SCAD ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ME6504 Metrology and Measurements

Unit 1

Basic Concepts of
Measurements

Metrology is the name given to the science of pure

measurement.
Engineering Metrology is restricted to
measurements of length & angle.
Need for Measurement

to ensure that the part to be measured conforms to

the established standard.
to meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
to provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no
faulty product reaches the customers.
to coordinate the functions of quality control,
production, procurement & other departments of the
organization.
to judge the possibility of making some of the
defective parts acceptable after minor repairs.

Precision & Accuracy of Measurement

Precision : It is the degree which determines how well
identically performed measurements agree with each other.
It is the repeatability of the measuring process. It carries no
meaning for only one measurement. It exists only when a
set of observations is gathered for the same quantity under

identical conditions. In such a set, the observations will

scatter about a mean. The less is the scattering, the more
precise is the measurement.
Accuracy : It is the degree of agreement between the
measured value and its true value. The difference between
the measured value & the true value is known as Error of
measurement. Accuracy is the quality of conformity.
To distinguish the Precision from Accuracy, the following
simple example can be said. A repaired needle-watch will
give Precision readings (same time) all the times, but will
give Accurate readings (correct time) only 2 times in a day.
Of the two, Precision & Accuracy, only the former is
required though the latter is usually sought for in a
measuring process. Achieving high precision is easier &
cheaper than achieving high accuracy. If the measuring
instrument is of high precise & is calibrated for its error,
then the true value can be easily obtained from the
measured average value after deducting the instrument
error. So, high precision - instrument is required rather
than the high accurate instrument, considering cost and
reliability of the measuring instrument.
However, of the two, precision & accuracy, which one is
more vital, depends on the situation. For example, for a
carpenter entrusted with the job of fitting a shelf into
cupboard, precision is more important. This can be
achieved only when he uses the same scale to measure the
cupboard & the board for shelf. It hardly matters whether
his scale is accurate or not. If however, such a board is
ordered for purchase from a pre-cut board from outside,
accuracy becomes more vital than precision. He must
measure the size of the cupboard very accurately before
placing the order.
Interchangeability is the call of the day. Not only a nut
from its lot should fit on any bolt of its lot, both

manufactured in the same plant by same men, but also, it

should fit on a bolt from some other manufacturer. The
simplest way to maintain compatibility of parts for
interchangeable manufacture is by adopting accuracy in
measurement everywhere.
Factors affecting the accuracy of measuring system
a) Factors affecting the standard of measurement:
co-efficient of thermal expansion
elastic properties
stability with time
geometric compatibility
b) Factors affecting the work piece to be measured:
co-efficient of thermal expansion
elastic properties
arrangement of supporting work piece
hidden geometry
surface defects such as scratches, waviness, etc.
c) Factors affecting the inherent characteristics
instrument:
repeatability & readability
calibration errors
effect of friction, backlash, etc
inadequate amplification for accuracy objective
deformation in handling or use

of

d) Factors affecting person:

improper training / skill
inability to select proper standards / instruments
less
attitude
towards
personal
accuracy
measurements
e) Factors affecting environment:
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, etc.
cleanliness
adequate illumination
heat radiation from lights / heating elements

Reliability of Measurement
If a measuring instrument is not precise, it will give
different values for same dimension, when measured again
and again. Such an instrument thus is considered non-trust
worthy. The first and fundamental requirement of any good
measuring instrument to be effective is that it should have
adequate repeatability or precision. The measuring
instrument which gives precise (same) values all the times
is far reliable than the instrument which gives accurate
(true) values rarely but not precise values all the times. The
precise value can be easily converted into accurate value by
taking the constant error of precision instrument into
account.
If the precision measuring instrument is highly calibrated
for its error of measurement & the constant error of
measurement is known in advance, then the accurate (true)
value can be obtained as follows ;
True value = Measured value Error
Hence, calibrated & precision measuring instrument is
more reliable and hence is used in metrological laboratories.
Methods of Measurement
1) Method of direct measurement: The value of the
quantity to be measured is obtained directly without the
necessity of carrying out supplementary calculations based
on a functional dependence of the quantity to be measured
in relation to the quantities actually measured. Example :
Weight of a substance is measured directly using a physical
balance.
2) Method of indirect measurement: The value of the
quantity is obtained from measurements carried out by

