Pre Reading II: Writing Skills

By Mira Andriyani, 1206249933/ Class C

Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you
to communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through
face-to-face or telephone conversations.
1. Principles of Paragraph Writing
A paragraph is a series of sentences obout one idea called the topic. Paragraphs can
contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a series of brief
examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a place,
character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more things;
classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. When making a paragraph,
you should:
Introduce the reader to the topic of the paragraph
State the main idea of the paragraph
Focus the paragraph

a. Topic Sentence
Usualy, a paragraph begins with a general sentence that introduce the topic.
This sentences is called the topic sentence, which contains the main idea in the
paragraph. The topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is going to be about.
The topic sentence is the most important sentence in the paragraph.
The topic sentence contains words that need to explained, described, add
supported in the sentences that follow in the paragraph. A topic sentence has several
important functions: it substantiates or supports an essays thesis statement; it unifies
the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the
reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss. The topic
sentence should not simply be a statement of facts, simple fact cannot be development
into a full paragraph.
b. Paragraph structure
Most paragraphs have a three-part structure: introduction, body, and
conclusion. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating your
meaning to your reader.
Introduction: the first section of a paragraph. It should include the topic sentence
and other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background
information or provide a transition.
Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts,
arguments, analysis, examples, and other information.
Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the
information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraphs controlling
idea.
c. Supporting sentences
While the topic sentence introduce the topic annd controls the information
given in the order sentences in the paragraph, the function of these sentences is to add
details to the topic. The order sentences is that they have to be closely related to the
topic sentences.
d. Technique of support
In order to communicate sucessfully, a paragraph must be about a single idea.
In order for the paragraph to be complete, the topic sentences must be supported, in
order words, the controlling ideas in the topic sentence must be explained, described,
and/of proven with spesific supporting details. There are four basic techniques of
support:
- Fact
Any pieces of information that can be easily that can be easily verified can serve as
factual support. Include are number ( percentages, number of miles, etc.) and
statistics as well as facts that can be found in books, newspapers, and magazines.
- Examples
Examples can explain or define a controlling idea, or they can prove an idea or a
point made in the topic sentences. Somtimes a series of short examples is effecive
evidence for a topic sentence. Other times, a single extended example can serve as
solid support in a paragraph.
- Physical description
Still another way to support a topic sentences is by using physical description, that
is word and pharases that appeal to the five sense: sight, hearing, smell, touch, and
taste. Physical description is often used to explain or describe controlling ideas in
the topic sentence.
- Personal experience
While peronal experience is not often used in formal academic papers, it can serve
as a valuable support tool paragraphs.
e. Patterns of organization
Whether you are going to write a paragraph or an essay, you have to decide
how to present your ideas. There are several ways to organize your ideas. They are
comparison, contrast, cause and effect, problem solution, classification, process and
argumentation. The following table highlight the different patterns.
Linking your writing purpose to a pattern of organization
Purpose
Content of the paragraph or
essay
Pattern of organization
What do you want to
emphasize in your
paragraph or essay
The qualities that are similar
and different between X and
Y
Comparison / contrast
The major causes of a
condition and/or the effects
of this condition
Cause/ effect
The parts of an object, the
logical divisions of a concept
Classification
A definition of words or
ideas
Definition/ clarification
An argumentation to support
an opinion or ideas
Argumentation

f. Concluding sentences
The sentences that ends the paragraph is called the concluding sentence. It
usually uses on or more of the following techniques.
- Summarises the material in the paragraph
- Offers a solution to the problem stated in the paragraph.
- Predicts a situation that will result or occur from the statement in the paragraph
- Makes a recommendation concerning material presented in the paragraph.
- States a conclusion to information given in the paragraph.

