# the SQL1 'rom't. :LO:IN.sVl This is #sed in the same !ays as settin"s or all #sers o a data*ase.
LO:IN.sVl

94

*#t to esta*lish de a#lt

SQLBLUS

I&B QU+RI+S
6% To ind the nth ro! o a ta*le Select F rom em' !here ro!id I $select ma3$ro!id% rom em' !here ro!n#m 0I 4%2 Or SQL1 Select F rom em' !here ro!n#m 0I 4 min#s select F rom em' !here ro!n#m 0I 82
SQL1

5% To ind d#'licate ro!s Select F rom em' !here ro!id in $select ma3$ro!id% rom em' "ro#' *y em'no) ename) m"r) Ko*) hiredate) comm) de'tno) sal%2 Or SQL1 Select em'no)ename)sal)Ko*)hiredate)comm ) co#nt$F% rom em' "ro#' *y em'no)ename)sal)Ko*)hiredate)comm havin" co#nt$F% 1I62
SQL1

8% To delete d#'licate ro!s

SQL1

Delete em' !here ro!id in $select ma3$ro!id% rom em' "ro#' *y em'no)ename)m"r)Ko*)hiredate)sal)comm)de'tno%2

4% To ind the co#nt o d#'licate ro!s

SQL1

Select ename) co#nt$F% rom em' "ro#' *y ename havin" co#nt$F%

1I 62 D% <o! to dis'lay alternative ro!s in a ta*le\

SQL1 select F rom em' !here $ro!id)7% in $select ro!id)mod$ro!n#m)5% rom em'%2

E% :ettin" em'loyee details o each de'artment !ho is dra!in" ma3im#m sal\

SQL1

select F rom em' !here $de'tno)sal% in $ select de'tno)ma3$sal% rom em' "ro#' *y de'tno%2

W% <o! to "et n#m*er o em'loyees in each de'artment ) in !hich de'artment is havin" more than 5D77 em'loyees\
SQL1

15D772

Select de'tno)co#nt$F% rom em' "ro#' *y de'tno havin" co#nt$F%

Copy rights are reserved.

X% To reset the time to the *e"innin" o the day Select toNchar$tr#nc$sysdate%)=dd(mon(yyyy hh4mi4ss am=% rom

95

SQL1

d#al2

T% To ind nth ma3im#m sal

SQL1 Select F rom em' !here sal in $select ma3$sal% rom $select F rom em' order *y sal% !here ro!n#m 0I D%2

INTRODUCTION
C<,R,CT+RSTICS <i"hly str#ct#red) reada*le and accessi*le lan"#a"e. Standard and Brota*le lan"#a"e. +m*edded lan"#a"e. Im'roved e3ec#tion a#thority.

67" C+,TUR+S . .ptimi+ed compiler To chan"e the o'timiUer settin"s or the entire data*ase) set the data*ase 'arameter BLSQLNOBTI&I[+NL+;+L. ;alid settin"s are as ollo!s 7 ( No o'timiUation 6 ( &oderate o'timiUation 5 ( ,""ressive o'timiUation These settin"s are also modi ia*le or the c#rrent session. SQL1 alter session set 'lsVlNo'timUeNlevelI52 Oracle retains o'timiUer settin"s on a mod#le(*y(mod#le *asis. 9hen yo# recom'ile a 'artic#lar mod#le !ith nonde a#lt settin"s) the settin"s !ill stick allo!in" yo# to recom'ile later on #sin" R+US+ S+TTIN:S.
SQL1 SQL1

,lter 'roced#re 'roc com'ile 'lsVlNo'timiUeNlevelI62 ,lter 'roced#re 'roc com'ile re#se settin"s2

Compile/time warnin s. Startin" !ith oracle data*ase 67" release 6 yo# can ena*le additional com'ile(time !arnin"s to hel' make yo#r 'ro"rams more ro*#st. The com'iler can detect 'otential r#ntime 'ro*lems !ith yo#r code) s#ch as identi yin" lines o code that !ill never *e r#n. This 'rocess) also kno!n as lint c'eckin . To ena*le these !arnin"s o the entire data*ase) set the data*ase 'arameter BLSQLN9,RNIN:S. These settin"s are also modi ia*le or the c#rrent session. alter session set 'lsVlN!arnin"s I Lena*le4all=2 The a*ove can *e achieved #sin" the *#ilt(in 'acka"e
SQL1 D-&SN9,RNIN:.

Conditional compilation.

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96
Conditional com'ilation allo!s the com'iler to allo! to com'ile selected 'arts o a 'ro"ram *ased on conditions yo# 'rovide !ith the aIC directive.

"upport %or non/se-uential collections in 0.1233.

4mproved datatype support. 5acktrace an e&ception to its line number. 9hen handlin" an error) ho! can yo# ind the line n#m*er on !hich the error !as ori"inally raised\ In earlier release) the only !ay to do this !as allo! yo# e3ce'tion to "o #nhandled and then vie! the #ll error trace stack. No! yo# can call D-&SNUTILIT..COR&,TN+RRORN-,CGTR,C+ #nction to o*tain that stack and mani'#late it 'ro"rammatically !ithin yo#r 'ro"ram. "et operators %or nested tables. "upport %or re ular e&pressions. Oracle data*ase 67" s#''orts the #se o BLASQL code via o#r ne! *#ilt(in #nctions.
R+:+/BNLIG+ R+:+/BNINSTR R+:+/BNSU-STR R+:+/BNR+BL,C+

re"#lar e3'ressions inside

6ro rammer/de%ined -uotin

mec'anism.

Startin" !ith oracle data*ase 67" release 6) yo# can de ine yo#r o!n V#otin" mechanism or strin" literals in *oth SQL and BLASQL. Use the characters V=$V ollo!ed *y a sin"le V#ote% to note the 'ro"rammer(de ined deliemeter or yo# strin" literal. +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

v varchar$67% 4I ?com'#ter?2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$V?Fv I F? YY v%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$V?av I a? YY v%2

+ND2

O#t'#t4 v I com'#ter v I com'#ter 7any new built/in packa es. D-&SNSC<+DUL+R Re'resents a maKor #'date to D-&SN@O-. D-&SNSC<+DUL+R 'rovides m#ch im'roved #nctionality or sched#lin" and e3ec#tin" Ko*s de ined via ced#res. D-&SNCR.BTO O ers the a*ility to encry't and decry't common oracle dataty'e) incl#din" R,9s) -LO-s) and CLO-s. It also 'rovides "lo*aliUation s#''ort or encry'tin" data across di erent charactersets.

Copy rights are reserved.

D-&SN&ONITOR Brovides an ,BI to control additional tracin" and statistics "atherin" o sessions.

97

D-&SN9,RNIN: Brovides an ,BI into the BLASQL com'iler !arnin"s mod#le) allo!in" yo# to read and chan"e settin"s that control !hich !arnin"s are s#''ressed) dis'layed) or treated as errors. ST,ND,RD B,CG,:+ Oracle has de ined in this s'ecial 'acka"e. Oracle de ines V#ite a e! identi iers in this 'acka"e) incl#din" *#ilt(in e3ce'tions) #nctions and s#*ty'es. .o# can re erence the *#ilt(in orm *y 're i3in" it !ith ST,ND,RD. The *asic #nit in any BLASQL 'ro"ram is *lock. ,ll BLASQL 'ro"rams are com'osed o *locks !hich can occ#r seV#entially or nested. -LOCG STRUCTUR+ Declare (( declarative section -e"in (( e3ec#ta*le section +3ce'tion (( e3ce'tion section +nd2 In the a*ove declarative and e3ce'tiona sections are o'tional. -LOCG T.B+S ,nonymo#s *locks Named *locks La*eled *locks S#*'ro"rams Tri""ers

,NON.&OUS -LOCGS

,nonymo#s *locks im'lies *asic *lock str#ct#re. +34

-+:IN +ND2

D*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$L&y irst 'ro"ram=%4

L,-+L+D -LOCGS

La*eled *locks are anonymo#s *locks !ith a la*el !hich "ives a name to the *lock. +34 00myN*loock11
-+:IN +ND2

D*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$L&y irst 'ro"ram=%4

Copy rights are reserved.

SU-BRO:R,&S

98

S#*'ro"rams are 'roced#res and #nctions. They can *e stored in the data*ase as stand(alone o*Kects) as 'art o 'acka"e or as methods o an o*Kect ty'e.
TRI::+RS

Tri""ers consists o a the data*ase. N+ST+D -LOCGS

BLASQL

*lock that is associated !ith an event that occ#r in

, *lock can *e nested !ithin the e3ec#ta*le or e3ce'tion section o an o#ter *lock. ID+NTICI+RS Identi iers are #sed to name BLASQL o*Kects) s#ch as varia*les) c#rsors) ty'es and s#*'ro"rams. Identi iers consists o a letter) o'tionally ollo!ed *y any seV#ence o characters) incl#din" letters) n#m*ers) dollar si"ns) #nderscores) and 'o#nd si"ns only. The ma3im#m len"th or an identi ier is 87 characters. QUOT+D ID+NTICI+RS I yo# !ant to make an identi ier case sensitive) incl#de characters s#ch as s'aces or #se a reserved !ord) yo# can enclose the identi ier in do#*le V#otation marks. +34
D+CL,R+

-+:IN

bab n#m*er 4I D2 b,b n#m*er 4I E2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?a I ? YY a%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, I ? YY ,%2

O#t'#t4

+ND2

aIE ,IE CO&&+NTS Comments im'rove reada*ility and make yo#r 'ro"ram more #nderstanda*le. They are i"nored *y the BLASQL com'iler. There are t!o ty'es o comments availa*le. Sin"le line comments &#ltiline comments

SIN:L+ LIN+ CO&&+NTS

, sin"le(line comment can start any 'oint on a line !ith t!o dashes and contin#es #ntil the end o the line. +34
-+:IN

D*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$Lhello=%2

(( sam'le 'ro"ram

+ND2 &ULTILIN+ CO&&+NTS

&#ltiline comments start !ith the AF delimiter and ends !ith FA delimiter.

Copy rights are reserved.

+34
-+:IN +ND2

99
D*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$Lhello=%2 AF sam'le 'ro"ram FA

;,RI,-L+ D+CL+R,TIONS ;aria*les can *e declared in declarative section o the *lock2 +34
D+CL,R+

a n#m*er2 * n#m*er 4I D2 c n#m*er de a#lt E2 CONST,NT D+CL+R,TIONS To declare a constant) yo# incl#de the a de a#lt val#e. +34
D+CL,R+ CONST,NT

key!ord) and yo# m#st s#''ly

* constant n#m*er 4I D2 c constant n#m*er de a#lt E2

NOT NULL CL,US+ .o# can also s'eci y that the varia*le m#st *e not n#ll. +34
D+CL,R+

* constant n#m*er not n#ll4I D2 c n#m*er not n#ll de a#lt E2 ,NC<OR+D D+CL+R,TIONS
BLASQL

o ers t!o kinds o achorin". Scalar anchorin" Record anchorin"

SC,L,R ,NC<ORIN:

Use the MT.B+ attri*#te to de ine yo#r varia*le *ased on ta*le=s col#mn o some other BLASQL scalar varia*le. +34
D+CL,R+

dno de't.de'tnoMty'e2 S#*ty'e tNn#m*er is n#m*er2 a tNn#m*er2 S#*ty'e tNsno is st#dent.snoMty'e2 ;Nsno tNsno2
R+CORD ,NC<ORIN:

Use the MRO9T.B+ attri*#te to de ine yo#r record str#ct#re *ased on a ta*le. +34
D+CL,R+

;Nde't de'tMro!ty'e2
-+N+CITS OC ,NC<OR+D D+CL,R,TIONS

Copy rights are reserved.

100
SynchroniUation !ith data*ase col#mns. NormaliUation o local varia*les.

BRO:R,&&+R(D+CIN+D T.B+S 9ith the SU-T.B+ statement) BLASQL allo!s yo# to de ine yo#r o!n s#*ty'es or aliases o 'rede ined dataty'es) sometimes re erred to as a*stract dataty'es. There are t!o kinds o s#*ty'es. Constrained Unconstrained
CONSTR,IN+D SU-T.B+

, s#*ty'e that restricts or constrains the val#es normally allo!d *y the dataty'e itsel . +34 S#*ty'e 'ositive is *inaryNinte"er ran"e 6..564W4X8E4W2 In the a*ove declaration a varia*le that is declared as 'ositive can store only in"e"er "reater than Uero even tho#"h *inaryNinte"er ran"es rom (564W4X8E4W..H564W4X8E4W. UNCONSTR,IN+D SU-T.B+ , s#*ty'e that does not restrict the val#es o the ori"inal dataty'e in varia*les declared !ith the s#*ty'e. +34 S#*ty'e loat is n#m*er2 D,T,T.B+ CON;+RSIONS can handle conversions *et!een di erent amilies amon" the dataty'es. Conversion can *e done in t!o !ays.
BLASQL

+3'licit conversion Im'licit conversion

+/BLICIT CON;+RSION

This can *e done #sin" the *#ilt(in #nctions availa*le.

I&BLICIT CON;+RSION

BLASQL !ill a#tomatically convert *et!een dataty'e amilies !hen 'ossi*le. +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN +ND2

a varchar$67%2 select de'tno into a rom de't !here dnameI?,CCOUNTIN:?2

In the a*ove varia*le a is char ty'e and de'tno is n#m*er ty'e even tho#"h) oracle !ill a#tomatically converts the n#meric data into char ty'e assi"ns to the varia*le.
BLASQL

can a#tomatically convert *et!een Characters and n#m*ers Characters and dates

Copy rights are reserved.

;,RI,-L+ SCOB+ ,ND ;ISI-ILIT.

101

The sco'e o a varia*le is the 'ortion o the 'ro"ram in !hich the varia*le can *e accessed. Cor BLASQL varia*les) this is rom the varia*le declaration #ntil the end o the *lock. 9hen a varia*le "oes o#t o sco'e) the BLASQL en"ine !ill ree the memory #sed to store the varia*le. The visi*ility o a varia*le is the 'ortion o the 'ro"ram !here the varia*le can *e accessed !itho#t havin" to V#ali y the re erence. The visi*ility is al!ays !ithin the sco'e. I it is o#t o sco'e) it is not visi*le. +364
D+CL,R+ -+:IN (((((((( D+CL,R+ -+:IN

a n#m*er2

(( sco'e o a

* n#m*er2

(( sco'e o *

(((((
+ND2

((((((
+ND2

+354

D+CL,R+

a n#m*er2 * n#m*er2
-+:IN

(( a ) * availa*le here * char$67%2 (( a and char ty'e * is availa*le here

D+CL,R+ -+:IN +ND2 +ND2

(((((

+384

00myN*lock11
D+CL,R+

-+:IN

a n#m*er2 * n#m*er2
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

(( a ) * availa*le here * char$67%2 (( a and char ty'e * is availa*le here (( n#m*er ty'e * is availa*le #sin" 00myN*lock11.*

+ND2 +ND2

((((((

BLASQL CONTROL STRUCTUR+S has a variety o control str#ct#res that allo! yo# to control the *ehavio#r o the *lock as it r#ns. These str#ct#res incl#de conditional statements and loo's.
BLASQL

I (then(else Case Case !ith no else La*eled case Searched case

Copy rights are reserved.

102
Sim'le loo' 9hile loo' Cor loo' :oto and La*els

IC(T<+N(+LS+ Synta34 I 0condition11 then "e-uence o% statements8 +lsi 0condition11 then "e-uence o% statements8 SS +lse "e-uence o% statements8 +nd i 2 +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

dno n#m*er$5%2 select de'tno into dno rom de't !here dname I ?,CCOUNTIN:?2 i dno I 67 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is N+9 .ORG?%2 elsi dno I 57 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is D,LL,S?%2 elsi dno I 87 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is C<IC,:O?%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is -OSTON?%2 end i 2

+ND2

O#t'#t4 Location is C,S+ Synta34 Case test/variable 9hen value1 then se-uence o% statements8 9hen value2 then se-uence o% statements8 SS 9hen valuen then se-uence o% statements8 +lse se-uence o% statements8 +nd case2 +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN N+9 .ORG

dno n#m*er$5%2 select de'tno into dno rom de't !here dname I ?,CCOUNTIN:?2 case dno !hen 67 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is N+9 .ORG?%2 !hen 57 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is D,LL,S?%2 !hen 87 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is C<IC,:O?%2 else

Copy rights are reserved.

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is
+ND2

-OSTON?%2

103

end case2

O#t'#t4 Location is
N+9 .ORG

C,S+ 9IT<OUT +LS+ Synta34 Case test/variable 9hen value1 then se-uence o% statements8 9hen value2 then se-uence o% statements8 SS 9hen valuen then se-uence o% statements8 +nd case2 +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

dno n#m*er$5%2 select de'tno into dno rom de't !here dname I ?,CCOUNTIN:?2 case dno !hen 67 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is N+9 .ORG?%2 !hen 57 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is D,LL,S?%2 !hen 87 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is C<IC,:O?%2 !hen 47 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is -OSTON?%2 end case2

+ND2

O#t'#t4 Location is L,-+L+D C,S+ Synta34 00label11 Case test/variable 9hen value1 then se-uence o% statements8 9hen value2 then se-uence o% statements8 SS 9hen valuen then se-uence o% statements8 +nd case2 +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN N+9 .ORG

dno n#m*er$5%2 select de'tno into dno rom de't !here dname I ?,CCOUNTIN:?2 00myNcase11 case dno !hen 67 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is N+9 .ORG?%2 !hen 57 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is D,LL,S?%2 !hen 87 then

Copy rights are reserved.

+ND2

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is !hen 47 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is end case myNcase2

C<IC,:O?%2 -OSTON?%2

104

O#t'#t4 Location is S+,RC<+D C,S+ Synta34 Case 9hen 0condition11 then se-uence o% statements8 9hen 0condition21 then se-uence o% statements8 SS 9hen 0conditionn1 then se-uence o% statements8 +nd case2 +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN N+9 .ORG

dno n#m*er$5%2 select de'tno into dno rom de't !here dname I ?,CCOUNTIN:?2 case dno !hen dno I 67 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is N+9 .ORG?%2 !hen dno I 57 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is D,LL,S?%2 !hen dno I 87 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is C<IC,:O?%2 !hen dno I 47 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Location is -OSTON?%2 end case2

+ND2

O#t'#t4 Location is SI&BL+ LOOB Synta34 Loo' "e-uence o% statements8 +3it !hen 0condition12 +nd loo'2 In the synta3 e3it !hen 0condition1 is eV#ivalent to I 0condition1 then +3it2 +nd i 2 +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN N+9 .ORG

i n#m*er 4I 62 loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i I ? YY i%2 i 4I i H 62 e3it !hen i 1 D2 end loo'2

+ND2

Copy rights are reserved.