direct method of measurement of other quantities,

connected with the quantity to be measured by a known
relationship. Example : Weight of a substance is measured
by measuring the length, breadth & height of the substance
directly and then by using the relation
Weight = Length x Breadth x Height x Density
3) Method of measurement without contact: The sensor is
not placed in contact with the object whose characteristics
are being measured.
4) Method of combination measurement closed series: The
results of direct or indirect measurement or different
combinations of those values are made use of & the
corresponding system of equations is solved.
5) Method of fundamental measurement: Based on the
measurements of base quantities entering into the definition
of the quantity.
6) Method of measurement by comparison: Based on the
comparison of the value of a quantity to be measured with a
known value of the same quantity (direct comparison), or a
known value of another quantity which is a function of the
quantity to be measured (indirect comparison).
7) Method of measurement by substitution: The value of a
quantity to be measured is replaced by a known value of
the same quantity, so selected that the effects produced in
the indicating device by these two values are the same (a
type of direct comparison).
8) Method of measurement by transposition : The value of
the quantity to be measured is in the beginning, balanced
by a first known value A of the same quantity, then the
value of the quantity to be measured is put in place of this
known value and is again balanced by another known value
B. If the position of the element indicating equilibrium is
the same in both the cases, the value of the quantity
measured is equal to A & B.

9) Method of differential measurement: Based on the

comparison of the quantity to be measured with a quantity
of the same kind, with a value known to be slightly
difference from that of the quantity to be measured, and the
measurement of the difference between the values of these
two quantities.
10) Method of measurement by complement: The value of
the quantity to be measured is complemented by a known
value of the same quantity, selected in such a way that the
sum of these two values is equal to a certain value of
comparison fixed in advance.
11) Method of measurement by interpolation : It consists of
determining value of the quantity measured on the basis of
the law of correspondence & known values of the same
quantity, the value to be determined lying between two
known values.
12) Method of measurement by extrapolation : It consists
of determining the value of the quantity measured on the
basis of the law of correspondence & known values of the
same quantity, the value to be determined lying outside the
known values.
Terms in Measurement
1) Constant of a measuring instrument: The factor by which
the indication of the instrument shall be multiplied to
obtain the result of measurement.
2) Nominal value of a physical measure: The value of the
quantity reproduced by the physical measure and is
indicated on that measure.
3) Conventional true value of a physical measure: The
value of the quantity reproduced by the physical measure,
determined by a measurement carried out with the help of
measuring instruments, which show a total error which is
practically negligible.

4) Standard: It is the physical embodiment of a unit. For

every kind of quantity to be measured, there should be a
unit to express the result of the measurement & a standard
to enable the measurement.
5) Calibration: It is the process of determining the values of
the quantity being measured corresponding to a preestablished arbitrary scale. It is the measurement of
measuring instrument. The quantity to be measured is the
input to the measuring instrument.
The input affects some parameter which is the output &
is read out. The amount of output is governed by that of
input. Before we can read any instrument, a scale must
be framed for the output by successive application of some
already standardised (inputs) signals. This process is
known as calibration.
6) Sensitivity of instrument: The ability of the instrument
to detect small variation in the input signal.
7) Readability of instrument: The susceptibility of a
measuring instrument to having its indications converted to
a meaningful number. It implies the ease with which
observations can be made accurately.
Standards of Measurement
a) FPS System: In this system, the units of length, mass,
time, temperature are Foot (or Yard), Pound (or Slug),
Second, Rankine (or Fahrenheit) respectively. It is common
in English speaking countries and is developed by Britain.
b) Metric System: It is a decimal system of weight &
measurement is based on the Metre as the unit of length. It
was first used in France. Its basic unit is Metre.
CGS prescribes Centimetre, Gram, Second for length,
weight & time respectively.

MKS prescribes Metre, Kilogram, Second for length, weight

& time respectively.
MKSA (Giorgi) system added Ampere, the unit of electrical
current to MKS system.
c) SI system: In 1960, General Conference on Weights &
Measures (CGPM) formally gave the MKSA, the title
Systems International d unites with the abbreviation SI
(also called as International System of units). In SI, the
main departure from the traditional metric system is the use
of Newton as the unit of Force. India by Act of Parliament
No.89, 1956 switched over to SI system.
Basic units in SI system
1) For Length : Metre (m) which is equal to 1650763.73
wavelengths in vacuum of the red-orange radiation
corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p10 &
5d5 of the krypton-86 atom. (Definition by wavelength
standard)
By Line standard, Metre is the distance between the axes of
two lines engraved on a polished surface of the Platinum
Iridium bar M (90% platinum & 10% iridium) kept at
Bureau of Weights & Measures (BIPM) at Sevres near Paris
at 0C, the bar kept under normal atmospheric pressure,
supported by two rollers of at least 1 cm diameter
symmetrically situated in the same horizontal plane at a
distance of 588.9 mm (Airy points) so as to give minimum
deflection.