2. Principles of essay writing
Academic prose often requires more than one pararaph. Furthemore, because
academic prose requires evidence, often a single paragraph is not sufficient for the amount
of essensial or specific detail to support ideas or opinions. Therefore, it is often necessary
to construct multiple pargraphs. Each paragraph of an essay, a technical report, a critique
or a research paper will have the same general form: a general topic sentence with
controlling ideas, followed by facts, examples, physical descriptions, and/or experiences
that explain, describe, and/or illustrate those controlling ideas.
A beginning: called the introduction, this is the first in the essay
A thesis sentence: generally located at the end of the introduction, this sentence is the
most general, most important sentence in the essay. It contains cotrolling ideas that
limit and direct the rest of the essay.
A middle: called the body of essay, these paragraph explain, define, clarify, and
illustrate the thesis sentence. Each body paragraph consists of a topic sentence and
several supporting sentences. The number of body paragraphs depends on the lenght
and complexity of the assignment.
An ending: called the conclusion of the essay, this paragraph ends the essay by
restating the thesis statement, offering a solution or recommendation or by making a
prediction.
Diagram of an essay













Introduction:
- General infformstion
- Thesis statement

Body:
Each paragraph should contain:
- A topic sentence
- Supporting sentences
Conclusion:
- May contain prediction,
solution or recommendation
Each essay you write will contain a thesis statement. This thesis statement is
usually one sentence that gives the purpose of the essay. The following are characteristics
of a good thesis statement:
Is the strongest, clearest statement in the essay
Comes at the beginning of the essay, usually at the end of the introductory paragraph.
Must NOT be a simple statement of fact that require no elaboration. A simple
statement of fact has little possibilities for development.
Should NOT be expressed as a question, because a question contains no attitude or
opinion. The answer to the question is the thesis statement.
Contain controlling ideas that will be used in the topic sentences of the body
paragraphs of the essay.
May be a statement of opinion that will be explained and proved in the body
paragraph.
May be a statement of intent that will be explained and illustrated in the body
paragraph of the essay.
However, it is not easy to write a good thesis statement. A successful thesis
statement usually results from a process of writing and rewriting. Start with a topic that
you want to explore and then narrow it down to something that can be covered adequately
in a short essay.a good thesis statement usually v result from a process of writing and
rewriting. Start with a topic taht you want to explore and then narrow it down to
something that can be covered adequately in a short essay.
a. Paragraph relationship
In academic essay, the thesis statement is directly related to the topic sentences in
the body paragraphs. Each topic sentence relates to and deals with one or more of the
controlling ideas in the thesis. Each set of supporting sentences that follows a topic
sentence relate directly to that topic sentence. In this way, the essay will be unified and
complete.
b. The introduction
The introduction is a very important part of the essay as it tells the reader what
the essay is all about. The function of the introduction is:
- To provide background information
- To capture the readers interest
- To state the thesis
The introductory paragraph usually consist of three parts:
Hook
Connecting information
Thesis statement
The hook is the opening statement. Just as a fisherman uses a hook to catch a fish,
so a writer uses a hook to catch the readers attention. Writing a good hook is not easy. It
requires a great deal of thought and practice.
There are many different ways to write a hook, among other:
By asking a question. If the readers want to know the answer to the question, they are
hooked and will read the essay.
By making a interesting observation or relating an anecdote/
By describing a unique scenario to catch readers attention.
Using a famous quotiation or saying as a hook, as in this example.
Using background information related to the thesis statement.
c. Connecting information
After the hook, the writer usually writes three to five sentences that help to
introduce the topic to the reader. These sentences can be background information about
the topic or they can be example or explanations.
d. Writing the introduction
There are many ways to write an introduction depending on how you want to
present the topic and the kind of essay you decide to write. Many introductions use one
or a combination of the following techniques to provide background information and
capture the readers attention.
Move from general to specific
This type of introduction opens with a general statement on the subject that
establishes its importance and then leads the reader to the more specific thesis
statement
Use an anecdote
Another way to write an introductions is to relate an interesting story that will get the
reader interested in the subject. Newspaper and magazine writers frequently use this
technique for their articles.
Use a quotiation
A quotiation is an easy way to introduce your topic. You can quote an authory on
your subject or use an interesting quotation from an article. You can alsobe more
informal and use a proverb or favorite saying of a friend or relative.
Ask a question
Asking one or more questions at the beginning of an essay is a good way to engage
the readers in the topic right away. They will want to read on in order to find the
answers to the questions.
Present facts and statistic
Presenting some interesting facts or statistics on your subject establishes credibility.
e. Writing the body
The body of the basic academic essay, which is the main part, usually consists of
three or four paragraphs which support the thesis statement. In order words, each topic
sentence is relates directly to that topic sentence. The writer develops these paragraphs
and uses linking information or transitions to make sure that the paragraphs flow
smoothly from one to the other.
f. Transition signals between paragraphs
Transition signals are important not only within paragraphs but also between
paragraphs. If you write two or more paragraphs, you need to show relationship between
your first and second paragraph, between your second and third paragraph, and so on.
Think of transitions between paragraphs as the inks of a chain. The links of a chain
connect the chain: they hold it together. Similary, a transition signal between two
paragraph links your ideas together. Two paragraphs are linked by adding a transition
signal to the topic sentence of the second paragrap. This transition signal may bbe a
single word, a phrase, or a dependent clause that repeats or summarizes the main idea in
the first paragraph.
g. Writing the conclusion
Some students think that writing a good conclusion is the hardest part of writing
an essay. Following these guidelines will make it easier for you to write an effective
conclusion.
Let the reader know that this is the conclusion. You can use the following transitions
for that puspose:
In conclusion,...............
To summarize,.............
As we have seen,.........
Finally, ........................
The conclusion should help the reader to reconsider the main ideas that you have
given in the essay.
The final sentence of an essay often give a suggestion, an opinion, prediction, or a
conclusions to the essay.
There are some example of different conclusions:
- Make a prediction
- Suggestion results or consequences
- Suggest a solution, make a recommendation, or call for action
- Opinion
- Quote an authority on the topic

3. ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
In this kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument
with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue.
We should clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing
audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The primary objective is to persuade people to
change beliefs that many of them do not want to change. Choosing an argumentative topic
is not an easy task. The topic should be such that
it should be narrowed down
it should contain an argument (A question and fact cannot be an argument)
it should be a topic that can be adequately supported (with statistics, outside source
citations, etc.)
If you believe that you can find enough evidence to support your idea and refute
others effectively, you can choose challenging topics as well. You can enjoy writing about
such topics:
a. Organization
All argumentative topics have PROs and CONs. Before starting writing, it is
imperative to make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones among them
for supporting and refuting.
There are three possible organization patterns:
Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3
Thesis statement:
- PRO idea 1
- PRO idea 2
- CON(s) + Refutation(s)
- Conclusion
Thesis statement:
- CON(s) + Refutation(s)
- PRO idea 1
- PRO idea 2
- Conclusion
Thesis statement:
- CON idea 1 Refutation
- CON idea 2 Refutation
- CON idea 3 Refutation
- Conclusion

b. Supporting our ideas
This is the most important part when persuading others. We are asking some
people to change their beliefs or actions. We should be supporting our ideas with such
facts, statistics and/or authorities that there should not be room for any doubts. Here are
some faulty supports we should avoid:
Thesis: Leaving the university and starting to work is good for the adolescent because
Feelings, emotional arguments ( it makes one feel much better.)
Irrelevant examples (wandering off the topic) ( he would then be able to take his
girlfriend to expensive restaurants.)
Oversimplification ( only then would he understand what it means to be an adult.)
Hasty generalizations (... it is a widely known fact that all adolescents look forward to
earning money.)
Unreliable, even false outside sources ( according to www.doubtme.com, 80% of
working men wish they quit school when they were at university and started working at
an earlier age.)
c. Refuting opposing arguments
Before we start saying that the opponents are wrong, we should specify their
opposing ideas. Otherwise, it would be like hitting the other person with eyes closed. We
should see clearly what we are hitting and be prepared beforehand so that he cannot hit
us back. We can do this by knowing what we are refuting.
d. Language
Signposts gain importance in the argumentative essay. They enable the readers to
follow our arguments easily.
When pointing out opposing arguments (CONs):
- Opponents of this idea claim / maintain that
- Those who disagree / are against these ideas may say / assert that
- Some people may disagree with this idea.
When stating specifically why they think like that:
- The put forward this idea because
- They claim that since
Reaching the turning point:
- However
- but
- On the other hand
When refuting the opposing idea, we may use the following strategies:
Compromise but prove that their argument is not powerful enough:
- They have a point in thinking like that.
- To a certain extent they are right.
Completely disagree:
- After seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with what they say.
Say that their argument is irrelevant to the topic:
- What we are discussing here is not what they are trying to prove.
- Their argument is irrelevant.
e. Debatable and non-debatable statements
An argumentative essay is built around a specific statement (or main premise)
that is debatable within the field in which you are studying. In other words, at the centre
of an argumentative essay is a statement with which your readers may disagree. Your
essay will need to support that statement in a manner that convinces your readers of its
truth. To begin this unit of work on argumentative essays we will learn the difference
between debatable and non-debatable statements
Debatable statements
Statements with which other people might or might not agree . These are
sometimes called "arguments", "assertions", "propositions" or "premises". eg. Solar
energy is the best way of meeting Australia's energy needs in the 21st century.
Non-debatable statements
Statements with which no-one would normally disagree or argue. These are
sometimes called "facts". eg. Coal and oil are the main sources of energy in Australia
in the 20th century.