105
O#t'#t4 i i i i i I I I I I 6 5 8 4 D

9<IL+ LOOB Synta34 9hile 0condition1 loo' "e-uence o% statements8 +nd loo'2 +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

i n#m*er 4I 62 9hile i 0I D loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i I ? YY i%2 i 4I i H 62 end loo'2

+ND2

O#t'#t4

i i i i i

I I I I I

6 5 8 4 D

COR LOOB Synta34 Cor 0loop_counter_variable1 in low_bound..'i '_bound loo' "e-uence o% statements8 +nd loo'2 +364
-+:IN

+ND2

Cor i in 6..D loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i I ? YY i%2 end loo'2 6 5 8 4 D

O#t'#t4

i i i i i

I I I I I

+354
-+:IN

Cor i in reverse 6..D loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i I ? YY i%2 end loo'2

O#t'#t4

+ND2

iID iI4 iI8

Copy rights are reserved.

iI5 iI6 NULL ST,T+&+NT

106

Us#ally !hen yo# !rite a statement in a 'ro"ram) yo# !ant it to do somethin". There are cases) ho!ever) !hen yo# !ant to tell BLASQL to do a*sol#tely nothin") and that is !here the NULL comes. The NULL statement deos nothin" e3ce't 'ass control to the ne3t e3ec#ta*le statement. .o# can #se NULL statement in the ollo!in" sit#ations. Im'rovin" 'ro"ram reada*ility. Sometimes) it is hel' #l to avoid any am*i"#ity inherent in an IC statement that doesn=t cover all 'ossi*le cases. Cor e3am'le) !hen yo# !rite an IC statement) yo# do not have to incl#de an +LS+ cla#se. N#lli yin" a raised e3ce'tion. 9hen yo# don=t !ant to !rite any s'ecial code to handle an e3ce'tion) yo# can #se the NULL statement to make s#re that a raised e3ce'tion halts e3ec#tion o the c#rrent BLASQL *lock *#t does not 'ro'a"ate any e3ce'tions to enclosin" *locks. Usin" n#ll a ter a la*el. In some cases) yo# can 'air NULL !ith :OTO to avoid havin" to e3ec#te additional statements. Cor e3am'le) I #se a :OTO statement to V#ickly move to the end o my 'ro"ram i the state o my data indicates that no #rther 'rocessin" is reV#ired. -eca#se I do not have to do anythin" at the termination o the 'ro"ram) I 'lace a NULL statement a ter the la*el *eca#se at least one e3ec#ta*le statement is reV#ired there. +ven tho#"h NULL deos nothin") it is still an e3ec#ta*le statement.

:OTO ,ND L,-+LS Synta34 :oto label2 9here label is a la*el de ined in the BLASQL *lock. La*els are enclosed in do#*le an"le *rackets. 9hen a "oto statement is eval#ated) control immediately 'asses to the statement identi ied *y the la*el. +34
-+:IN

+ND2

Cor i in 6..D loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i I ? YY i%2 i i I 4 then "oto e3itNloo'2 end i 2 end loo'2 00e3itNloo'11 N#ll2

O#t'#t4 i i i i I I I I 6 5 8 4

Copy rights are reserved.

R+STRICTIONS ON :OTO

107

It is ille"al to *ranch into an inner *lock) loo'. ,t least one e3ec#ta*le statement m#st ollo!. It is ille"al to *ranch into an i statement. It is ille"al to *ranch rom one i statement to another i statement. It is ille"al to *ranch rom e3ce'tion *lock to the c#rrent *lock.

BR,:&,S Bra"mas are com'iler directives. They serve as instr#ctions to the BLASQL com'iler. The com'iler !ill act on the 'ra"ma d#rin" the com'ilation o the *lock. Synta34
BR:,&, BLASQL

instruction_to_compiler.

o ers several 'ra"mas4

,UTONO&OUSNTR,NS,CTION +/C+BTIONNINIT R+STRICTNR+C+R+NC+S S+RI,LL.NR+US,-L+

SU-BRO:R,&S
BROC+DUR+S , 'roced#re is a mod#le that 'er orms one or more actions. Synta34 Broced#re Oschema.Pname O$parameter1 O)parameter2 SP%P Oa#thid de iner Y c#rrentN#serP is (( OdeclarationsP -e"in (( e3ec#ta*le statements O+3ce'tion (( e3ce'tion handlersP +nd OnameP2 In the a*ove aut'id cla#se de ines !hether the 'roced#re !ill e3ec#te #nder the a#thority o the de iner o the 'roced#re or #nder the a#thority o the c#rrent #ser. CUNCTIONS , #nction is a mod#le that ret#rns a val#e. Synta34 C#nction Oschema.Pname O$parameter1 O)parameter2 SP%P Ret#rn ret#rnNdataty'e Oa#thid de iner Y c#rrentN#serP OdeterministicP O'arallelNena*leP is (( OdeclarationsP -e"in (( e3ec#ta*le statements O+3ce'tion (( e3ce'tion handlersP +nd OnameP2

Copy rights are reserved.

In the a*ove aut'id cla#se de ines !hether the 'roced#re !ill e3ec#te #nder the a#thority o the de iner o the 'roced#re or #nder the a#thority o the c#rrent #ser.

108

,eterministic cla#se de ines) an o'timiUation hint that lets the system #se a saved co'y o the #nction=s ret#rn res#lt) i availa*le. The V#ety o'timiUer can choose !hether to #se the saved co'y or re(call the #nction. 6arallel_enable cla#se de ines) an o'timiUation hint that ena*les the #nction to *e e3ec#ted in 'arallel !hen called rom !ithin S+L+CT statement. B,R,&+T+R &OD+S In $De a#lt% O#t In o#t
IN

In 'arameter !ill act as pl9s-l constant.

OUT

IN OUT

O#t 'arameter !ill act as unintiali+ed variable. .o# cannot 'rovide a de a#lt val#e to an out 'arameter. ,ny assi"nments made to out 'arameter are rolled *ack !hen an e3ce'tion is raised in the 'ro"ram. ,n act#al 'arameter corres'ondin" to an out ormal 'arameter m#st *e a varia*le.

In o#t 'arameter !ill act as initiali+ed variable. ,n act#al 'arameter corres'ondin" to an in out ormal 'arameter m#st *e a varia*le.

D+C,ULT B,R,&+T+RS De a#lt Barameters !ill not allo! in the be innin and middle. .ut and 4n .ut 'arameters can not have de a#lt val#es. +34 'roced#re '$a in n#m*er de a#lt D) * in n#m*er de a#lt E) c in n#m*er de a#lt W% ] valid 'roced#re '$a in n#m*er) * in n#m*er de a#lt E) c in n#m*er de a#lt W% ] valild 'roced#re '$a in n#m*er) * in n#m*er) c in n#m*er de a#lt W% ] valild 'roced#re '$a in n#m*er) * in n#m*er de a#lt E) c in n#m*er% ] invalild 'roced#re '$a in n#m*er de a#lt D) * in n#m*er de a#lt E) c in n#m*er% ] invalild 'roced#re '$a in n#m*er de a#lt D) * in n#m*er) c in n#m*er% ] invalild NOT,TIONS Notations are o t!o ty'es. Bositional notation Name notation

9e can com*ine 'ositional and name notation *#t 'ositional notation can not *e ollo!ed *y the name notation.

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109
+34 S#''ose !e have a 'roced#re 'roc $a n#m*er n#m*er) c n#m*er% and !e have one ,nonymo#s *lock !hich contains v6) v5) and v82
SQL1 SQL1

e3ec 'roc $v6)v5)v8% e3ec 'roc $aI1v6)*I1v5)cI1v8%

(( Bositional notation (( Named notation

COR&,L ,ND ,CTU,L B,R,&+T+RS Barameters !hich are in callin" s#*'ro"ram are actual parameters. Barameters !hich are in called s#*'ro"ram are %ormal parameters. I any s#*'ro"ram !as called) once the call !as com'leted then the val#es o ormal Barameters are co'ied to the act#al 'arameters.

+364

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ S,&BL+ $a

in n#m*er)* o#t n#m*er)c in

o#t n#m*er% is
-+:IN

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter call?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?a I ? YY a YY? * I ? YY * YY ? c I ? YY c%2 * 4I 672 c 4I 572 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter assi"nment?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?a I ? YY a YY? * I ? YY * YY ? c I ? YY c%2
+ND S,&BL+2 D+CL,R+

v6 n#m*er 4I 42 v5 n#m*er 4I D2 v8 n#m*er 4I E2

-+:IN

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?-e ore call?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?v6 I ? YY v6 YY ? v5 I ? YY v5 YY ? v8 I ? YY v8%2 sam'le$v6)v5)v8%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter com'letion o call?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?v6 I ? YY v6 YY ? v5 I ? YY v5 YY ? v8 I ? YY v8%2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

-e ore call v6 I 4 v5 I D v8 I E , ter call aI4*I cIE , ter assi"nment a I 4 * I 67 c I 57 , ter com'letion o call v6 I 4 v5 I 67 v8 I 57
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ CUN$a

+354

in n#m*er)* o#t n#m*er)c in o#t n#m*er%

ret#rn n#m*er
-+:IN

IS

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter call?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?a I ? YY a YY ? * I ? YY * YY ? c I ? YY c%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?-e ore assi"nement Res#lt I ? YY $aFnvl$*)6%Fc%%2

Copy rights are reserved.

* 4I D2 c 4I W2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter assi"nment?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?a I ? YY a YY ? * I ? YY * YY ? c I ? YY c%2 ret#rn $aF*Fc%2

+ND CUN2 D+CL,R+

110

-+:IN

v6 n#m*er 4I 62 v5 n#m*er 4I 52 v8 n#m*er 4I 82 v n#m*er2

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?-e ore call?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?v6 I ? YY v6 YY ? v5 I ? YY v5 YY ? v8 I ? YY v8%2 v 4I #n$v6)v5)v8%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter call com'leted?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?v6 I ? YY v6 YY ? v5 I ? YY v5 YY ? v8 I ? YY v8%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Res#lt I ? YY v%2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

-e ore call v6 I 6 v5 I 5 v8 I 8 , ter call aI6*I cI8 -e ore assi"nement Res#lt I 8 , ter assi"nment aI6*IDcIW , ter call com'leted v6 I 6 v5 I D v8 I W Res#lt I 8D

R+STRICTIONS ON COR&,L B,R,&+T+RS

-y declarin" !ith s'eci ied siUe in act#al 'arameters. -y declarin" ormal 'arameters !ith Mty'e s'eci ier.

USIN: NOCOB. +34 :ocopy is a hint) not a command. This means that the com'iler mi"ht silently decide that it can=t #l ill yo#r reV#est or a nocopy 'arameter. The co'yin" rom ormal to act#al can *e restricted *y iss#in" nocopy V#ali ier. To 'ass the o#t and in o#t 'arameters *y re erence #se noco'y V#ali ier.
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ BROC$a -+:IN (((( +ND BROC2

in o#t noco'y n#m*er% IS

C,LL ,ND +/+C Call is a

SQL

statement) !hich can *e #sed to e3ec#te s#*'ro"rams like e3ec.

Synta34 Call subpro ram_name$Oar ument_listP% Ointo 'ost_variableP2

Copy rights are reserved.

111
The 'arantheses are al!ays reV#ired) even i the s#*'ro"ram takes no ar"#ments. 9e can not #se call !ith out and in out 'arameters. Call is a SQL statement) it is not valid inside a BLASQL *lock2 The INTO cla#se is #sed or the o#t'#t varia*les o #nctions only. 9e can not #se Le3ec= !ith out or in out 'arameters. +3ec is not valid inside a BLASQL *lock2
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC IS -+:IN +ND BROC2 SQL1

+364

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?hello !orld?%2 call 'roc$%2 hello !orld in n#m*er)* in n#m*er%

O#t'#t4

+354
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC$a -+:IN +ND BROC2 IS

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?a I ? YY a YY ? * I ? YY *%2

O#t'#t4
SQL1

call 'roc$D)E%2 aID*IE

+384
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ CUNCTION CUN R+TURN ;,RC<,R IS -+:IN +ND CUN2

ret#rn ?hello !orld?2

O#t'#t4 varia*le v varchar$57% call #n$% into 4v2 SQL1 'rint v hello !orld
SQL1 SQL1

C,LL -. R+C+R+NC+ ,ND C,LL -. ;,LU+ In 'arameters *y de a#lt call by re%erence !here as o#t and in o#t call by value. 9hen 'arameter 'assed *y re erence) a 'ointer to the act#al 'arameter is 'assed to the corres'ondin" ormal 'arameter. 9hen 'arameter 'assed *y val#e it co'ies the val#e o the act#al 'arameter to the ormal 'arameter. Call *y re erence is aster than the call *y val#e *eca#se it avoids the co'yin".

SU-BRO:R,&S O;+RLO,DIN: +34 Bossi*le !ith di erent n#m*er o 'arameters. Bossi*le !ith di erent ty'es o data. Bossi*le !ith same ty'e !ith o*Kects. Can not *e 'ossi*le !ith di erent ty'es o modes. 9e can overload local s#*'ro"rams also.

Copy rights are reserved.

SQL1 SQL1

create or re'lace ty'e t6 as o*Kect$a n#m*er%2A create or re'lace ty'e t6 as o*Kect$a n#m*er%2A
D+CL,R+

112

BROC+DUR+ B$m t6% IS -+:IN +ND B2 BROC+DUR+ B$n t5% IS -+:IN

i t6 4I t6$D%2 K t5 4I t5$D%2

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?a I ? YY m.a%2

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?* I ? YY n.*%2

+ND B2 BROC+DUR+ BRODUCT$a n#m*er)* n#m*er% IS -+:IN

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Brod#ct o a)* I ? YY a F *%2

+ND BRODUCT2 BROC+DUR+ BRODUCT$a n#m*er)* n#m*er)c n#m*er% IS -+:IN +ND BRODUCT2 -+:IN

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Brod#ct o a)* I ? YY a F * F c%2

'$i%2 '$K%2 'rod#ct$4)D%2 'rod#ct$4)D)E%2

+ND2

O#t'#t4 aID *ID Brod#ct o a)* I 57 Brod#ct o a)* I 657

-+N+CITS OC O;+RLO,DIN:

S#''ortin" many data com*inations Cittin" the 'ro"ram to the #ser.

R+STRICTIONS ON O;+RLO,DIN:

Overloaded 'ro"rams !ith 'arameter lists that di er only *y name m#st *e called #sin" named notation. The 'arameter list o overloaded 'ro"rams m#st di er *y more than 'arameter mode. ,ll o the overloaded 'ro"rams m#st *e de ined !ithin the same BLASQL sco'e or *lock. Overloaded #nctions m#st di er *y more than their ret#rn ty'e.

I&BORT,NT BOINTS ,-OUT SU-BRO:R,&S 9hen a stored s#*'ro"ram is created) it is stored in the data dictionary. The s#*'ro"ram is stored in com'ile orm !hich is kno!n as p/code in addition to the so#rce te3t. The '(code has all o the re erences in the s#*'ro"ram eval#ated) and the so#rce code is translated into a orm that is easily reada*le *y BLASQL en"ine. 9hen the s#*'ro"ram is called) the '(code is read rom the disk) i necessary) and e3ec#ted.

Copy rights are reserved.

113 Once it reads rom the disk) the '(code is stored in the shared 'ool
'ortion o the system "lo*al area $S:,%) !here it can *e accessed *y m#lti'le #sers as needed. Like all o the contents o the shared 'ool) '(code is a"ed o#t o the shared 'ool accordin" to a least recently #sed $LRU% al"orithm. S#*'ro"rams can *e local. Local s#*'ro"rams m#st *e declared in the declarative section o BLASQL *lock and called rom the e3ec#ta*le section. S#*'ro"rams can not have the declarative section se'arately. Stored s#*'ro"rams can have local s#*'ro"rams2 Local s#*'ro"rams also can have local s#*'ro"rams. I the s#*'ro"ram contains a varia*le !ith the same name as the col#mn name o the ta*le then #se the dot method to di erentiate $subpro ram_name.sal%. S#*'ro"rams can *e invalidated.

BROC+DUR+S ; CUNCTIONS Broced#res may ret#rn thro#"h o#t and in o#t 'arameters !here as #nction m#st ret#rn. Broced#res can not have ret#rn cla#se !here as #nctions m#st. 9e can #se call statement directly or e3ec#tin" 'roced#re !here as !e need to declare a varia*le in case o #nctions. C#nctions can #se in select statements !here as 'roced#res can not. C#nctions can call rom re'orts environment !here as 'roced#res can not. 9e can #se e3ec or e3ec#tin" 'roced#res !here as #nctions can not. C#nction can *e #sed in d*msNo#t'#t !here as 'roced#re can not. Broced#re call is a standalone e3ec#ta*le statement !here as #nction call is a 'art o an e3ec#ta*le statement.

STOR+D ; LOC,L SU-BRO:R,&S The stored s#*'ro"ram is stored in com'iled '(code in the data*ase) !hen the 'roced#re is called it does not have to *e com'iled. The local s#*'ro"ram is com'iled as 'art o its containin" *lock. I the containin" *lock is anonymo#s and is r#n m#lti'le times) the s#*'ro"ram has to *e com'iled each time. Stored s#*'ro"rams can *e called rom any *lock s#*mitted *y a #ser !ho has e3ec#te 'rivile"es on the s#*'ro"ram. Local s#*'ro"rams can *e called only rom the *lock containin" the s#*'ro"ram. -y kee'in" the stored s#*'ro"ram code se'arate rom the callin" *lock) the callin" *lock is shorter and easier to #nderstand. The local s#*'ro"ram and the callin" *lock are one and the same) !hich can lead to 'art con #sion. I a chan"e to the callin" *lock is made) the s#*'ro"ram !ill *e recom'iled as o the recom'ilation o the containin" *lock. The com'iled '(code can *e 'inned in the shared 'ool #sin" the D-&SNS<,R+DNBOOL Backa"e. This can im'rove 'er ormance. Local s#*'ro"rams cannot *e 'inned in the shared 'ool *y themselves. Stand alone stored s#*'ro"rams can not *e overloaded) *#t 'acka"ed s#*'ro"rams can *e overloaded !ithin the same 'acka"e. Local s#*'ro"rams can *e overloaded !ithin the same *lock.

Copy rights are reserved.