2) For Mass: Kilogram (kg) which is equal to the mass of

International prototype of the kilogram.
3) For Time : Second (s) which is equal to the duration of
9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the

transition between the hyper fine levels of the ground state

of the Caesium 133 atom.
4) For Current : Ampere (A) is that constant current which,
if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite
length of negligible circular cross section & placed one
metre apart in vacuum would produce between these
conductors, a force equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per unit length.
5) For Temperature: Kelvin (K) is the fraction 1/273 of
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
6) For Luminous intensity: Candela (cd) is the luminous
intensity in the perpendicular direction of a surface of
1/6,00,000 m2 of a black body at the temperature of freezing
platinum under a pressure of 101325 N/m2.
7) For amount of substance: Mole (mol) is the amount of
substance of a system which contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of Carbon-12.
Supplementary SI units:
1) For Plane angle: Radian (rad)
2) For Solid angle: Steradian (sr)
Derived SI units:
1) For Frequency: Hertz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second)
2) For Force: Newton (1 N = 1 kg-m/s2)
3) For Energy: Joule (1 J = 1 N-m)
4) For Power: Watt (1 W = 1 J/s)

Classification of Standards
1) Line & End Standards: In the Line standard, the length is
the distance between the centres of engraved lines whereas
in End standard, it is the distance between the end faces of

the standard. Example : for Line standard is Measuring

Scale, for End standard is Block gauge.
2) Primary, Secondary, Tertiary & Working Standards:
Primary standard: It is only one material standard and is
preserved under the most careful conditions and is used
only for comparison with Secondary standard.
Secondary standard: It is similar to Primary standard as
nearly as possible and is distributed to a number of places
for safe custody and is used for occasional comparison with
Tertiary standards.
Tertiary standard: It is used for reference purposes in
laboratories and workshops and is used for comparison
with working standard.
Working standard: It is used daily in laboratories and
workshops. Low grades of materials may be used.
Errors in Measurement
Error in measurement is the difference between the
measured value and the true value of the measured
dimension.
Error in measurement = Measured value True value
The error in measurement may be expressed as an absolute
error or as a relative error.
1) Absolute error: It is the algebraic difference between the
measured value and the true value of the quantity
measured. It is further classified as;
a) True absolute error: It is the algebraic difference between
the measured average value and the conventional true
value of the quantity measured.
b) Apparent absolute error: It is the algebraic difference
between one of the measured values of the series of
measurements and the arithmetic mean of all measured
values in that series.

2) Relative error: It is the quotient of the absolute error

and the value of comparison (which may be true value,
conventional true value or arithmetic mean value of a series
of measurements) used for the calculation of that absolute
error.
Example : If the actual (true) value is 5,000 and estimated
(measured) value is 4,500, find absolute and relative errors.
Solution : Absolute error = True value Measured value
= 5,000 4,500
= 500 units
Relative error = Absolute error / Measured value
= 500 / 4,500
= 0.11 (11%)

Types of Errors
A) Error of Measurement
1) Systematic error: It is the error which during several
measurements, made under the same conditions, of the
same value of a certain quantity, remains constant in
absolute value and sign or varies in a predictable way in
accordance with a specified law when the conditions
change.
The causes of these errors may be known or unknown. The
errors may be constant or variable. Systematic errors are
regularly repetitive in nature.
2) Random error: This error varies in an unpredictable
manner in absolute value & in sign when a large number of
measurements of the same value of a quantity are made
under practically identical conditions. Random errors are
non-consistent. Random errors are normally of limited time
duration.

3) Parasitic error: It is the error, often gross, which results

from incorrect execution of measurement.
B) Instrumental error
1) Error of a physical measure: It is the difference between
the nominal value and the conventional true value
reproduced by the physical measure.
2) Error of a measuring mechanism: It is the difference
between the value indicated by the measuring mechanism
and the conventional true value of the measured quantity.
3) Zero error: It is the indication of a measuring instrument
for the zero value of the quantity measured.
4) Calibration error of a physical measure: It is the
difference between the conventional true value reproduced
by the physical measure and the nominal value of that
measure.
5) Complementary error of a measuring instrument: It is
the error of
a measuring instrument arising from the fact
that the values of the influence quantities are different from
those corresponding to the reference conditions.
6) Error of indication of a measuring instrument: It is the
difference between the measured values of a quantity, when
an influence quantity takes successively two specified
values, without changing the quantity measured.
7) Error due to temperature: It is the error arising from the
fact that the temperature of instrument does not maintain
its reference value.
8) Error due to friction: It is the error due to the friction
between the moving parts of the measuring instruments.
9) Error due to inertia: It is the error due to the inertia
(mechanical, thermal or otherwise) of the parts of the
measuring instrument.