4. Synthesizing
Synthesizing is a reading comprehension strategy that involves merging new
ideas or information gained from reading, with background knowledge, experiences
and/or other sources to create original thoughts, opinions, and/or interpretations.
Synthesizing occurs throughout the process of reading. The reader continuously monitors
the overall meaning, important concepts, and themes in the text as he/she reads. The
reader first summarizes (and analyzes) information to establish key points and big ideas.
Then integrates these idea into the existing knowledge or found sources to create new
understandings of the text and to generate different and unique insights.
Synthesizing encourages readers to:
- Integrate, connect and combine new information with prior knowlwdge
- integrate their new understanding into their lives and world view
- combine and contrast information from different sources
- transfer information to new situations
- collate information to reach new conclusions
- develop opinions
- find alternative solutions
- rely on original and creative thinking
- debate

5. Summary writing
Summary writing is an important academic skill. Usually academic summaries are
brief writen description of other written materials. Students summarise lecture notes so
that they can study a smaller amount of materials, summarize an article for a professor
wwho has not read the article, summarize written material in the introduction to a
paragraph or essay taht will evaluable that material, orr summarize material that they have
learned in class on a test so that the professor will know that they understand that material.
Writing good summaries requires accurate reading and the ability to find the main
idea and most important supportning evidence in a piece of writing. Summaries are
always much shorter than tthe original texts.
To write a good summary, keep following in mind:
Mention the source and the author at the beginning of the summary
State the authors main ideas without distorting thosee ideas or adding your own
State the authors most important supporting evidence or sub-points without distorting
them. Do no incluude details.
Use your own wording. Occasionally, however, a phrase in the original may be
especially striking, interesting or controversial. In that case you may use the autors
exact words if you put quotation marks around them.
a. Organization of summaries
The introduction contains the kind (an article? A book? A film?), the title, and the
author of the written material abd states the main point of the original article.
The middle (the body) contains the main ideas of the article in the same order they
appered in the article.
The conclution briefly relates the conclusion of the author of the original article.
b. Steps in writing summaries:
Read and reread the material
Underline the main ideas to gather the necessary information for the summay
Make notes about those ideas in the margin to make further rereading easier and
quicker.
In your own words, write down one sentence that is the main idea. Start the sentence
using the name of the author and title of article
Don't forget to use transition words to link your sentences together.
Re-read your summary to make sure it.



References:
http://www.ltn.lv/~markir/essaywriting/debate.htm
Wiradisastra, G., Halimi, S. S., Poerwoto, C., Sulichah D. J. Et all. 2009. English for
Academic Purpose: MPK Bahasa Inggris University of Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Penerbit
FKUI.
Indiana University. 2011. Paragraphs and Topic Sentences. From
http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/paragraphs.shtml. access at April, 21th 2014,
18.45.