+364
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B IS -+:IN +ND2

114

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Stored s#*'ro"ram?%2

O#t'#t4 e3ec ' Stored s#*'ro"ram

SQL1

+354
D+CL,R+ BROC+DUR+ B IS -+:IN +ND2 -+:IN +ND2

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Local s#*'ro"ram?%2

'2

O#t'#t4 Local s#*'ro"ram CO&BILIN: SU-BRO:R,&S

SQL1 SQL1

,lter 'roced#re B6 com'ile2 ,lter #nction C6 com'ile2

SU-BRO:R,&S D+B+ND+CI+S , stored s#*'ro"ram is marked as invalid in the data dictionary i it has com'ile errors. , stored s#*'ro"ram can also *ecome invalid i a DDL o'eration is 'er ormed on one o its de'endent o*Kects. I a s#*'ro"ram is invalidated) the BLASQL en"ine !ill a#tomatically attem't to recom'ile in the ne3t time it is called. I !e have t!o 'roced#res like B6 and B5 in !hich B6 de'ends on B5. I !e com'ile B5 then B6 is invalidated.

SU-BRO:R,&S D+B+ND+NCI+S IN R+&OT+ D,T,-,S+S

9e !ill call remote s#*'ro"ram #sin" connect strin" like B6@OR,CL+2

I !e have t!o 'roced#res like B6 and B5 in !hich B6 de'ends on B5 *#t B5 !as in remote data*ase. I !e com'ile B5 it !ill not invalidate B6 immediately *eca#se the data dictionary does not track remote de'endencies. Instead the validity o remote o*Kects is checked at r#ntime. 9hen B6 is called) the remote data dictionary is V#eried to determine the stat#s o B5. B6 and B5 are com'ared to see it B6 needs to *e recom'iled) there are t!o di erent methods o com'arision Timestam' &odel Si"nat#re &odel

TI&+ST,&B &OD+L This is the de a#lt model #sed *y oracle. 9ith this model) the timestam's o the last modi ications o o*Kects are the t!o

Copy rights are reserved.

com'ared. The last_ddl_time ield o user_ob!ects contains the timestam'. I the *ase o*Kect has a ne!er timestam' than the de'endent o*Kect) the de'endent o*Kect !ill *e recom'iled.
ISSU+S 9IT< T<IS &OD+L

115

I the o*Kects are in di erent time Uones) the com'arison is invalid. 9hen B6 is in a client side BLASQL en"ine s#ch as oracle orms) in this case it may not 'ossi*le to recom'ile B6) *eca#se the so#rce or it may not *e incl#ded !ith the orms.

SI:N,TUR+ &OD+L 9hen a 'roced#re is created) a si"nat#re is stored in the data dictionary in addition to the '(code. The si"nat#re encodes the ty'es and order o the 'arametes. 9hen B6 is com'iled the irst time) the si"nat#re o B5 is incl#ded. Th#s) B6 only needs to recom'iled !hen the si"nat#re o B5 chan"es. In order to #se the si"nat#re model) the 'arameter R+&OT+ND+B+ND+NCI+SN&OD+ m#st *e set to SI:N,TUR+. This is a 'arameter in the data*ase initialiUation ile.

T<R++ 9,.S OC S+TTIN: T<IS &OD+

,dd the line

R+&OT+ND+B+ND+NCI+SN&OD+ISI:N,TUR+ to the data*ase initialiUation ile. The ne3t time the data*ase is started) the mode !ill *e set to SI:N,TUR+ or all sessions. ,lter system set remoteNde'endenciesNmode I si"nat#re2 This !ill a ect the entire data*ase $all sessions% rom the time the statement is iss#ed. .o# m#st have the ,LT+R S.ST+& 'rivile"e to iss#e this command. ,lter session set remoteNde'endenciesNmode I si"nat#re2 This !ill only a ect yo#r session ISSU+S 9IT< T<IS &OD+L

Si"nat#res don=t "et modi ied i the de a#lt val#es o ormal 'arameters are chan"ed. S#''ose B5 has a de a#lt val#e or one o its 'arameters) and B6 is #sin" this de a#lt val#e. I the de a#lt in the s'eci ication or B5 is chan"ed) B6 !ill not *e recom'iled *y de a#lt. The old val#e or the de a#lt 'arameter !ill still *e #sed #ntil B6 is man#ally recom'iled. I B6 is callin" a 'acka"ed 'roced#re B5) and a ne! overloaded version o B5 is added to the remote 'acka"e) the si"nat#re is not chan"ed. B6 !ill still #se the old version $not the ne! overloaded one% #ntil B6 is recom'iled man#ally.

COR9,RD D+CL+R,TION -e ore "oin" to #se the 'roced#re in any other s#*'ro"ram or other *lock ) yo# m#st declare the 'rototy'e o the 'roced#re in declarative section. +364

Copy rights are reserved.

D+CL,R+ BROC+DUR+ B6 IS -+:IN

116

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Crom 'roced#re '6?%2 '52

+ND B62 BROC+DUR+ B5 IS -+:IN

+ND B52 BROC+DUR+ B8 IS -+:IN +ND B82 -+:IN

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Crom 'roced#re '5?%2 '82

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Crom 'roced#re '8?%2

'62

+ND2

O#t'#t4

'52 F +RROR at line D4 OR,(7EDD74 line D) col#mn 64 BLS(778684 ?B5? not declared in this sco'e OR,(7EDD74 line D) col#mn 64 BLASQL4 Statement i"nored OR,(7EDD74 line 67) col#mn 64 BLS(778684 ?B8? not declared in this sco'e OR,(7EDD74 line 67) col#mn 64 BLASQL4 Statement i"nored
D+CL,R+ BROC+DUR+ B52 (( BROC+DUR+ B82 BROC+DUR+ B6 IS -+:IN

+354 or!ard declaration

+ND B62 BROC+DUR+ B5 IS -+:IN

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Crom 'roced#re '6?%2 '52

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Crom 'roced#re '5?%2 '82

+ND B52 BROC+DUR+ B8 IS -+:IN +ND B82 -+:IN +ND2

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Crom 'roced#re '8?%2

'62

O#t'#t4 Crom 'roced#re '6 Crom 'roced#re '5 Crom 'roced#re '8 BRI;IL+:+S ,ND STOR+D SU-BRO:R,&S
+/+CUT+ BR+;IL+:+

Cor stored s#*'ro"rams and 'acka"es the relevant 'rivile"e is

I

+/+CUT+. #ser , had the 'roced#re called em'N'roc then #ser , "rants e3ec#te 'rivile"e on 'roced#re to #ser - !ith the ollo!in" command.

Copy rights are reserved.

:rant e3ec#te on em'N'roc to #ser -. Then #ser - can r#n the 'roced#re *y iss#in" SQL1 +3ec #ser ,.em'N'roc
SQL1

117

#ser, created the ollo!in" 'roced#re

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B IS -+:IN

c#rsor is select F rom st#dent62 or v in c loo' insert into st#dent5 val#es$v.no)v.name)v.marks%2 end loo'2

+ND B2

#ser, "ranted e3ec#te 'rivile"e to #ser- #sin" SQL1 "rant e3ec#te on ' to #serThen #ser- e3ec#ted the 'roced#re SQL1 +3ec #ser,.' I s#''ose #ser- also havin" st#dent5 ta*le then !hich ta*le !ill 'o'#late !hether #ser,=s or #ser-=s. The ans!er is #ser,=s st#dent5 ta*le only *eca#se *y de a#lt the 'roced#re !ill e3ec#te #nder the 'rivli"e set o its o!ner. The a*ove 'roced#re is kno!n as de iner=s 'roced#re.
<O9 TO BOBUL,T+ US+R -=s T,-L+

Oracle introd#ces 4nvoker;s and ,e%iner;s ri 'ts. -y de a#lt it !ill #se the de iner=s ri"hts. ,n invoker=s ri"hts ro#tine can *e created *y #sin" ,UT<ID cla#se to 'o'#late the #ser-=s ta*le. It is valid or stand(alone s#*'ro"rams) 'acka"e s'eci ications) and o*Kect ty'e s'eci ications only. #ser, created the ollo!in" 'roced#re
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B ,UT<ID CURR+NTNUS+R IS -+:IN

c#rsor is select F rom st#dent62 or v in c loo' insert into st#dent5 val#es$v.no)v.name)v.marks%2 end loo'2

+ND B2

Then "rant e3ec#te 'rivile"e on ' to #ser-. +3ec#tin" the 'roced#re *y #ser-) !hich 'o'#lates #ser-=s ta*le. The a*ove 'roced#re is called invoker=s 'roced#re. Instead o c#rrentN#ser o a#thid cla#se) i yo# #se de iner then it !ill *e called de iner= 'roced#re.
STOR+D SU-BRO:R,&S ,ND ROL+S

!e have t!o #sers saketh and s#dha in !hich saketh has st#dent ta*le and s#dha does not. S#dha is "oin" to create a 'roced#re *ased on st#dent ta*le o!ned *y saketh. -e ore doin" this saketh m#st "rant the 'ermissions on this ta*le to s#dha.

Copy rights are reserved.

118
conn sakethAsaketh "rant all on st#dent to s#dha2 then s#dha can create 'roced#re SQL1 conn s#dhaAs#dha
SQL1 SQL1 CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B IS -+:IN

c#rsor c is select F rom saketh.st#dent2 or v in c loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$LNo I L YY v.no%2 end loo'2

+ND B2

here 'roced#re !ill *e created. I the same 'rivile"e !as "ranted thro#"h a role it !ont create the 'roced#re. +3amine the ollo!in" code conn sakethAsaketh create role sakethNrole2 SQL1 "rant all on st#dent to sakethNrole2 SQL1 "rant sakethNrole to s#dha2 then conn s#dhaAs#dha
SQL1 SQL1 CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B IS -+:IN

c#rsor c is select F rom saketh.st#dent2 or v in c loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$LNo I L YY v.no%2 end loo'2

+ND B2

The a*ove code !ill raise error instead o creatin" 'roced#re . This is *eca#se o early *indin" !hich BLASQL #ses *y de a#lt in !hich re erences are eval#ated in com'ile time *#t !hen yo# are #sin" a role this !ill a ect immediately.
ISSU+S 9IT< IN;OG+R=S RI:<TS

In an invoker=s ri"hts ro#tine) e3ternal re erences in

SQL statements !ill *e resolved #sin" the caller=s 'rivile"e set. -#t re erences in BLASQL statements are still resolved #nder the o!ner=s 'rivile"e set.

TRI::+RS) ;I+9S ,ND IN;OG+R=S RI:<TS

, data*ase tri""er !ill al!ays *e e3ec#ted !ith de iner=s ri"hts and !ill e3ec#te #nder the 'rivile"e set o the schema that o!ns the tri""erin" ta*le. This is also tr#e or BLASQL #nction that is called rom a vie!. In this case) the #nction !ill e3ec#te #nder the 'rivile"e set o the vie!=s o!ner.

B,CG,:+S
, packa e is a container or related o*Kects. It has s'eci ication and *ody. +ach o them is stored se'arately in data dictionary.

Copy rights are reserved.

B,CG,:+ S.NT,/

119

Create or re'lace 'acka"e 0packa e_name1 is (( 'acka"e s'eci ication incl#des s#*'ro"rams si"nat#res) c#rsors and "lo*al or '#*lic varia*les. +nd 0packa e_name12 Create or re'lace 'acka"e *ody 0packa e_name1 is (( 'acka"e *ody incl#des *ody or all the s#*'ro"rams declared in the s'ec) 'rivate ;aria*les and c#rsors. -e"in (( initialiUation section +3ce'tion (( +3ce'tion handlin" seciton +nd 0packa e_name12 I&BORT,NT BOIN:S ,-OUT B,CG,:+S The irst time a 'acka"ed s#*'ro"ram is called or any re erence to a 'acka"ed varia*le or ty'e is made) the 'acka"e is instantiated. +ach session !ill have its o!n co'y o 'acka"ed varia*les) ens#rin" that t!o sessions e3ec#tin" s#*'ro"rams in the same 'acka"e #se di erent memory locations. In many cases initialiUation needs to *e r#n the irst time the 'acka"e is instantiated !ithin a session. This can *e done *y addin" initialiUation section to the 'acka"e *ody a ter all the o*Kects. Backa"es are stored in the data dictionary and can not *e local. Backa"ed s#*'ro"ram has an advanta"e over stand alone s#*'ro"ram. 9hen ever any re erence to 'acka"e) the !hole 'acka"e '(code !as stored in shared 'ool o S:,. Backa"e may have local s#*'ro"rams. .o# can incl#de a#thid cla#se inside the 'acka"e s'ec not in the *ody. The e3ec#tion section o a 'acka"e is kno! as initialiUation section. .o# can have an e3ce'tion section at the *ottom o a 'acka"e *ody. Backa"es s#*'ro"rams are not invalidated.

CO&BILIN: B,CG,:+S

SQL1 SQL1 SQL1

,lter 'acka"e BG: com'ile2 ,lter 'acka"e BG: com'ile s'eci ication2 ,lter 'acka"e BG: com'ile *ody2

B,CG,:+ D+B+ND+NCI+S The 'acka"e *ody de'ends on the some o*Kects and the 'acka"e header. The 'acka"e header does not de'end on the 'acka"e *ody) !hich is an advanta"e o 'acka"es. 9e can chan"e the 'acka"e *ody !ith o#t chan"in" the header.

B,CG,:+ RUNTI&+ ST,T+ Backa"e r#ntime state is di er or the ollo!in" 'acka"es. Serially re#sa*le 'acka"es Non serially re#sa*le 'acka"es
S+RI,LL. R+US,-L+ B,CG,:+S

Copy rights are reserved.

To

orce the oracle to #se serially re#sa*le version then incl#de BR,:&, S+RI,LL.NR+US,-L+ in *oth 'acka"e s'ec and *ody) +3amine the ollo!in" 'acka"e.
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ BG: IS

120

'ra"ma seriallyNre#sa*le2 'roced#re em'N'roc2

+ND BG:2 CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ -OD. BG: IS

BROC+DUR+ +&BNBROC IS

'ra"ma seriallyNre#sa*le2 c#rsor c is select ename rom em'2 vNename em'.enameMty'e2 vN la" *oolean 4I tr#e2 vNn#mro!s n#m*er 4I 72

-+:IN

+ND +&BNBROC2 +ND BG:2 SQL1

i not cMiso'en then o'en c2 end i 2 !hile vN la" loo' etch c into vNename2 vNn#mro!s 4I vNn#mro!s H 62 i vNn#mro!s I D then vN la" 4I alse2 end i 2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?+name I ? YY vNename%2 end loo'2

e3ec 'k".em'N'roc +name I S&IT< +name I ,LL+N +name I 9,RD +name I @ON+S +name I &,RTIN e3ec 'k".em'N'roc +name I S&IT< +name I ,LL+N +name I 9,RD +name I @ON+S +name I &,RTIN

SQL1

The a*ove 'acka"e dis'lays the same o#t'#t or each e3ec#tion even tho#"h the c#rsor is not closed. -eca#se the serially re#sa*le version resets the state o the c#rsor each time it !as called.

NON S+RI,LL . R+US,-L+ B,CG,:+S

This is the de a#lt version #sed *y the oracle) e3amine the ollo!in" 'acka"e.
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ BG: IS

'roced#re em'N'roc2

+ND BG:2 CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ -OD. IS BROC+DUR+ +&BNBROC IS

c#rsor c is select ename rom em'2 vNename em'.enameMty'e2

Copy rights are reserved.

-+:IN

vN la" *oolean 4I tr#e2 vNn#mro!s n#m*er 4I 72

121

+ND +&BNBROC2 +ND BG:2 SQL1

i not cMiso'en then o'en c2 end i 2 !hile vN la" loo' etch c into vNename2 vNn#mro!s 4I vNn#mro!s H 62 i vNn#mro!s I D then vN la" 4I alse2 end i 2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?+name I ? YY vNename%2 end loo'2

e3ec 'k".em'N'roc +name I S&IT< +name I ,LL+N +name I 9,RD +name I @ON+S +name I &,RTIN e3ec 'k".em'N'roc +name +name +name +name +name I I I I I
-L,G+ CL,RG SCOTT GIN: TURN+R

SQL1

The a*ove 'acka"e dis'lays the di erent o#t'#t or each e3ec#tion even tho#"h the c#rsor is not closed. -eca#se the non(serially re#sa*le version remains the state o the c#rsor over data*ase calls.

D+B+ND+NCI+S OC B,CG,:+ RUNTI&+ ST,T+

De'endencies can e3ists *et!een 'acka"e state and anonymo#s *locks. +3amine the ollo!in" 'ro"ram Create this 'acka"e in irst session
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ BG: IS

+ND BG:2

v n#m*er 4I D2 'roced#re '2

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ -OD. BG: IS BROC+DUR+ B IS -+:IN

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?v I ? YY v%2 v 4I 672 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?v I ? YY v%2

+ND B2 +ND BG:2

Connect to second session) r#n the ollo!in" code.

-+:IN +ND2

'k".'2

Copy rights are reserved.

The a*ove code !il !ork. :o *ack to irst session and recreate the 'acka"e #sin" create. Then connect to second session and r#n the ollo!in" code a"ain.
-+:IN +ND2

122

'k".'2

This a*ove code !ill not !ork *eca#se o the ollo!in". The anonymo#s *lock de'ends on 'k". This is com'ile time de'endency. There is also a r#ntime de'endency on the 'acka"ed varia*les) since each session has its o!n co'y o 'acka"ed varia*les. Th#s !hen 'k" is recom'iled the r#ntime de'endency is ollo!ed) !hich invalidates the *lock and raises the oracle error. R#ntime de'endencies e3ist only on 'acka"e state. This incl#des varia*les and c#rsors declared in a 'acka"e. I the 'acka"e had no "lo*al varia*les) the second e3ec#tion o the anonymo#s *lock !o#ld have s#cceeded.

BURIT. L+;+LS In "eneral) calls to s#*'ro"rams are 'roced#ral) they cannot *e called rom SQL statements. <o!ever) i a stand(alone or 'acka"ed #nction meets certain restrictions) it can *e called d#rin" e3ec#tion o a SQL statement. User(de ined #nctions are called the same !ay as *#ilt(in #nctions *#t it m#st meet di erent restrictions. These restrictions are de ined in terms o '#rity levels. There are o#r ty'es o '#rity levels.
9NDS RNDS 9NBS RNBS

(( (( (( ((

9rites No Data*ase State Reads No Data*ase State 9rites No Backa"e State Reads No Backa"e State

In addition to the 'recedin" restrictions) a #ser(de ined #nction m#st also meet the ollo!in" reV#irements to *e called rom a SQL statement. The #nction has to *e stored in the data*ase) either stand(alone or as 'art o a 'acka"e. The #nction can take only in 'arametes. The ormal 'arameters m#st #se only data*ase ty'es) not BLASQL ty'es s#ch as *oolean or record. The ret#rn ty'e o the #nction m#st also *e a data*ase ty'e. The #nction m#st not end the c#rrent transaction !ith commit or roll*ack) or roll*ack to a save'oint 'rior to the #nction e3ec#tion. It also m#st not iss#e any alter session or alter system commands.

R+STRICTNR+C+R+NC+S

Cor 'acka"ed #nctions) ho!ever) the R+STRICTNR+C+R+NC+S 'ra"ma is reV#ired to s'eci y the '#rity level o a "iven #nction. Synta34
BR,:&, R+STRICTNR+C+R+NC+S$subpro ram_name O)9NBSP O)RNDSP O)RNBSP%2

or packa e_name)

9NDS

Copy rights are reserved.

123
+34
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ BG: IS

#nction #n6 ret#rn varchar2 'ra"ma restrictNre erences$ #n6)!nds%2 #nction #n5 ret#rn varchar2 'ra"ma restrictNre erences$ #n5)!nds%2
+ND BG:2 CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ -OD. BG: IS CUNCTION CUN6 ret#rn varchar IS -+:IN

+ND CUN62 CUNCTION CUN5 -+:IN

#'date de't set de'tno I 662 ret#rn ?hello?2 ret#rn varchar

IS

#'date de't set dname I?aa?2 ret#rn ?hello?2

+ND CUN52 +ND BG:2

The a*ove 'acka"e *ody !ill not created) it !ill "ive the ollo!in" erros. BLS(774D54 S#*'ro"ram ?CUN6? violates its associated 'ra"ma BLS(774D54 S#*'ro"ram ?CUN5? violates its associated 'ra"ma
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ -OD. BG: IS CUNCTION CUN6 ret#rn varchar IS -+:IN

ret#rn ?hello?2

+ND CUN62 CUNCTION CUN5 -+:IN +ND CUN52 +ND BG:2

ret#rn varchar

IS

ret#rn ?hello?2

No! the 'acka"e *ody !ill *e created.

D+C,ULT

I there is no R+STRICTNR+C+R+NC+S 'ra"ma associated !ith a "iven 'acka"ed #nction) it !ill not have any '#rity level asserted. <o!ever) yo# can chan"e the de a#lt '#rity level or a 'acka"e. The D+C,ULT key!ord is #sed instead o the s#*'ro"ram name in the 'ra"ma. +34
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ BG: IS

+ND BG:2

'ra"ma restrictNre erences$de a#lt)!nds%2 #nction #n6 ret#rn varchar2 #nction #n5 ret#rn varchar2

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ -OD. BG: IS CUNCTION CUN6 ret#rn varchar IS -+:IN

#'date de't set de'tno I 662 ret#rn ?hello?2

+ND CUN62 CUNCTION CUN5 -+:IN

ret#rn varchar

IS

+ND CUN52 +ND BG:2

#'date de't set dname I?aa?2 ret#rn ?hello?2

Copy rights are reserved.

124
The a*ove 'acka"e *ody !ill not created) it !ill "ive the *eca#se the 'ra"ma !ill a''ly to all the #nctions. ollo!in" erros

BLS(774D54 S#*'ro"ram ?CUN6? violates its associated 'ra"ma BLS(774D54 S#*'ro"ram ?CUN5? violates its associated 'ra"ma
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ -OD. BG: IS CUNCTION CUN6 ret#rn varchar IS -+:IN

ret#rn ?hello?2

+ND CUN62 CUNCTION CUN5 -+:IN +ND CUN52 +ND BG:2

ret#rn varchar

IS

ret#rn ?hello?2

No! the 'acka"e *ody !ill *e created.

TRUST

I the TRUST key!ord is 'resent) the restrictions listed in the 'ra"ma are not en orced. Rather) they are tr#sted to *e tr#e. +34
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ BG: IS

+ND BG:2

#nction #n6 ret#rn varchar2 'ra"ma restrictNre erences$ #n6)!nds)tr#st%2 #nction #n5 ret#rn varchar2 'ra"ma restrictNre erences$ #n5)!nds)tr#st%2

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ -OD. BG: IS CUNCTION CUN6 ret#rn varchar IS -+:IN

#'date de't set de'tno I 662 ret#rn ?hello?2

+ND CUN62 CUNCTION CUN5 -+:IN

ret#rn varchar

IS

+ND CUN52 +ND BG:2

#'date de't set dname I?aa?2 ret#rn ?hello?2

The a*ove 'acka"e !ill *e created s#ccess #lly.

I&BORT,NT BOINTS ,-OUT R+STRICTNR+C+R+NC+S

This 'ra"ma can a''ear any!here in the 'acka"e s'eci ication) a ter the #nction declaration. It can a''ly to only one #nction de inition. Cor overload #nctions) the 'ra"ma a''lies to the nearest de inition 'rior to the 'ra"ma. This 'ra"ma is reV#ired only or 'acka"es #nctions not or stand(alone #nctions. The Bra"ma can *e declared only inside the 'acka"e s'eci ication. The 'ra"ma is checked at com'ile time) not r#ntime. It is 'ossi*le to s'eci y !itho#t any '#rity levels !hen tr#st or com*ination o de a#lt and tr#st key!ords are 'resent.

Copy rights are reserved.

125
BINNIN: IN T<+ S<,R+D BOOL The s'ared pool is the 'ortion o the S:S that contains) amon" other thin"s) the '(code o com'iled s#*'ro"rams as they are r#n. The irst time a stored a store s#*'ro"ram is called) the '(code is loaded rom disk into the shared 'ool. Once the o*Kect is no lon"er re erenced) it is ree to *e a"ed o#t. O*Kects are a"ed o#t o the shared 'ool #sin" an LRU$Least Recently Used% al"orithm. The D-&SNS<,R+DNBOOL 'acka"e allo!s yo# to 'in o*Kects in the shared 'ool. 9hen an o*Kect is 'inned) it !ill never *e a"ed o#t #ntil yo# reV#est it) no matter ho! #ll the 'ool "ets or ho! o ten the o*Kect is accessed. This can im'rove 'er ormance) as it takes time to reload a 'acka"e rom disk.
D-&SNS<,R+DNBOOL G++B

has o#r 'roced#res

G++B UNG++B SI[+S ,-ORT+DNR+QU+STNT<R+S<OLD

The

D-&SNS<,R+DNBOOL.G++B

'roced#re is #sed to 'in o*Kects in the 'ool. varchar5)%la char de a#lt LB=%2 or di erent ty'es o

Synta34

BROC+DUR+ G++B$ob!ect_name

<ere the la" re'resents di erent ty'es o o*Kects. B Q R C T @S @C @R @D

UNG++B

la" val#es

(( (( (( (( (( (( (( (( ((

Backa"e) #nction or 'roced#re SeV#ence Tri""er SQL C#rsor O*Kect ty'e @ava so#rce @ava class @ava reso#rce @ava shared data

is the only !ay to remove a ke't o*Kect rom the shared 'ool) !itho#t restartin" the data*ase. Ge't o*Kects are never a"ed o#t a#tomatically.
UNG++B

Synta34
BROC+DUR+ UNG++B$ob!ect_name SI[+S SI[+S

varchar5) %la

char de a#lt LB=%2

!ill echo the contents o the shared 'ool to the screen.

Synta34

BROC+DUR+ SI[+S$minsi+e n#m*er%2 O*Kects !ith "reater than the minsi+e !ill *e ret#rned. to ret#rn the data. ,-ORT+DNR+QU+STNT<R+S<OLD

SI[+S

#ses

D-&SNOUTBUT

9hen the data*ase determines that there is not eno#"h memory in the shared 'ool to satis y a "iven reV#est) it !ill *e"in a"in" o*Kects o#t #ntil there is

Copy rights are reserved.

eno#"h memory. It eno#"h o*Kects are a"ed o#t) this can have a 'er ormance im'act on other data*ase sessions. The ,-ORT+DNR+QU+STNT<R+S<OLD can *e #sed to remedy this. Synta34
BROC+DUR+ ,-ORT+DNR+QU+STNT<R+S<OLD$t'res'old_si+e

126

n#m*er%2

Once this 'roced#re is called) oracle !ill not start a"in" o*Kects rom the 'ool #nless at least t'res'old_si+e *ytes is needed.

D,T, &OD+L COR SU-BRO:R,&S ,ND B,CG,:+S US+RNO-@+CTS US+RNSOURC+ US+RN+RRORS D-,NO-@+CTS D-,NSOURC+ D-,N+RRORS ,LLNO-@+CTS ,LLNSOURC+ ,LLN+RRORS

CURSORS
Cursor is a 'ointer to memory location !hich is called as conte&t area !hich contains the in ormation necessary or 'rocessin") incl#din" the n#m*er o ro!s 'rocessed *y the statement) a 'ointer to the 'arsed re'resentation o the statement) and the active set !hich is the set o ro!s ret#rned *y the V#ery. C#rsor contains t!o 'arts <eader -ody <eader incl#des c#rsor name) any 'arameters and the ty'e o loaded. -ody incl#des the select statement. +34 C#rsor c$dno in n#m*er% ret#rn de'tMro!ty'e is select F rom de't2 In the a*ove <eader ] c#rsor c$dno in n#m*er% ret#rn de'tMro!ty'e -ody ] select F rom de't CURSOR T.B+S Im'licit $SQL% +3'licit BarameteriUed c#rsors R+C c#rsors data *ein"

CURSOR ST,:+S

Copy rights are reserved.

127
O'en Cetch Close

CURSOR ,TTRI-UT+S M o#nd Mnot o#nd Mro!co#nt Miso'en M*#lkNro!co#nt M*#lkNe3ce'tions

CURSOR D+CL+R,TION Synta34 C#rsor 0cursor_name1 is select statement2 +34 C#rsor c is select F rom de't2 CURSOR LOOBS
SI&BL+ LOOB

Sim'le loo' 9hile loo' Cor loo'

Synta34 Loo' Cetch 0cursor_name1 into 0record_variable12 +3it !hen 0cursor_name1 M not o#nd2 0statements12 +nd loo'2 +34
D+CL,R+

-+:IN

c#rsor c is select F rom st#dent2 vNst#d st#dentMro!ty'e2 o'en c2 loo' etch c into vNst#d2 e3it !hen cMnot o#nd2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Name I ? YY vNst#d.name%2 end loo'2 close c2

+ND2

O#t'#t4 Name Name Name Name

9<IL+ LOOB

I I I I

saketh srin# satish s#dha

Synta34 9hile 0cursor_name1 M o#nd loo'

Copy rights are reserved.

Cetch 0cursor_name1 nto 0record_variable12 0statements12 +nd loo'2 +34

D+CL,R+

128

-+:IN

c#rsor c is select F rom st#dent2 vNst#d st#dentMro!ty'e2 o'en c2 etch c into vNst#d2 !hile cM o#nd loo' etch c into vNst#d2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Name I ? YY vNst#d.name%2 end loo'2 close c2 I I I I saketh srin# satish s#dha

+ND2

O#t'#t4 Name Name Name Name

COR LOOB

Synta34 or 0record_variable1 in 0cursor_name1 loo' 0statements12 +nd loo'2 +34

D+CL,R+ -+:IN

c#rsor c is select F rom st#dent2

or vNst#d in c loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Name I ? YY vNst#d.name%2 end loo'2 +ND2 O#t'#t4 Name Name Name Name I I I I saketh srin# satish s#dha

B,R,&+T,RI[+D CURSORS +34 This !as #sed !hen yo# are "oin" to #se the c#rsor in more than one 'lace !ith di erent val#es or the same !here cla#se. C#rsor 'arameters m#st *e in mode. C#rsor 'arameters may have de a#lt val#es. The sco'e o c#rsor 'arameter is !ithin the select statement.

D+CL,R+

c#rsor c$dno in n#m*er% is select F rom de't !here de'tno I dno2 vNde't de'tMro!ty'e2
-+:IN

o'en c$57%2 loo' etch c into vNde't2 e3it !hen cMnot o#nd2

Copy rights are reserved.

+ND2

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Dname I ? YY vNde't.dname YY ? Loc I ? YY vNde't.loc%2 end loo'2 close c2

129

O#t'#t4 Dname I

R+S+,RC<

Loc I

D,LL,S

B,CG,:+D CURSORS 9IT< <+,D+R IN SB+C ,ND -OD. IN B,CG,:+ -OD. +34
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,CG,:+ BG: IS

c#rsors declared in 'acka"es !ill not close a#tomatically. In 'acka"ed c#rsors yo# can modi y the select statement !itho#t makin" any chan"es to the c#rsor header in the 'acka"e s'eci ication. Backa"ed c#rsors !ith m#st *e de ined in the 'acka"e *ody itsel ) and then #se it as "lo*al or the 'acka"e. .o# can not de ine the 'acka"ed c#rsor in any s#*'ro"rams. C#rsor declaration in 'acka"e !ith o#t *ody needs the ret#rn cla#se.

+ND BG:2

c#rsor c ret#rn de'tMro!ty'e is select F rom de't2 'roced#re 'roc is

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,GC,:+ -OD. BG: IS BROC+DUR+ BROC IS -+:IN

c#rsor c ret#rn de'tMro!ty'e is select F rom de't2

or v in c loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?De'tno I ? YY v.de'tno YY ? Dname I ? YY v.dname YY ? Loc I ? YY v.loc%2 end loo'2

+ND BROC2 +ND BG:2

O#t'#t4
SQL1

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ B,GC,:+ -OD. BG: IS

e3ec 'k".'roc De'tno I 67 Dname I ,CCOUNTIN: Loc I N+9 .ORG De'tno I 57 Dname I R+S+,RC< Loc I D,LL,S De'tno I 87 Dname I S,L+S Loc I C<IC,:O De'tno I 47 Dname I OB+R,TIONS Loc I -OSTON

c#rsor c ret#rn de'tMro!ty'e is select F rom de't !here de'tno 1 572

BROC+DUR+ BROC IS -+:IN

or v in c loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?De'tno I ? YY v.de'tno YY ? Dname I ? YY v.dname YY ? Loc I ? YY v.loc%2 end loo'2

+ND BROC2 +ND BG:2

O#t'#t4
SQL1

e3ec 'k".'roc De'tno I 87 Dname I S,L+S Loc I C<IC,:O De'tno I 47 Dname I OB+R,TIONS Loc I -OSTON

R+C CURSORS ,ND CURSOR ;,RI,-L+S

Copy rights are reserved.

130
This is #nconstrained c#rsor !hich !ill ret#rn di erent ty'es de'ends #'on the #ser in'#t. Re c#rsors can not *e closed im'licitly. Re c#rsor !ith ret#rn ty'e is called stron cursor. Re c#rsor !ith o#t ret#rn ty'e is called weak cursor. .o# can declare re c#rsor ty'e in 'acka"e s'ec as !ell as *ody. .o# can declare re c#rsor ty'es in local s#*'ro"rams or anonymo#s *locks. C#rsor varia*les can *e assi"ned rom one to another. .o# can declare a c#rsor varia*le in one sco'e and assi"n another c#rsor varia*le !ith di erent sco'e) then yo# can #se the c#rsor varia*le even tho#"h the assi"ned c#rsor varia*le "oes o#t o sco'e. C#rsor varia*les can *e 'assed as a 'arameters to the s#*'ro"rams. C#rsor varia*les modes are in or o#t or in o#t. C#rsor varia*les can not *e declared in 'acka"e s'ec and 'acka"e *ody $e3cl#din" s#*'ro"rams%. .o# can not #ser remote 'roced#re calls to 'ass c#rsor varia*les rom one server to another. C#rsor varia*les can not #se or #'date cla#se. .o# can not assi"n n#lls to c#rsor varia*les. .o# can not com'are c#rsor varia*les or eV#ality) ineV#ality and n#llity.
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ R+CNCURSOR$T,-L+NN,&+ IN ;,RC<,R% IS

+34

ty'e t is re c#rsor2 c t2 vNde't de'tMro!ty'e2 ty'e r is record$ename em'.enameMty'e)Ko* em'.Ko*Mty'e)sal em'.salMty'e%2 vNem' r2 vNst#d st#dent.nameMty'e2
-+:IN

i ta*leNname I ?D+BT? then o'en c or select F rom de't2 elsi ta*leNname I ?+&B? then o'en c or select ename)Ko*)sal rom em'2 elsi ta*leNname I ?STUD+NT? then o'en c or select name rom st#dent2 end i 2 loo' i ta*leNname I ?D+BT? then etch c into vNde't2 e3it !hen cMnot o#nd2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?De'tno I ? YY vNde't.de'tno YY ? Dname I ? YY vNde't.dname YY ? Loc I ? YY vNde't.loc%2 elsi ta*leNname I ?+&B? then etch c into vNem'2 e3it !hen cMnot o#nd2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?+name I ? YY vNem'.ename YY ? @o* I ? YY vNem'.Ko* YY ? Sal I ? YY vNem'.sal%2 elsi ta*leNname I ?STUD+NT? then etch c into vNst#d2 e3it !hen cMnot o#nd2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Name I ? YY vNst#d%2 end i 2 end loo'2 close c2
+ND2

Copy rights are reserved.

O#t'#t4
SQL1

131
e3ec re Nc#rsor$?D+BT?% I I I I 67 57 87 47 Dname Dname Dname Dname I I I I Loc I N+9 .ORG Loc I D,LL,S S,L+S Loc I C<IC,:O OB+R,TIONS Loc I -OSTON
,CCOUNTIN: R+S+,RC<

De'tno De'tno De'tno De'tno

SQL1

e3ec re Nc#rsor$?+&B?% I I I I I I I I I I I I I I @o* I CL+RG Sal I X77 @o* I S,L+S&,N Sal I 6E77 9,RD @o* I S,L+S&,N Sal I 65D7 @ON+S @o* I &,N,:+R Sal I 5TWD &,RTIN @o* I S,L+S&,N Sal I 65D7 -L,G+ @o* I &,N,:+R Sal I 5XD7 CL,RG @o* I &,N,:+R Sal I 54D7 SCOTT @o* I ,N,L.ST Sal I 8777 GIN: @o* I BR+SID+NT Sal I D777 TURN+R @o* I S,L+S&,N Sal I 6D77 ,D,&S @o* I CL+RG Sal I 6677 @,&+S @o* I CL+RG Sal I TD7 CORD @o* I ,N,L.ST Sal I 8777 &ILL+R @o* I CL+RG Sal I 6877
S&IT< ,LL+N

+name +name +name +name +name +name +name +name +name +name +name +name +name +name
SQL1

e3ec re Nc#rsor$?STUD+NT?% Name Name Name Name I I I I saketh srin# satish s#dha

CURSOR +/BR+SSIONS .o# can #se c#rsor e3'ressions in e3'licit c#rsors. .o# can #se c#rsor e3'ressions in dynamic SQL. .o# can #se c#rsor e3'ressions in R+C c#rsor declarations and varia*les. .o# can not #se c#rsor e3'ressions in im'licit c#rsors. Oracle o'ens the nested c#rsor de ined *y a c#rsor e3'ression im'licitly as soon as it etches the data containin" the c#rsor e3'ression rom the 'arent or o#ter c#rsor. Nested c#rsor closes i yo# close e3'licitly. Nested c#rsor closes !henever the o#ter or 'arent c#rsor is e3ec#ted a"ain or closed or canceled. Nested c#rsor closes !henever an e3ce'tion is raised !hile etchin" data rom a 'arent c#rsor. C#rsor e3'ressions can not *e #sed !hen declarin" a vie!. C#rsor e3'ressions can *e #sed as an ar"#ment to ta*le #nction. .o# can not 'er orm *ind and e3ec#te o'erations on c#rsor e3'ressions !hen #sin" the c#rsor e3'ressions in dynamic SQL.

USIN: N+ST+D CURSORS OR CURSOR +/BR+SSIONS

+34
D+CL,R+

c#rsor c is select ename)c#rsor$select dname rom de't d !here e.em'no I d.de'tno% rom em' e2 ty'e t is re c#rsor2 c6 t2 c5 t2 v6 em'.enameMty'e2

Copy rights are reserved.

v5 de't.dnameMty'e2
-+:IN

132

+ND2

o'en c2 loo' etch c6 into v62 e3it !hen c6Mnot o#nd2 etch c5 into v52 e3it !hen c5Mnot o#nd2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?+name I ? YY v6 YY ? Dname I ? YY v5%2 end loo'2 end loo'2 close c2

CURSOR CL,US+S
R+TURN

Ret#rn Cor #'date 9here c#rrent o -#lk collect

C#rsor c ret#rn de'tMro!ty'e is select F rom de't2 Or C#rsor c6 is select F rom de't2 C#rsor c ret#rn c6Mro!ty'e is select F rom de't2 Or Ty'e t is record$de'tno de't.de'tnoMty'e) dname de't.dnameMty'e%2 C#rsor c ret#rn t is select de'tno) dname rom de't2

COR UBD,T+ ,ND 9<+R+ CURR+NT OC

Normally) a select o'eration !ill not take any locks on the ro!s *ein" accessed. This !ill allo! other sessions connected to the data*ase to chan"e the data *ein" selected. The res#lt set is still consistent. ,t o'en time) !hen the active set is determined) oracle takes a sna'shot o the ta*le. ,ny chan"es that have *een committed 'rior to this 'oint are re lected in the active set. ,ny chan"es made a ter this 'oint) even i they are committed) are not re lected #nless the c#rsor is reo'ened) !hich !ill eval#ate the active set a"ain. <o!ever) i the COR UBD,T+ cal#se is 'esent) e3cl#sive ro! locks are taken on the ro!s in the active set *e ore the o'en ret#rns. These locks 'revent other sessions rom chan"in" the ro!s in the active set #ntil the transaction is committed or rolled *ack. I another session already has locks on the ro!s in the active set) then S+L+CT S COR UBD,T+ o'eration !ill !ait or these locks to *e released *y the other session. There is no time(o#t or this !aitin" 'eriod. The S+L+CTSCOR UBD,T+ !ill han" #ntil the other session releases the lock. To handle this sit#ation) the NO9,IT cla#se is availa*le. Synta34 Select S rom S or #'date o col#mnNname O!ait nP2 I the c#rsor is declared !ith the COR UBD,T+ cla#se) the cla#se can *e #sed in an #'date or delete statement. Synta34 9here c#rrent o c#rsor2
9<+R+ CURR+NT OC

Copy rights are reserved.

+34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

133
c#rsor c is select F rom de't or #'date o dname2 or v in c loo' #'date de't set dname I ?aa? !here c#rrent o c2 commit2 end loo'2

+ND2 -ULG COLL+CT

This is #sed or array etches 9ith this yo# can retrieve m#lti'le ro!s o data !ith a sin"le ro#ndtri'. This red#ces the n#m*er o conte3t s!itches *et!een the 'lAsVl and sVl en"ines. Red#ces the overhead o retrievin" data. .o# can #se *#lk collect in *oth dynamic and static sVl. .o# can #se *#lk collect in select) etch into and ret#rnin" into cla#ses. SQL en"ine a#tomatically initialiUes and e3tends the collections yo# re erence in the *#lk collect cla#se. -#lk collect o'eration em'ties the collection re erenced in the into cla#se *e ore e3ec#tin" the V#ery. .o# can #se the limit cla#se o *#lk collect to restrict the no o ro!s retrieved. .o# can etch into m#lti*le collections !ith one col#mn each. Usin" the ret#rnin" cla#se !e can ret#rn data to the another collection.

-ULG COLL+CT IN C+TC<

+34

D+CL,R+

-+:IN

Ty'e t is ta*le o de'tMro!ty'e2 nt t2 C#rsor c is select F rom de't2

O'en c2 Cetch c *#lk collect into nt2 Close c2 Cor i in nt. irst..nt.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Dname I ? YY nt$i%.dname YY ? Loc I ? YY nt$i%.loc%2 end loo'2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

Dname Dname Dname Dname

I I I I

Loc I N+9 .ORG Loc I D,LL,S S,L+S Loc I C<IC,:O OB+R,TIONS Loc I -OSTON
,CCOUNTIN: R+S+,RC<

-ULG COLL+CT IN S+L+CT

+34

D+CL,R+

Ty'e t is ta*le o de'tMro!ty'e2 Nt t2 Select F *#lk collect into nt rom de't2 or i in nt. irst..nt.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Dname I ? YY nt$i%.dname YY ? Loc I ? YY nt$i%.loc%2 end loo'2
+ND2 -+:IN

Copy rights are reserved.

134
O#t'#t4 Dname Dname Dname Dname I I I I Loc I N+9 .ORG Loc I D,LL,S S,L+S Loc I C<IC,:O OB+R,TIONS Loc I -OSTON
,CCOUNTIN: R+S+,RC<

LI&IT IN -ULG COLL+CT

.o# can #se this to limit the n#m*er o ro!s to *e etched. +34
D+CL,R+

-+:IN

Ty'e t is ta*le o de'tMro!ty'e2 nt t2 C#rsor c is select F rom de't2

O'en c2 Cetch c *#lk collect into nt limit 52 Close c2 Cor i in nt. irst..nt.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Dname I ? YY nt$i%.dname YY ? Loc I ? YY nt$i%.loc%2 end loo'2
+ND2

O#t'#t4 Dname I Dname I

,CCOUNTIN: R+S+,RC<

Loc I N+9 .ORG Loc I D,LL,S

&ULTIBL+ C+TC<+S IN INTO CL,US+

+364
D+CL,R+

Ty'e t is ta*le o de't.dnameMty'e2 nt t2 Ty'e t6 is ta*le o de't.locMty'e2 nt6 t2 C#rsor c is select dname)loc rom de't2 O'en c2 Cetch c *#lk collect into nt)nt62 Close c2 Cor i in nt. irst..nt.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Dname I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2 Cor i in nt6. irst..nt6.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Loc I ? YY nt6$i%%2 end loo'2

-+:IN

+ND2

O#t'#t4

Dname I ,CCOUNTIN: Dname I R+S+,RC< Dname I S,L+S Dname I OB+R,TIONS Loc I N+9 .ORG Loc I D,LL,S Loc I C<IC,:O Loc I -OSTON

+354

Copy rights are reserved.

D+CL,R+

135

ty'e t is ta*le o de't.dnameMty'e2 ty'e t6 is ta*le o de't.locMty'e2 nt t2 nt6 t62

-+:IN

Select dname)loc *#lk collect into nt)nt6 rom de't2 or i in nt. irst..nt.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Dname I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2 or i in nt6. irst..nt6.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Loc I ? YY nt6$i%%2 end loo'2

+ND2

O#t'#t4

Dname I ,CCOUNTIN: Dname I R+S+,RC< Dname I S,L+S Dname I OB+R,TIONS Loc I N+9 .ORG Loc I D,LL,S Loc I C<IC,:O Loc I -OSTON

R+TURNIN: CL,US+ IN -ULG COLL+CT

.o# can #se this to ret#rn the 'rocessed data to the o#'#t varia*les or ty'ed varia*les. +34
D+CL,R+

-+:IN

ty'e t is ta*le o n#m*er$5%2 nt t 4I t$6)5)8)4%2 ty'e t6 is ta*le o varchar$5%2 nt6 t62 ty'e t5 is ta*le o st#dentMro!ty'e2 nt5 t52

select name *#lk collect into nt6 rom st#dent2 orall v in nt6. irst..nt6.last #'date st#dent set no I nt$v% !here name I nt6$v% ret#rnin" no)name)marks *#lk collect into nt52 or v in nt5. irst..nt5.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?&arks I ? YY nt5$v%%2 end loo'2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

&arks &arks &arks &arks

I I I I

677 577 877 477

BOINTS TO R+&+&-+R C#rsor name can *e #' to 87 characters in len"th. C#rsors declared in anonymo#s *locks or s#*'ro"rams closes a#tomatically !hen that *lock terminates e3ec#tion. M*#lkNro!co#nt and M*#lkNe3ce'tions can *e #sed only !ith orall constr#ct.

Copy rights are reserved.

136
C#rsor declarations may have e3'ressions !ith col#mn aliases. These e3'ressions are called virt#al col#mns or calc#lated col#mns.

SQL IN BLASQL
The only statements allo!ed directly in 'lAsVl are -INDIN: -indin" a varia*le is the 'rocess o identi yin" the stora"e location associated !ith an identi ier in the 'ro"ram. Ty'es o *indin" +arly *indin" Late *indin"
D&L

and

TCL.

-indin" d#rin" the com'iled 'hase is early *indin". -indin" d#rin" the r#ntime 'hase is late *indin". In early *indin" com'ile 'hase !ill take lon"er *eca#se o *indin" !ork *#t the e3ec#tion is aster. In late *indin" it !ill shorten the com'ile 'hase *#t len"thens the e3ec#tion time. BLASQL *y de a#lt #ses early *indin". -indin" also involves checkin" the data*ase or 'ermissions to access the o*Kect Re erenced. D.N,&IC SQL

I yo# #se

DDL in 'lAsVl it validates the 'ermissions and e3istence i reV#ires d#rin" com'ile time !hich makes invalid. 9e can avoid this *y #sin" Dynamic SQL. Dynamic SQL allo!s yo# to create a SQL statement dynamically at r#ntime. SQL.

T!o techniV#es are availa*le or Dynamic Native Dynamic SQL D-&SNSQL 'acka"e

USIN: N,TI;+ D.N,&IC SQL

USIN: +/+CUT+ I&&+DI,T+

+34

-+:IN

+3ec#te immediate Lcreate ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$67%%=2 or +3ec#te immediate $Lcreate ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$67%%=%2
+ND2 USIN: +/+CUT+ I&&+DI,T+ 9IT< BLASQL ;,RI,-L+S

+34
D+CL,R+

Copy rights are reserved.

v varchar$677%2
-+:IN

137

+ND2

v 4I ?create ta*le st#dent$no n#m*er$5%)name varchar$67%%?2 e3ec#te immediate v2

USIN: +/+CUT+ I&&+DI,T+ 9IT< -IND ;,RI,-L+S ,ND USIN: CL,US+

+34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

v varchar$677%2 v 4I ?insert into st#dent val#es$4v6)4v5)4v8%?2 e3ec#te immediate v #sin" E)? ?)E772

+ND2

+/+CUTIN: QU+RI+S 9IT< OB+N COR ,ND USIN: CL,US+

+34
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B$smarks

-+:IN

in n#m*er% IS s varchar$677% 4I ?select F rom st#dent !here marks 1 4m?2 ty'e t is re c#rsor2 c t2 v st#dentMro!ty'e2 o'en c or s #sin" smarks2 loo' etch c into v2 e3it !hen cMnot o#nd2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?St#dent &arks I ? YY v.marks%2 end loo'2 close c2

+ND2

O#t'#t4
SQL1

e3ec '$677% St#dent &arks I 577 St#dent &arks I 877 St#dent &arks I 477

QU+RI+S 9IT< +/+CUT+ I&&+DI,T+

+34

D+CL,R+

-+:IN

dNname de't.dnameMty'e2 lc de't.locMty'e2 v varchar$677%2 v 4I ?select dname rom de't !here de'tno I 67?2 e3ec#te immediate v into dNname2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Dname I ?YY dNname%2 v 4I ?select loc rom de't !here dname I 4dn?2 e3ec#te immediate v into lc #sin" dNname2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Loc I ? YY lc%2

+ND2

O#t'#t4 Dname I ,CCOUNTIN: Loc I N+9 .ORG

;,RI,-L+ N,&+S

+34
D+CL,R+

Copy rights are reserved.

&arks n#m*er$8% 4I 6772

-+:IN

138
(( this !ill delete all the ta*le

Delete st#dent !here marks I marks2 ro!s in the st#dent

+ND2

This can *e avoided *y #sin" the la*eled *locks. 00myN*lock11

D+CL,R+ -+:IN

&arks n#m*er$8% 4I 6772 (( delete ro!s marks o 677

Delete st#dent !here marks I myN*lock.marks2 !hich has a

+ND2 :+TTIN: D,T, INTO BLASQL ;,RI,-L+S

+34
D+CL,R+

-+:IN +ND2

;6 n#m*er2 ;5 varchar$5%2 Select no)name into v6)v5 rom st#dent !here marks I 6772

D&L ,ND R+CORDS

+34
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B$sro! -+:IN

in st#dentMro!ty'e%

IS

insert into st#dent val#es sro!2

+ND B2 D+CL,R+ -+:IN

s st#dentMro!ty'e2 s.no 4I 662 s.name 4I ?aa?2 s.marks 4I 6772 '$s%2

+ND2 R+CORD -,S+D INS+RTS

+34

D+CL,R+ -+:IN

sro! st#dentMro!ty'e2 sro!.no 4I W2 sro!.name 4I ?cc?2 sro!.marks 4I D772 insert into st#dent val#es sro!2

+ND2 R+CORD -,S+D UBD,T+S

+34

D+CL,R+ -+:IN

sro! st#dentMro!ty'e2 sro!.no 4I E2 sro!.name 4I ?cc?2

Copy rights are reserved.

+ND2

sro!.marks 4I D772 #'date st#dent set ro!Isro! !here no I sro!.no2

139

USIN: R+CORDS 9IT< R+TURNIN: CL,US+

+34
D+CL,R+

-+:IN

sro! st#dentMro!ty'e2 sret#rn st#dentMro!ty'e2

sro!.no 4I X2 sro!.name 4I ?dd?2 sro!.marks 4I D772 insert into st#dent val#es sro! ret#rnin" no)name)marks into sret#rn2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?No I ? YY sret#rn.no%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?No I ? YY sret#rn.name%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?No I ? YY sret#rn.marks%2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

No I X No I dd No I D77

COR,LL ST,T+&+NT This can *e #sed to "et the data rom the data*ase at once *y red#ctin" the n#m*er o conte3t s!itches !hich is a trans er o control *et!een BLASQL and SQL en"ine. Synta34 Corall inde3Nvar in O 3ower_bound..upper_bound Y Indices o inde&in _collection Y ;al#es o inde&in _collection P SQL statement2
COR,LL 9IT< NON(S+QU+NTI,L ,RR,.S

+34

D+CL,R+

ty'e t is ta*le o st#dent.noMty'e inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 i*t t2

-+:IN

+ND2

i*t$6% 4I 62 i*t$67% 4I 52 orall i in i*t. irst..i*t.last #'date st#dent set marks I T77 !here no I i*t$i%2

The a*ove 'ro"ram !ill "ive error like Lelement at inde3 O5P does not e3ists. .o# can recti y it in one o the t!o ollo!in" !ays.
US:,:+ OC INDIC+S OC TO ,;OID T<+ ,-O;+ -+<,;IOUR

+34

D+CL,R+

ty'e t is ta*le o st#dent.noMty'e inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 i*t t2 ty'e t6 is ta*le o *oolean inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 i*t6 t62

Copy rights are reserved.

-+:IN

140

i*t$6% 4I 62 i*t$67% 4I 52 i*t$677% 4I 82 i*t6$6% 4I tr#e2 i*t6$67% 4I tr#e2 i*t6$677% 4I tr#e2 orall i in indices o i*t6 #'date st#dent set marks I T77 !here no I i*t$i%2
+ND2 US:,:+ OC INDIC+S OC TO ,;OID T<+ ,-O;+ -+<,;IOUR

+34

D+CL,R+

ty'e t is ta*le o st#dent.noMty'e inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 i*t t2 ty'e t6 is ta*le o 'lsNinte"er inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 i*t6 t62
-+:IN

+ND2

i*t$6% 4I 62 i*t$67% 4I 52 i*t$677% 4I 82 i*t6$66% 4I 62 i*t6$6D% 4I 672 i*t6$6X% 4I 6772 orall i in val#es o i*t6 #'date st#dent set marks I DEW !here no I i*t$i%2

BOINTS ,-OUT -ULG -INDS

Bassin" the entire BLASQL ta*le to the SQL en"ine in one ste' is kno!n as
*#lk *ind. -#lk *inds are done #sin" the orall statement. I there is an error 'rocessin" one o the ro!s in *#lk D&L o'eration) only that ro! is rolled *ack.

BOINTS ,-OUT R+TURIN: CL,US+

This !ill *e #sed only !ith

D&L statements to ret#rn data into BLASQL varia*les. This !ill *e #se #l in sit#ations like ) !hen 'er ormin" insert or #'date or delete i yo# !ant to kno! the data o the ta*le !hich has *een e ected *y the D&L. 9ith o#t "oin" or another S+L+CT #sin" R+TURNIN: cla#se !e !ill "et the data !hich !ill avoid a call to RD-&S kernel.

COLL+CTIONS
Collections are also com'osite ty'es) in that they allo! yo# to treat several varia*les as a #nit. , collection com*ines varia*les o the same ty'e. T.B+S ;,RR,.S ;arrays Nested ta*les Inde3 ( *y ta*les $,ssociate arrays%

Copy rights are reserved.

141
, varray is dataty'e very similar to an array. , varray has a i3ed limit on its siUe) s'eci ied as 'art o the declaration. +lements are inserted into varray startin" at inde3 6) #' to ma3im#m lenth declared in the varray ty'e. The ma3im#m siUe o the varray is 5 "i"a *ytes. Synta34 Ty'e 0type_name$ 0element_type$2 +364
D+CL,R+

is

varray

varyin"

array

$0 limit$%

-+:IN

ty'e t is varray$67% o varchar$5%2 va t 4I t$?a?)?*?)?c?)?d?%2 la" *oolean2

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Limit I ? YY va.limit%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Co#nt I ? YY va.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Cirst Inde3 I ? YY va. irst%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Last Inde3 I ? YY va.last%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Ne3t Inde3 I ? YY va.ne3t$5%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Brevio#s Inde3 I ? YY va.'rior$8%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?;,RR,. +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in va. irst..va.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?vaO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY va$i%%2 end loo'2 la" 4I va.e3ists$8%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 8 e3ists !ith an element ? YY va$8%%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 8 does not e3ists?%2 end i 2 va.e3tend2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter e3tend o one inde3) Co#nt I ? YY va.co#nt%2 la" 4I va.e3ists$D%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 D e3ists !ith an element ? YY va$D%%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 D does not e3ists?%2 end i 2 la" 4I va.e3ists$E%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 E e3ists !ith an element ? YY va$E%%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 E does not e3ists?%2 end i 2 va.e3tend$5%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter e3tend o t!o inde3es) Co#nt I ? YY va.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?;,RR,. +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in va. irst..va.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?vaO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY va$i%%2 end loo'2 va$D% 4I ?e?2 va$E% 4I ? ?2 va$W% 4I ?"?2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?,CT+R ,SSIN:NIN: ;,LU+S TO +/T+ND+D +L+&+NTS) ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in va. irst..va.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?vaO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY va$i%%2 end loo'2

Copy rights are reserved.

va.e3tend$8)5%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter e3tend o three inde3es) Co#nt I ? va.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?;,RR,. +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in va. irst..va.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?vaO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY va$i%%2 end loo'2 va.trim2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter trim o one inde3) Co#nt I ? va.co#nt%2 va.trim$8%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter trim o three inde3s) Co#nt I ? va.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?,CT+R TRI&) ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in va. irst..va.last loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?vaO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY va$i%%2 end loo'2 va.delete2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o entire varray) Co#nt I ? va.co#nt%2
+ND2

142
YY

YY YY

YY

O#t'#t4 Limit I 67 Co#nt I 4 Cirst Inde3 I 6 Last Inde3 I 4 Ne3t Inde3 I 8 Brevio#s Inde3 I 5 ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS vaO6P I a vaO5P I * vaO8P I c vaO4P I d Inde3 8 e3ists !ith an element c , ter e3tend o one inde3) Co#nt I D Inde3 D e3ists !ith an element Inde3 E does not e3ists , ter e3tend o t!o inde3es) Co#nt I W ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS vaO6P I a vaO5P I * vaO8P I c vaO4P I d vaODP I vaOEP I vaOWP I ,CT+R ,SSIN:NIN: ;,LU+S TO +/T+ND+D +L+&+NTS) ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS vaO6P I a vaO5P I * vaO8P I c vaO4P I d vaODP I e vaOEP I vaOWP I " , ter e3tend o three inde3es) Co#nt I 67 ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS vaO6P I a vaO5P I * vaO8P I c

Copy rights are reserved.

vaO4P I d vaODP I e vaOEP I vaOWP I " vaOXP I * vaOTP I * vaO67P I * , ter trim o one inde3) Co#nt I T , ter trim o three inde3s) Co#nt I E ,CT+R TRI&) ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS vaO6P I a vaO5P I * vaO8P I c vaO4P I d vaODP I e vaOEP I , ter delete o entire varray) Co#nt I 7 +354
D+CL,R+

143

ty'e t is varray$4% o st#dentMro!ty'e2 va t 4I t$n#ll)n#ll)n#ll)n#ll%2

-+:IN

or i in 6..va.co#nt loo' select F into va$i% rom st#dent !here sno I i2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Sno I ? YY va$i%.sno YY ? Sname I ? YY va$i%.sname%2 end loo'2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

Sno Sno Sno Sno

I I I I

6 5 8 4

Sname Sname Sname Sname

I I I I

saketh srin# divya mano"ni

+384

D+CL,R+

ty'e t is varray$4% o st#dent.smarksMty'e2 va t 4I t$n#ll)n#ll)n#ll)n#ll%2

-+:IN

+ND2

or i in 6..va.co#nt loo' select smarks into va$i% rom st#dent !here sno I i2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Smarks I ? YY va$i%%2 end loo'2

O#t'#t4 Smarks Smarks Smarks Smarks +344

D+CL,R+

I I I I

677 577 877 477

ty'e r is record$c6 st#dent.snameMty'e)c5 st#dent.smarksMty'e%2 ty'e t is varray$4% o r2 va t 4I t$n#ll)n#ll)n#ll)n#ll%2

-+:IN

or i in 6..va.co#nt loo' select sname)smarks into va$i% rom st#dent !here sno I i2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Sname I ? YY va$i%.c6 YY ? Smarks I ? YY va$i%.c5%2

Copy rights are reserved.

end loo'2
+ND2

144

O#t'#t4

Sname Sname Sname Sname

I I I I

saketh Smarks I 677 srin# Smarks I 577 divya Smarks I 877 mano"ni Smarks I 477

+3D4

D+CL,R+

ty'e t is varray$6% o addr2 va t 4I t$n#ll%2 c#rsor c is select F rom em'loy2 i n#m*er 4I 62

-+:IN

or v in c loo' select address into va$i% rom em'loy !here ename I v.ename2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?<no I ? YY va$i%.hno YY ? City I ? YY va$i%.city%2 end loo'2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

<no I 66 City I hyd <no I 55 City I *an" <no I 88 City I kochi

+3E4
D+CL,R+

ty'e t is varray$D% o varchar$5%2 va6 t2 va5 t 4I t$%2 i va6 is n#ll then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?va6 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?va6 end i 2 i va5 is n#ll then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?va5 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?va5 end i 2 is n#ll?%2 is not n#ll?%2 is n#ll?%2 is not n#ll?%2

-+:IN

+ND2

O#t'#t4 va6 is n#ll va5 is not n#ll N+ST+D T,-L+S , nested ta*le is tho#"ht o a data*ase ta*le !hich has no limit on its siUe. +lements are inserted into nested ta*le startin" at inde3 6. The ma3im#m siUe o the varray is 5 "i"a *ytes. Synta34 Ty'e 0type_name$ is ta*le o 0table_type$2 +364
D+CL,R+

Copy rights are reserved.

ty'e t is ta*le o varchar$5%2 nt t 4I t$?a?)?*?)?c?)?d?%2 la" *oolean2

-+:IN

145

i nt.limit is n#ll then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?No limit to Nested Ta*les?%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Limit I ? YY nt.limit%2 end i 2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Cirst Inde3 I ? YY nt. irst%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Last Inde3 I ? YY nt.last%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Ne3t Inde3 I ? YY nt.ne3t$5%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Brevio#s Inde3 I ? YY nt.'rior$8%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2 la" 4I nt.e3ists$8%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 8 e3ists !ith an element ? YY nt$8%%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 8 does not e3ists?%2 end i 2 nt.e3tend2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter e3tend o one inde3) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 la" 4I nt.e3ists$D%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 D e3ists !ith an element ? YY nt$D%%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 D does not e3ists?%2 end i 2 la" 4I nt.e3ists$E%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 E e3ists !ith an element ? YY nt$E%%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 E does not e3ists?%2 end i 2 nt.e3tend$5%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter e3tend o t!o inde3es) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2 nt$D% 4I ?e?2 nt$E% 4I ? ?2 nt$W% 4I ?"?2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?,CT+R ,SSIN:NIN: ;,LU+S TO +/T+ND+D +L+&+NTS)
N+ST+D T,-L+

or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2 nt.e3tend$D)5%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter e3tend o ive inde3es) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%%2

+L+&+NTS?%2

Copy rights are reserved.

end loo'2 nt.trim2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter trim o one inde3) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 nt.trim$8%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter trim o three inde3s) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?,CT+R TRI&) N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2 nt.delete$6%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o irst inde3) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 5..nt.co#ntH6 loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2 nt.delete$4%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o o#rth inde3) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 5..8 loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2 or i in D..nt.co#ntH5 loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2 nt.delete2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o entire nested ta*le) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2
+ND2

146

O#t'#t4

No limit to Nested Ta*les Co#nt I 4 Cirst Inde3 I 6 Last Inde3 I 4 Ne3t Inde3 I 8 Brevio#s Inde3 I 5 N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6P I a ntO5P I * ntO8P I c ntO4P I d Inde3 8 e3ists !ith an element c , ter e3tend o one inde3) Co#nt I D Inde3 D e3ists !ith an element Inde3 E does not e3ists , ter e3tend o t!o inde3es) Co#nt I W N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6P I a ntO5P I * ntO8P I c ntO4P I d ntODP I ntOEP I ntOWP I ,CT+R ,SSIN:NIN: ;,LU+S TO +/T+ND+D +L+&+NTS) N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6P I a

Copy rights are reserved.

ntO5P I * ntO8P I c ntO4P I d ntODP I e ntOEP I ntOWP I " , ter e3tend o ive inde3es) Co#nt I 65 N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6P I a ntO5P I * ntO8P I c ntO4P I d ntODP I e ntOEP I ntOWP I " ntOXP I * ntOTP I * ntO67P I * ntO66P I * ntO65P I * , ter trim o one inde3) Co#nt I 66 , ter trim o three inde3s) Co#nt I X ,CT+R TRI&) N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6P I a ntO5P I * ntO8P I c ntO4P I d ntODP I e ntOEP I ntOWP I " ntOXP I * , ter delete o irst inde3) Co#nt I W N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO5P I * ntO8P I c ntO4P I d ntODP I e ntOEP I ntOWP I " ntOXP I * , ter delete o o#rth inde3) Co#nt I E N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO5P I * ntO8P I c ntODP I e ntOEP I ntOWP I " ntOXP I * , ter delete o entire nested ta*le) Co#nt I 7 +354
D+CL,R+

147

-+:IN

ty'e t is ta*le o st#dentMro!ty'e2 nt t 4I t$n#ll)n#ll)n#ll)n#ll%2

or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' select F into nt$i% rom st#dent !here sno I i2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Sno I ? YY nt$i%.sno YY ? Sname I ? YY nt$i%.sname%2 end loo'2
+ND2

Copy rights are reserved.

148
O#t'#t4 Sno Sno Sno Sno I I I I 6 5 8 4 Sname Sname Sname Sname I I I I saketh srin# divya mano"ni

+384

D+CL,R+

ty'e t is ta*le o st#dent.smarksMty'e2 nt t 4I t$n#ll)n#ll)n#ll)n#ll%2

-+:IN

+ND2

or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' select smarks into nt$i% rom st#dent !here sno I i2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Smarks I ? YY nt$i%%2 end loo'2

O#t'#t4 Smarks Smarks Smarks Smarks +344

D+CL,R+

I I I I

677 577 877 477

ty'e r is record$c6 st#dent.snameMty'e)c5 st#dent.smarksMty'e%2 ty'e t is ta*le o r2 nt t 4I t$n#ll)n#ll)n#ll)n#ll%2

-+:IN

or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' select sname)smarks into nt$i% rom st#dent !here sno I i2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Sname I ? YY nt$i%.c6 YY ? Smarks I ? YY nt$i%.c5%2 end loo'2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

Sname Sname Sname Sname

I I I I

saketh Smarks I 677 srin# Smarks I 577 divya Smarks I 877 mano"ni Smarks I 477

+3D4

D+CL,R+

ty'e t is ta*le o addr2 nt t 4I t$n#ll%2 c#rsor c is select F rom em'loy2 i n#m*er 4I 62

-+:IN

or v in c loo' select address into nt$i% rom em'loy !here ename I v.ename2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?<no I ? YY nt$i%.hno YY ? City I ? YY nt$i%.city%2 end loo'2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

<no I 66 City I hyd <no I 55 City I *an" <no I 88 City I kochi

Copy rights are reserved.

+3E4
D+CL,R+

149
ty'e t is varray$D% o varchar$5%2 nt6 t2 nt5 t 4I t$%2 i nt6 is n#ll then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?nt6 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?nt6 end i 2 i nt5 is n#ll then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?nt5 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?nt5 end i 2 is n#ll?%2 is not n#ll?%2 is n#ll?%2 is not n#ll?%2

-+:IN

+ND2

O#t'#t4 nt6 is n#ll nt5 is not n#ll IND+/(-. T,-L+S ,n inde3(*y ta*le has no limit on its siUe. +lements are inserted into inde3(*y ta*le !hose inde3 may start non(seV#entially incl#din" ne"ative inte"ers. Synta34 Ty'e 0type_name$ is ta*le o 0table_type$ inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 +34
D+CL,R+

ty'e t is ta*le o varchar$5% inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 i*t t2 la" *oolean2

-+:IN

i*t$6% 4I ?a?2 i*t$(57% 4I ?*?2 i*t$87% 4I ?c?2 i*t$677% 4I ?d?2 i i*t.limit is n#ll then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?No limit to Inde3 *y Ta*les?%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Limit I ? YY i*t.limit%2 end i 2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Co#nt I ? YY i*t.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Cirst Inde3 I ? YY i*t. irst%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Last Inde3 I ? YY i*t.last%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Ne3t Inde3 I ? YY i*t.ne3t$5%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Brevio#s Inde3 I ? YY i*t.'rior$8%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?IND+/ -. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*tO(57P I ? YY i*t$(57%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*tO6P I ? YY i*t$6%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*tO87P I ? YY i*t$87%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*tO677P I ? YY i*t$677%%2 la" 4I i*t.e3ists$87%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 87 e3ists !ith an element ? YY i*t$87%%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 87 does not e3ists?%2 end i 2

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la" 4I i*t.e3ists$D7%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 D7 e3ists !ith an element ? YY i*t$87%%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 D7 does not e3ists?%2 end i 2 i*t.delete$6%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o irst inde3) Co#nt I ? YY i*t.co#nt%2 i*t.delete$87%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o inde3 thirty) Co#nt I ? YY i*t.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?IND+/ -. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*tO(57P I ? YY i*t$(57%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*tO677P I ? YY i*t$677%%2 i*t.delete2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o entire inde3(*y ta*le) Co#nt I ? YY i*t.co#nt%2
+ND2

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O#t'#t4

No limit to Inde3 *y Ta*les Co#nt I 4 Cirst Inde3 I (57 Last Inde3 I 677 Ne3t Inde3 I 87 Brevio#s Inde3 I 6 IND+/ -. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS i*tO(57P I * i*tO6P I a i*tO87P I c i*tO677P I d Inde3 87 e3ists !ith an element c Inde3 D7 does not e3ists , ter delete o irst inde3) Co#nt I 8 , ter delete o inde3 thirty) Co#nt I 5 IND+/ -. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS i*tO(57P I * i*tO677P I d , ter delete o entire inde3(*y ta*le) Co#nt I 7 DICC+R+NC+S ,&ON: COLL+CTIONS ;arrays has limit) nested ta*les and inde3(*y ta*les has no limit. ;arrays and nested ta*les m#st *e initialiUed *e ore assi"nment o elements) in inde3(*y ta*les !e can directly assi"n elements. ;arrays and nested ta*les stored in data*ase) *#t inde3(*y ta*les can not. Nested ta*les and inde3(*y ta*les are BLASQL ta*les) *#t varrays can not. Geys m#st *e 'ositive in case o nested ta*les and varrays) in case o inde3(*y ta*les keys can *e 'ositive or ne"ative. Re erencin" none3istent elements raises SU-SCRIBTN-+.ONDNCOUNT in *oth nested ta*les and varrays) *#t in case o inde3(*y ta*les NOND,T,NCOUND raises. Geys are seV#ential in *oth nested ta*les and varrays) non(seV#ential in inde3(*y ta*les. Individ#al inde3es can *e deleted in *oth nested ta*les and inde3(*y ta*les) *#t in varrays can not. Individ#al inde3es can *e trimmed in *oth nested ta*les and varrays) *#t in inde3(*y ta*les can not.

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151
Individ#al inde3es can *e e3tended in *oth nested ta*les and varrays) *#t in inde3(*y ta*les can not.

&ULTIL+;+L COLL+CTIONS Collections o more than one dimension !hich is a collection o kno!n as m#ltilevel collections. collections)

Synta34 Ty'e 0type_name1$ is ta*le o 0table_type$ inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 Ty'e 0type_name2$ is varray$0limit1% Y ta*le Y o 0type_name1$ < inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 +364
D+CL,R+

-+:IN

ty'e t6 is ta*le o varchar$5% inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 ty'e t5 is varray$D% o t62 va t5 4I t5$%2 c n#m*er 4I TW2 la" *oolean2 va.e3tend$4%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Co#nt I ? YY va.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Limit I ? YY va.limit%2 or i in 6..va.co#nt loo' or K in 6..va.co#nt loo' va$i%$K% 4I chr$c%2 c 4I c H 62 end loo'2 end loo'2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?;,RR,. +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..va.co#nt loo' or K in 6..va.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?vaO? YY i YY ?PO? YY K YY ?P I ? YY va$i%

$K%%2

end loo'2 end loo'2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Cirst inde3 I ? YY va. irst%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Last inde3 I ? YY va.last%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Ne3t inde3 I ? YY va.ne3t$5%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Brevio#s inde3 I ? YY va.'rior$8%%2 la" 4I va.e3ists$5%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 5 e3ists?%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 5 e3ists?%2 end i 2 va.e3tend2 va$6%$D% 4I ?V?2 va$5%$D% 4I ?r?2 va$8%$D% 4I ?s?2 va$4%$D% 4I ?t?2 va$D%$6% 4I ?#?2 va$D%$5% 4I ?v?2 va$D%$8% 4I ?!?2 va$D%$4% 4I ?3?2 va$D%$D% 4I ?y?2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter e3tend o one inde3) Co#nt I ? YY va.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?;,RR,. +L+&+NTS?%2

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or i in 6..va.co#nt loo' or K in 6..va.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?vaO? YY i YY ?PO? YY K YY ?P I ? YY va$i% $K%%2

152

end loo'2 end loo'2 va.trim2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter trim o one inde3) Co#nt I ? YY va.co#nt%2 va.trim$5%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter trim o t!o inde3es) Co#nt I ? YY va.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?;,RR,. +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..va.co#nt loo' or K in 6..va.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?vaO? YY i YY ?PO? YY K YY ?P I ? YY va$i% $K%%2 end loo'2 end loo'2 va.delete2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o entire varray) Co#nt I ? YY va.co#nt%2
+ND2

O#t'#t4 Co#nt I 4 Limit I D ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS vaO6PO6P I a vaO6PO5P I * vaO6PO8P I c vaO6PO4P I d vaO5PO6P I e vaO5PO5P I vaO5PO8P I " vaO5PO4P I h vaO8PO6P I i vaO8PO5P I K vaO8PO8P I k vaO8PO4P I l vaO4PO6P I m vaO4PO5P I n vaO4PO8P I o vaO4PO4P I ' Cirst inde3 I 6 Last inde3 I 4 Ne3t inde3 I 8 Brevio#s inde3 I 5 Inde3 5 e3ists , ter e3tend o one inde3) Co#nt I D ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS vaO6PO6P I a vaO6PO5P I * vaO6PO8P I c vaO6PO4P I d vaO6PODP I V vaO5PO6P I e vaO5PO5P I vaO5PO8P I " vaO5PO4P I h vaO5PODP I r

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vaO8PO6P I i vaO8PO5P I K vaO8PO8P I k vaO8PO4P I l vaO8PODP I s vaO4PO6P I m vaO4PO5P I n vaO4PO8P I o vaO4PO4P I ' vaO4PODP I t vaODPO6P I # vaODPO5P I v vaODPO8P I ! vaODPO4P I 3 vaODPODP I y , ter trim o one inde3) Co#nt I 4 , ter trim o t!o inde3es) Co#nt I 5 ;,RR,. +L+&+NTS vaO6PO6P I a vaO6PO5P I * vaO5PO6P I e vaO5PO5P I , ter delete o entire varray) Co#nt I 7 +354
D+CL,R+

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ty'e t6 is ta*le o varchar$5% inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 ty'e t5 is ta*le o t62 nt t5 4I t5$%2 c n#m*er 4I ED2 v n#m*er 4I 62 la" *oolean2 nt.e3tend$4%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 i nt.limit is n#ll then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?No limit to Nested Ta*les?%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Limit I ? YY nt.limit%2 end i 2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' or K in 6..nt.co#nt loo' nt$i%$K% 4I chr$c%2 c 4I c H 62 i c I T6 then c 4I TW2 end i 2 end loo'2 end loo'2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' or K in 6..nt.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?PO? YY K YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%$K%%2 end loo'2 end loo'2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Cirst inde3 I ? YY nt. irst%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Last inde3 I ? YY nt.last%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Ne3t inde3 I ? YY nt.ne3t$5%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Brevio#s inde3 I ? YY nt.'rior$8%%2 la" 4I nt.e3ists$5%2 i la" I tr#e then

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d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 5 e3ists?%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 5 e3ists?%2 end i 2 nt.e3tend$5%2 nt$6%$D% 4I ?Q?2 nt$6%$E% 4I ?R?2 nt$5%$D% 4I ?S?2 nt$5%$E% 4I ?T?2 nt$8%$D% 4I ?U?2 nt$8%$E% 4I ?;?2 nt$4%$D% 4I ?9?2 nt$4%$E% 4I ?/?2 nt$D%$6% 4I ?.?2 nt$D%$5% 4I ?[?2 nt$D%$8% 4I ?a?2 nt$D%$4% 4I ?*?2 nt$D%$D% 4I ?c?2 nt$D%$E% 4I ?d?2 nt$E%$6% 4I ?e?2 nt$E%$5% 4I ? ?2 nt$E%$8% 4I ?"?2 nt$E%$4% 4I ?h?2 nt$E%$D% 4I ?i?2 nt$E%$E% 4I ?K?2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter e3tend o one inde3) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' or K in 6..nt.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?PO? YY K YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%$K%%2 end loo'2 end loo'2 nt.trim2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter trim o one inde3e) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 nt.trim$5%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter trim o t!o inde3es) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' or K in 6..nt.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?PO? YY K YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%$K%%2 end loo'2 end loo'2 nt.delete$5%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o second inde3) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 loo' e3it !hen v I 42 or K in 6..nt.co#ntH6 loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY v YY ?PO? YY K YY ?P I ? YY nt$v% $K%%2 end loo'2 v 4I v H 62 i vI 5 then v 4I 82 end i 2 end loo'2 nt.delete2

154

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d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o entire nested ta*le) Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2

+ND2

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O#t'#t4 Co#nt I 4 No limit to Nested Ta*les N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6PO6P I , ntO6PO5P I ntO6PO8P I C ntO6PO4P I D ntO5PO6P I + ntO5PO5P I C ntO5PO8P I : ntO5PO4P I < ntO8PO6P I I ntO8PO5P I @ ntO8PO8P I G ntO8PO4P I L ntO4PO6P I & ntO4PO5P I N ntO4PO8P I O ntO4PO4P I B Cirst inde3 I 6 Last inde3 I 4 Ne3t inde3 I 8 Brevio#s inde3 I 5 Inde3 5 e3ists , ter e3tend o one inde3) Co#nt I E N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6PO6P I , ntO6PO5P I ntO6PO8P I C ntO6PO4P I D ntO6PODP I Q ntO6POEP I R ntO5PO6P I + ntO5PO5P I C ntO5PO8P I : ntO5PO4P I < ntO5PODP I S ntO5POEP I T ntO8PO6P I I ntO8PO5P I @ ntO8PO8P I G ntO8PO4P I L ntO8PODP I U ntO8POEP I ; ntO4PO6P I & ntO4PO5P I N ntO4PO8P I O ntO4PO4P I B ntO4PODP I 9 ntO4POEP I / ntODPO6P I . ntODPO5P I [ ntODPO8P I a ntODPO4P I * ntODPODP I c ntODPOEP I d

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ntOEPO6P I e ntOEPO5P I ntOEPO8P I " ntOEPO4P I h ntOEPODP I i ntOEPOEP I K , ter trim o one inde3e) Co#nt I D , ter trim o t!o inde3es) Co#nt I 8 N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6PO6P I , ntO6PO5P I ntO6PO8P I C ntO5PO6P I + ntO5PO5P I C ntO5PO8P I : ntO8PO6P I I ntO8PO5P I @ ntO8PO8P I G , ter delete o second inde3) Co#nt I 5 N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6PO6P I , ntO6PO5P I ntO6PO8P I C ntO8PO6P I I ntO8PO5P I @ ntO8PO8P I G , ter delete o entire nested ta*le) Co#nt I 7 +384
D+CL,R+

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-+:IN

ty'e t6 is ta*le o varchar$5% inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 ty'e t5 is ta*le o t6 inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 i*t t52 la" *oolean2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Co#nt I ? YY i*t.co#nt%2 i i*t.limit is n#ll then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?No limit to Inde3(*y Ta*les?%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Limit I ? YY i*t.limit%2 end i 2 i*t$6%$6% 4I ?a?2 i*t$4%$D% 4I ?*?2 i*t$D%$6% 4I ?c?2 i*t$E%$5% 4I ?d?2 i*t$X%$8% 4I ?e?2 i*t$8%$4% 4I ? ?2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?IND+/(-. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$O6PO6P I ? YY i*t$6%$6%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$O4PODP I ? YY i*t$4%$D%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$ODPO6P I ? YY i*t$D%$6%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$OEPO5P I ? YY i*t$E%$5%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$OXPO8P I ? YY i*t$X%$8%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$O8PO4P I ? YY i*t$8%$4%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Cirst Inde3 I ? YY i*t. irst%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Last Inde3 I ? YY i*t.last%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Ne3t Inde3 I ? YY i*t.ne3t$8%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Brior Inde3 I ? YY i*t.'rior$X%%2 i*t$6%$5% 4I ?"?2 i*t$6%$8% 4I ?h?2 i*t$6%$4% 4I ?i?2

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i*t$6%$D% 4I ?k?2 i*t$6%$E% 4I ?l?2 i*t$6%$W% 4I ?m?2 i*t$6%$X% 4I ?n?2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Co#nt I ? YY i*t.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?IND+/(-. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..X loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*tO6PO? YY i YY ?P I ? YY i*t$6%$i%%2 end loo'2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$O4PODP I ? YY i*t$4%$D%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$ODPO6P I ? YY i*t$D%$6%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$OEPO5P I ? YY i*t$E%$5%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$OXPO8P I ? YY i*t$X%$8%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$O8PO4P I ? YY i*t$8%$4%%2 la" 4I i*t.e3ists$8%2 i la" I tr#e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 8 e3ists?%2 else d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 8 e3ists?%2 end i 2 i*t.delete$6%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o irst inde3) Co#nt I ? YY i*t.co#nt%2 i*t.delete$4%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o o#rth inde3) Co#nt I ? YY i*t.co#nt%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?IND+/(-. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$ODPO6P I ? YY i*t$D%$6%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$OEPO5P I ? YY i*t$E%$5%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$OXPO8P I ? YY i*t$X%$8%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?i*t$O8PO4P I ? YY i*t$8%$4%%2 i*t.delete2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?, ter delete o entire inde3(*y ta*le) Co#nt I ? YY i*t.co#nt%2
+ND2

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O#t'#t4 Co#nt I 7 No limit to Inde3(*y Ta*les IND+/(-. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS i*t$O6PO6P I a i*t$O4PODP I * i*t$ODPO6P I c i*t$OEPO5P I d i*t$OXPO8P I e i*t$O8PO4P I Cirst Inde3 I 6 Last Inde3 I X Ne3t Inde3 I 4 Brior Inde3 I E Co#nt I E IND+/(-. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS i*tO6PO6P I a i*tO6PO5P I " i*tO6PO8P I h i*tO6PO4P I i i*tO6PODP I k i*tO6POEP I l i*tO6POWP I m i*tO6POXP I n i*t$O4PODP I *

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i*t$ODPO6P I c i*t$OEPO5P I d i*t$OXPO8P I e i*t$O8PO4P I Inde3 8 e3ists , ter delete o irst inde3) Co#nt I D , ter delete o o#rth inde3) Co#nt I 4 IND+/(-. T,-L+ +L+&+NTS i*t$ODPO6P I c i*t$OEPO5P I d i*t$OXPO8P I e i*t$O8PO4P I , ter delete o entire inde3(*y ta*le) Co#nt I 7 +344
D+CL,R+

158

ty'e t6 is ta*le o varchar$5% inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 ty'e t5 is ta*le o t6 inde3 *y *inaryNinte"er2 ty'e t8 is ta*le o t52 nt t8 4I t8$%2 c n#m*er 4I ED2

-+:IN

nt.e3tend$5%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Co#nt I ? YY nt.co#nt%2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' or K in 6..nt.co#nt loo' or k in 6..nt.co#nt loo' nt$i%$K%$k% 4I chr$c%2 c 4I c H 62 end loo'2 end loo'2 end loo'2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS?%2 or i in 6..nt.co#nt loo' or K in 6..nt.co#nt loo' or k in 6..nt.co#nt loo' d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?ntO? YY i YY ?PO? YY K YY ?PO? YY k YY ?P I ? YY nt$i%$K%$k%%2 end loo'2 end loo'2 end loo'2
+ND2

O#t'#t4 Co#nt I 5 N+ST+D T,-L+ +L+&+NTS ntO6PO6PO6P I , ntO6PO6PO5P I ntO6PO5PO6P I C ntO6PO5PO5P I D ntO5PO6PO6P I + ntO5PO6PO5P I C ntO5PO5PO6P I : ntO5PO5PO5P I < O-@+CTS US+D IN T<+ +/,&BL+S
SQL1

select F rom st#dent2

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SNO (((((((((( 6 5 8 4
SQL1

SN,&+ (((((((((((((( saketh srin# divya mano"ni

S&,RGS (((((((((( 677 577 877 477

159

create or re'lace ty'e addr as o*Kect$hno n#m*er$5%)city varchar$67%%2A

SQL1

select F rom em'loy2

+N,&+ @O,DDR+SS$<NO) CIT.% (((((((((( (((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( RanKit clerk ,DDR$66) ?hyd?% Satish mana"er ,DDR$55) ?*an"?% Srin# en"ineer ,DDR$88) ?kochi?%

+RROR <,NDLIN:
BLASQL im'lements error handlin" !ith e3ce'tions and e3ce'tion handlers. +3ce'tions can *e associated !ith oracle errors or !ith yo#r o!n #ser(de ined errors. -y #sin" e3ce'tions and e3ce'tion handlers) yo# can make yo#r BLASQL 'ro"rams ro*#st and a*le to deal !ith *oth #ne3'ected and e3'ected errors d#rin" e3ec#tion. +RROR T.B+S Com'ile(time errors R#ntime errors

+rrors that occ#r d#rin" the com'ilation 'hase are detected *y the BLASQL en"ine and re'orted *ack to the #ser) !e have to correct them. R#ntime errors are detected *y the BLASQL r#ntime en"ine !hich can 'ro"rammatically raise and ca#"ht *y e3ce'tion handlers. +3ce'tions are desi"ned or r#n(time error handlin") rather than com'ile(time error handlin". <,NDLIN: +/C+BTIONS 9hen e3ce'tion is raised) control 'asses to the e3ce'tion section o the *lock. The e3ce'tion section consists o handlers or some or all o the e3ce'tions. ,n e3ce'tion handler contains the code that is e3ec#ted !hen the error associated !ith the e3ce'tion occ#rs) and the e3ce'tion is raised. Synta34
+/C+BTION

9hen e3ce'tionNname then SeV#enceNo Nstatements2 9hen e3ce'tionNname then SeV#enceNo Nstatements2 9hen others then SeV#enceNo Nstatements2 +/C+BTION T.B+S
+ND2

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160
Brede ined e3ce'tions User(de ined e3ce'tions

BR+D+CIN+D +/C+BTIONS Oracle has 'rede ined several e3ce'tions that corres'onds to the most common oracle errors. Like the 'rede ined ty'es) the identi iers o these e3ce'tions are de ined in the ST,ND,RD 'acka"e. -eca#se o this) they are already availa*le to the 'ro"ram) it is not necessary to declare them in the declarative secion. +364
D+CL,R+

a n#m*er2 * varchar$5%2 vNmarks n#m*er2 c#rsor c is select F rom st#dent2 ty'e t is varray$8% o varchar$5%2 va t 4I t$?a?)?*?%2 va6 t2

-+:IN (( NOND,T,NCOUND -+:IN +/C+BTION

select smarks into vNmarks rom st#dent !here sno I D72 !hen noNdataN o#nd then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Invalid st#dent n#m*er?%2

+ND2 (( CURSORN,LR+,D.NOB+N -+:IN

o'en c2 o'en c2
+/C+BTION

+ND2

!hen c#rsorNalreadyNo'en then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?C#rsor is already o'ened?%2

(( IN;,LIDNCURSOR -+:IN

+/C+BTION

close c2 o'en c2 close c2 close c2

!hen invalidNc#rsor then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?C#rsor is already closed?%2

+ND2 (( TOON&,N.NRO9S -+:IN +/C+BTION

select smarks into vNmarks rom st#dent !here sno 1 62

!hen tooNmanyNro!s then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Too many val#es are comin" to marks varia*le?%2
+ND2 (( [+RONDI;ID+ -+:IN

a 4I DA72

+/C+BTION

o'eration?%2

!hen UeroNdivide then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Divided *y Uero ( invalid

+ND2 (( ;,LU+N+RROR -+:IN +/C+BTION

* 4I ?saketh?2

Copy rights are reserved.

+ND2 (( IN;,LIDNNU&-+R -+:IN +/C+BTION

!hen val#eNerror then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Invalid strin" len"th?%2

161

insert into st#dent val#es$?a?)?srin#?)677%2 !hen invalidNn#m*er then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Invalid n#m*er?%2

+ND2 (( SU-SCRIBTNOUTSID+NLI&IT -+:IN

va$4% 4I ?c?2

+/C+BTION

+ND2 (( SU-SCRIBTN-+.ONDNCOUNT -+:IN +/C+BTION

!hen s#*scri'tNo#tsideNlimit then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 is "reater than the limit?%2

va$8% 4I ?c?2 !hen s#*scri'tN*eyondNco#nt then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Inde3 is "reater than the co#nt?%2

+ND2 (( COLL+CTIONNISNNULL -+:IN

va6$6% 4I ?a?2

+/C+BTION

+ND2

!hen collectionNisNn#ll then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Collection is em'ty?%2

+ND2

((

O#t'#t4 Invalid st#dent n#m*er C#rsor is already o'ened C#rsor is already closed Too many val#es are comin" to marks varia*le Divided *y Uero ( invalid o'eration Invalid strin" len"th Invalid n#m*er Inde3 is "reater than the limit Inde3 is "reater than the co#nt Collection is em'ty +354
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

c n#m*er2 c 4I DA72

+/C+BTION

!hen UeroNdivide then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Invalid O'eration?%2 !hen others then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Crom OT<+RS handler4 Invalid O'eration?%2
+ND2

O#t'#t4

Invalid O'eration

US+R(D+CIN+D +/C+BTIONS

Copy rights are reserved.

, #ser(de ined e3ce'tion is an error that is de ined *y the 'ro"rammer. User( de ined e3ce'tions are declared in the declarative secion o a BLASQL *lock. @#st like varia*les) e3e'tions have a ty'e +/C+BTION and sco'e.
R,ISIN: +/C+BTIONS

162

User(de ined e3ce'tions are raised e3'licitly via the R,IS+ statement. +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

e e3ce'tion2 raise e2 !hen e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?e is raised?%2

+/C+BTION

+ND2

O#t'#t4

e is raised

-ULIT(IN +RROR CUNCTIONS

SQLCOD+ ,ND SQL+RR&

ret#rns the c#rrent error code) and SQL+RR& ret#rns the c#rrent error messa"e te3t2 Cor #ser(de ined e3ce'tion SQLCOD+ ret#rns 6 and SQL+RR& ret#rns Q#ser(dei ned e3ce'tionR. SQL+RR& !iil take only ne"ative val#e e3ce't 677. I any 'ositive val#e other than 677 ret#rns non(oracle e3ce'tion.
SQLCOD+

+364

D+CL,R+

e e3ce'tion2 vNdname varchar$67%2

-+:IN (( US+R(D+CIN+D +/C+BTION -+:IN

raise e2

+/C+BTION

+ND2

!hen e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$SQLCOD+ YY ? ? YY

SQL+RR&%2

(( BR+D+CIN+D +/C+BTION -+:IN +/C+BTION

select dname into vNdname rom de't !here de'tno I D72 !hen noNdataN o#nd then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$SQLCOD+ YY ? ? YY
SQL+RR&%2

+ND2 +ND2

O#t'#t4

6 User(De ined +3ce'tion 677 OR,(764784 no data o#nd

-+:IN

+354

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$SQL+RR&$677%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$SQL+RR&$7%%2

Copy rights are reserved.

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$SQL+RR&$6%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$SQL+RR&$(677%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$SQL+RR&$(D77%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$SQL+RR&$577%%2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$SQL+RR&$(T77%%2

+ND2

163

O#t'#t4

OR,(764784 no data o#nd OR,(77774 normal) s#ccess #l com'letion User(De ined +3ce'tion OR,(776774 no data o#nd OR,(77D774 &essa"e D77 not o#nd2 'rod#ctIRD-&S2 acilityIOR, (5774 non(OR,CL+ e3ce'tion OR,(77T774 invalid SQL statement

D-&SNUTILIT..COR&,TN+RRORNST,CG

The *#ilt(in #nction) like SQL+RR&) ret#rns the messa"e associated !ith the c#rrent error. It di ers rom SQL+RR& in t!o !ays4 Its len"th is not restricted2 it !ill ret#rn the #ll error messa"e strin". .o# can not 'ass an error code n#m*er to this #nction2 it cannot *e #sed to ret#rn the messa"e or a random error code. +34
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

v n#m*er 4I ?a*?2 n#ll2

+/C+BTION

!hen others then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$d*msN#tility. ormatNerrorNstack%2

+ND2

O#t'#t4

declare F +RROR at line 64 OR,(7ED754 BLASQL4 n#meric or val#e error4 character to n#m*er conversion error OR,(7ED654 at line 5

D-&SNUTILIT..COR&,TNC,LLNST,CG

This #nction ret#rns a ormatted strin" sho!in" the e3ec#tion call stack inside yo#r BLASQL a''lication. Its #se #lness is not restricted to error mana"ement2 yo# !ill also ind its handy or tracin" the e3ect#tion o yo#r code. .o# may not #se this #nction in e3ce'tion *lock. +34
-+:IN +ND2

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$d*msN#tility. ormatNcallNstack%2

O#t'#t4

((((( BLASQL Call Stack ((((( O*KectNhandle lineNn#m*er o*KectNname ETWE74WX 5 anonymo#s *lock

D-&SNUTILIT..COR&,TN+RRORN-,CGTR,C+

Copy rights are reserved.

164
It dis'lays the e3ec#tion stack at the 'oint !here an e3ce'tion !as raised. Th#s ) yo# can call this #nction !ith an e3ce'tion section at the to' level o yo#r stack and still ind o#t !here the error !as raised dee' !ithin the call stack. +34
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B6 IS -+:IN

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$? rom 'roced#re 6?%2 raise val#eNerror2

+ND B62

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B5 IS -+:IN

+ND B52

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$? rom 'roced#re 5?%2 '62

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ BROC+DUR+ B8 IS -+:IN

+/C+BTION

d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$? rom 'roced#re 8?%2 '52

!hen others then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$d*msN#tility. ormatNerrorN*acktra ce%2

+ND B82

O#t'#t4
SQL1

e3ec '8

rom 'roced#re 8 rom 'roced#re 5 rom 'roced#re 6 OR,(7ED654 at bS,G+T<.B6b) line 4 OR,(7ED654 at bS,G+T<.B5b) line 4 OR,(7ED654 at bS,G+T<.B8b) line 4 +/C+BTIONNINIT BR,:&, Usin" this yo# can associate a named e3ce'tion !ith a 'artic#lar oracle error. This "ives yo# the a*ility to tra' this error s'eci ically) rather than via an OT<+RS handler. Synta34 +34
BR,:&, +/C+BTIONNINIT$e&ception_name) D+CL,R+

oracle_error_number%2

e e3ce'tion2 'ra"ma e3ce'tionNinit$e)(64WE%2 c n#m*er2 c 4I DA72 !hen e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Invalid O'eration?%2

-+:IN

+/C+BTION

+ND2

O#t'#t4 Invalid O'eration R,IS+N,BBLIC,TIONN+RROR

Copy rights are reserved.

165
.o# can #se this *#ilt(in #nction to create yo#r o!n error messa"es) !hich can *e more descri'tive than named e3ce'tions. Synta34
R,IS+N,BBLIC,TIONN+RROR$error_number) error_messa e)) Okeep_errors_%la P%2 The -oolean 'arameter keep_errors_%la is o'tional. I it is TRU+) the ne! error is added to the list o errors already raised. I it is C,LS+) !hich is de a#lt) the ne! error !ill re'lace the c#rrent list o errors.

+34

D+CL,R+ -+:IN

c n#m*er2 c 4I DA72

+/C+BTION

+ND2

!hen UeroNdivide then raiseNa''licationNerror$(57555)?Invalid O'eration?%2

O#t'#t4
D+CL,R+

at line 64 OR,(575554 Invalid O'eration OR,(7ED654 at line W

+RROR

+/C+BTION BROB,:,TION +3ce'tions can occ#r in the declarative) the e3ec#ta*le) or the e3ce'tion section o a BLASQL *lock.
+/C+BTION R,IS+D IN T<+ +/+CU,T,-L+ S+CTION

+3ce'tions raised in e3ec#ata*le section can *e handled in c#rrent *lock or o#ter *lock. +364
D+CL,R+ -+:IN -+:IN

e e3ce'tion2 raise e2 !hen e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?e is raised?%2

+ND2 +/C+BTION

+ND2

O#t'#t4 +354

e is raised
D+CL,R+

e e3ce'tion2 raise e2

-+:IN -+:IN +ND2 +ND2

O#t'#t4

Copy rights are reserved.

at line 64 OR,(7ED674 BLASQL4 #nhandled #ser(de ined e3ce'tion OR,(7ED654 at line D

+RROR +/C+BTION R,IS+D IN T<+ D+CL,R,TI;+ S+CTION

166

+3ce'tions raised in the declarative secion m#st *e handled in the o#ter *lock. +364
D+CL,R+ -+:IN

c n#m*er$8% 4I ?a*cd?2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?<ello?%2 !hen others then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Invalid strin" len"th?%2

+/C+BTION

+ND2

O#t'#t4 at line 64 OR,(7ED754 BLASQL4 n#meric or val#e error4 character to n#m*er conversion error OR,(7ED654 at line 5
+RROR

+354
-+:IN D+CL,R+ -+:IN

c n#m*er$8% 4I ?a*cd?2 d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?<ello?%2 !hen others then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Invalid strin" len"th?%2

+/C+BTION

+ND2 +/C+BTION

!hen others then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Crom o#ter *lock4 Invalid strin" len"th?%2

+ND2

O#t'#t4
+/C+BTION R,IS+D IN T<+ +/C+BTION S+CTION

Crom o#ter *lock4 Invalid strin" len"th

+3ce'tions raised in the declarative secion m#st *e handled in the o#ter *lock. +364
D+CL,R+

-+:IN

e6 e3ce'tion2 e5 e3ce'tion2 raise e62 !hen e6 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?e6 is raised?%2 raise e52 !hen e5 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?e5 is raised?%2

+/C+BTION

+ND2

O#t'#t4 e6 is raised D+CL,R+ F

Copy rights are reserved.

+RROR at line 64 OR,(7ED674 BLASQL4 #nhandled #ser(de ined e3ce'tion OR,(7ED654 at line T OR,(7ED674 BLASQL4 #nhandled #ser(de ined e3ce'tion +354
D+CL,R+

167

e6 e3ce'tion2 e5 e3ce'tion2
-+:IN -+:IN +/C+BTION

raise e62 !hen e6 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?e6 is raised?%2 raise e52 !hen e5 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?e5 is raised?%2

+ND2 +/C+BTION

+ND2

!hen e5 then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?Crom o#ter *lock4 e5 is raised?%2

O#t'#t4 e6 is raised Crom o#ter *lock4 e5 is raised +384

D+CL,R+ -+:IN

e e3ce'tion2 raise e2 !hen e then d*msNo#t'#t.'#tNline$?e is raised?%2 raise e2

+/C+BTION

+ND2

O#t'#t4

e is raised D+CL,R+ F +RROR at line 64 OR,(7ED674 BLASQL4 #nhandled #ser(de ined e3ce'tion OR,(7ED654 at line X OR,(7ED674 BLASQL4 #nhandled #ser(de ined e3ce'tion

R+STRICTIONS .o# can not 'ass e3ce'tion as an ar"#ment to a s#*'ro"ram.

D,T,-,S+ TRI::+RS
Tri""ers are similar to 'roced#res or #nctions in that they are named BLASQL *locks !ith declarative) e3ec#ta*le) and e3ce'tion handlin" sections. , tri""er is e3ec#ted im'licitly !henever the tri""erin" event ha''ens. The act o e3ec#tin" a tri""er is kno!n as irin" the tri""er. R+STRICTIONS ON TRI::+R+S

Copy rights are reserved.

168
Like 'acka"es) tri""ers m#st *e stored as stand(alone o*Kects in the data*ase and cannot *e local to a *lock or 'acka"e. , tri""er does not acce't ar"#ments.

US+ OC TRI::+RS &aintainin" com'le3 inte"rity constraints not 'ossi*le thro#"h declarative constraints ena*le at ta*le creation. ,#ditin" in ormation in a ta*le *y recordin" the chan"es made and !ho made them. ,#tomatically si"nalin" other 'ro"rams that action needs to take 'lace !hen cha"es are made to a ta*le. Ber orm validation on chan"es *ein" made to ta*les. ,#tomate maintenance o the data*ase.

T.B+S OC TRI::+RS C,T+:ORI+S Timin" (( -e ore or , ter Level (( Ro! or Statement Ro! level tri""er ires once or each ro! a ected *y the tri""erin" statement. Ro! level tri""er is identi ied *y the COR +,C< RO9 cla#se. Statement level tri""er ires once either *e ore or a ter the statement. D&L TRI::+R S.NT,/ Create or re'lace tri""er 0tri er_name1 -e ore Y a ter on insert or #'date or delete OCor each ro!P -e"in (( tri""er *ody +nd 0tri er_name12 D&L TRI::+RS , D&L tri""er is ired on an INS+RT) UBD,T+) or D+L+T+ o'eration on a data*ase ta*le. It can *e ired either *e ore or a ter the statement e3ec#tes) and can *e ired once 'er a ected ro!) or once 'er statement. The com*ination o these actors determines the ty'es o the tri""ers. These are a total o 65 'ossi*le ty'es $8 statements F 5 timin" F 5 levels%.
ORD+R OC D&L TRI::+R CIRIN:

D&L Tri""ers Instead o Tri""ers DDL Tri""ers System Tri""ers S#s'end Tri""ers

-e ore statement level -e ore ro! level , ter ro! level , ter statement level

+34 S#''ose !e have a oll!in" ta*le.

SQL1

select F rom st#dent2

Copy rights are reserved.

169

NO N,&+ ((((( ((((((( 6 a 5 * 8 c 4 d

&,RGS (((((((((( 677 577 877 477

,lso !e have tri""erin"N irin"Norder ta*le !ith irin"Norder as the ield.

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ TRI::+R TRI::+R6 -+:IN

*e ore insert on st#dent

insert into tri""erN irin"Norder val#es$?-e ore Statement Level?%2

+ND TRI::+R62 CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ TRI::+R TRI::+R5

-+:IN

*e ore insert on st#dent or each ro!

+ND TRI::+R52

insert into tri""erN irin"Norder val#es$?-e ore Ro! Level?%2

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ TRI::+R TRI::+R8 -+:IN

a ter insert on st#dent insert into tri""erN irin"Norder val#es$?, ter Statement Level?%2

+ND TRI::+R82

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ TRI::+R TRI::+R4

a ter insert on st#dent or each ro!

-+:IN

insert into tri""erN irin"Norder val#es$?, ter Ro! Level?%2

+ND TRI::+R42

O#t'#t4

select F rom tri""erN irin"Norder2 no ro!s selected

SQL1

insert into st#dent val#es$D)?e?)D77%2 6 ro! created.

SQL1

select F rom tri""erN irin"Norder2 CIRIN:NORD+R (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( -e ore Statement Level -e ore Ro! Level , ter Ro! Level , ter Statement Level
SQL1 SQL1

select F rom st#dent2 NO N,&+ &,RGS (((( (((((((( (((((((((( 6 a 677 5 * 577 8 c 877 4 d 477 D e D77

Copy rights are reserved.

CORR+L,TION ID+NTICI+RS IN RO9(L+;+L TRI::+RS

170

Inside the tri""er) yo# can access the data in the ro! that is c#rrently *ein" 'rocessed. This is accom'lished thro#"h t!o correlation identi iers ( 4old and 4ne!. , correlation identi%ier is a s'ecial kind o BLASQL *ind varia*le. The colon in ront o each indicates that they are *ind varia*les) in the sense o host varia*les #sed in em*edded BLASQL) and indicates that they are not re"#lar BLASQL varia*les. The BLASQL com'iler !ill treat them as records o ty'e Tri""erin"Nta*leMRO9T.B+. ,ltho#"h syntactically they are treated as records) in reality they are not. 4old and 4ne! are also kno!n as pseudorecords) or this reason.
TRI::+RIN: ST,T+&+NT 4OLD (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( INS+RT all 4N+9 ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((

ields are

NULL.

val#es that !ill *e 9hen the statement is

inserted com'leted.
UBD,T+

#'dated com'leted.
D+L+T+

ori"inal val#es or the ro! *e ore the #'date. ori"inal val#es *e ore the ro! is deleted.

ne! val#es that !ill *e !hen the statement is all ields are
NULL.

+34

S#''ose !e have a ta*le called marks !ith ne!Nmarks.

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ TRI::+R OLDNN+9

ields no) oldNmarks)

-+:IN

*e ore insert or #'date or delete on st#dent or each ro! insert into marks val#es$4old.no)4old.marks)4ne!.marks%2

+ND OLDNN+92

O#t'#t4
SQL1

select F rom st#dent2

NO N,&+ &,RGS ((((( ((((((( (((((((((( 6 a 677 5 * 577 8 c 877 4 d 477 D e D77
SQL1

select F rom marks2

no ro!s selected
SQL1

insert into st#dent val#es$E)? ?)E77%2

6 ro! created.
SQL1

select F rom st#dent2

Copy rights are reserved.

171
NO N,&+ &,RGS (((( (((((((( (((((((((( 6 a 677 5 * 577 8 c 877 4 d 477 D e D77 E E77
SQL1

select F rom marks2 NO OLDN&,RGS N+9N&,RGS (((( ((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((( E77

SQL1

#'date st#dent set marksIDDD !here noID2

6 ro! #'dated.
SQL1

select F rom st#dent2

NO N,&+ &,RGS ((((( ((((((( (((((((((( 6 a 677 5 * 577 8 c 877 4 d 477 D e DDD E E77
SQL1

select F rom marks2

NO OLDN&,RGS N+9N&,RGS (((((( (((((((((((((((( ((((((((((((((( E77 D D77 DDD SQL1 delete st#dent !here no I 52 6 ro! deleted.
SQL1

select F rom st#dent2

NO N,&+ &,RGS (((( (((((((( (((((((((( 6 a 677 8 c 877 4 d 477 D e DDD E E77
SQL1

R+C+R+NCIN: CL,US+

select F rom marks2 NO OLDN&,RGS N+9N&,RGS ((((( (((((((((((((( (((((((((((((((( E77 D D77 DDD 5 577

I desired) yo# can #se the R+C+R+NCIN: cla#se to s'eci y a di erent name or 4old ane 4ne!. This cla#se is o#nd a ter the tri""erin" event) *e ore the 9<+N cla#se.

Copy rights are reserved.

Synta34
R+C+R+NCIN:

172
Oold as oldNnameP One! as ne!NnameP

+34

CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ TRI::+R R+C+R+NC+NTRI::+R

-+:IN

*e ore insert or #'date or delete on st#dent re erencin" old as oldNst#dent ne! as ne!Nst#dent or each ro! insert into marks

val#es$4oldNst#dent.no)4oldNst#dent.marks)4ne!Nst#dent.marks%2
+ND R+C+R+NC+NTRI::+R2 9<+N CL,US+

cla#se is valid or ro!(level tri""ers only. I 'resent) the tri""er *ody !ill *e e3ec#ted only or those ro!s that meet the condition s'eci ied *y the 9<+N cla#se.
9<+N

Synta34
9<+N

tri

er_condition2

9here tri er_condition is a -oolean e3'ression. It !ill *e eval#ated or each ro!. The =new and =old records can *e re erenced inside tri er_condition as !ell) *#t like R+C+R+NCIN:) the colon is not #sed there. The colon is only valid in the tri""er *ody. +34
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ TRI::+R 9<+NNTRI::+R

-+:IN

*e ore insert or #'date or delete on st#dent re erencin" old as oldNst#dent ne! as ne!Nst#dent or each ro! !hen $ne!Nst#dent.marks 1 D77% insert into marks

val#es$4oldNst#dent.no)4oldNst#dent.marks)4ne!Nst#dent.marks%2
+ND 9<+NNTRI::+R2 TRI::+R BR+DIC,T+S

There are three -oolean o'eration is. The 'redicates are

#nctions that yo# can #se to determine !hat the

INS+RTIN: UBD,TIN: D+L+TIN:

+34
CR+,T+ OR R+BL,C+ TRI::+R BR+DIC,T+NTRI::+R -+:IN

*e ore insert or #'date or delete on st#dent i insertin" then insert into 'redicates val#es$?I?%2 elsi #'datin" then insert into 'redicates val#es$?U?%2 elsi deletin" then insert into 'redicates val#es$?D?%2 end i 2

+ND BR+DIC,T+NTRI::+R2

O#t'#t4
SQL1

delete st#dent !here noI62

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6 ro! deleted.
SQL1

173

select F rom 'redicates2 &S: ((((((((((((((( D

insert into st#dent val#es$W)?"?)W77%2 6 ro! created.

SQL1

select F rom 'redicates2 &S: ((((((((((((((( D I SQL1 #'date st#dent set marks I WWW !here noIW2 6 ro! #'dated.
SQL1 SQL1

select F rom 'redicates2 &S: ((((((((((((((( D I U

INST+,D(OC TRI::+RS Instead(o tri""ers ire instead o a D&L o'eration. ,lso) instead(o tri""ers can *e de ined only on vie!s. Instead(o tri""ers are #sed in t!o cases4 To allo! a vie! that !o#ld other!ise not *e modi ia*le to *e modi ied. To modi y the col#mns o a nested ta*le col#mn in a vie!.

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