C) Error of observation
1) Reading error: It is the error of observation resulting
from incorrect reading of the indication of a measuring
instrument by the observer.
2) Parallax error: It is the reading error which is produced,
when, with the index at a certain distance from the surface
of scale, the reading is not made in the direction of
observation provided for the instrument used.
3) Interpolation error: It is the reading error resulting from
the inexact evaluation of the position of the index with
regard to two adjacent graduation marks between which
the index is located.
D) Based on nature of errors
1) Systematic error: (already discussed)
2) Random error: (already discussed)
3) Illegitimate error: As the name implies, it should not
exist. These include mistakes and blunders, computational
errors and chaotic errors. Chaotic errors are random errors
but unlike the latter, they create chaos in the final results.
E) Based on control
1) Controllable errors: The sources of error are known and
it is possible to have a control on these sources. These can
be calibration errors, environmental errors and errors due
to non-similarity of condition while calibrating and
measuring.
Calibration errors: These are caused due to variation in the
calibrated scale from its normal value. The actual length of
standards such as slip gauges will vary from the nominal
value by a small amount. This will cause an error of
constant magnitude.
Environmental (Ambient /Atmospheric Condition) Errors:
International agreement has been reached on ambient

condition which is at 20C temperature, 760 mm of Hg

pressure and 10 mm of Hg humidity. Instruments are
calibrated at these conditions. If there is any variation in
the ambient condition, errors may creep into final results.
Of the three, temperature effect is most considerable.
Stylus pressure errors: Though the pressure involved
during measurement is generally small, this is sufficient
enough to cause appreciable deformation of both the stylus
and the work piece. This will cause an error in the
measurement.
Avoidable errors: These errors may occur due to parallax in
the reading of measuring instruments. This occurs when
the scale and pointer are separated relative to one another.
The two common practices to minimise this error are:
i) reduce the separation between the scale and pointer to
minimum.
ii) a mirror is placed behind the pointer to ensure normal
reading of the scale in all the cases.
These avoidable errors occur also due to non-alignment of
work piece centres, improper location of measuring
instruments, etc.
2) Non-controllable errors: These are random errors which
are not controllable.
Causes of Errors
1) Errors due to deflection (Errors of supports): When long
bars are supported as beam, they get deformed or deflected.
This elastic deformation occurs because long bars,
supported as to ends sags under their own weight. The
amount of deflection depends upon the positions of the
supports. This problem was considered by Sir G.B. Airy,
who showed that the positions of the supports can be
arranged to give a minimum error. Slope and deflection at
any point can be calculated from the theory of bending.

Two conditions are considered, as follows; For a bar of

length L, supported equidistant from the centre on supports
by distance l apart, then for no slopes at the ends,
l = 0.577 L (suitable for line standards and end bars). For
minimum deflection of the beam, l = 0.544 L (suitable for
straight edges)
2) Errors due to misalignment: Abbes principle of
alignment should be followed in measurements to avoid
cosine errors, sine errors, etc.
According to Abbes
principle, the axis or line of measurement of the measured part
should coincide with the line of measuring scale or the axis of
measurement of the measuring instrument.
The combined Cosine and Sine error occurs if the
micrometer axis is not truly perpendicular to the axis of the
work piece as shown below.
Similarly, the same error occurs when measuring an end
gauge in the horizontal comparator. If the gauge is not
supported so that its axis is parallel to the axis of measuring
anvils, or if its ends, though parallel to each other, are not
square with the axis. This is shown below.
The above combined Cosine & Sine errors can be avoided
by using gauges with spherical ends. If the axis of the two
spherical end gauges are not aligned, the error in length
will occur this is equal to (a+b) as shown below.
From the above figure, it is known that
a = R1 ( 1 - Cos )
= R1 ( 1 - 1 sin 2 )

h2
= R 1 1 1

(R 1 R 2 ) 2

h2
= R 1 1 1

2
2( R 1 R 2 )

R 1h 2
very nearly
2 (R 1 R 2 ) 2
R2h2
b=
2 (R 1 R 2 ) 2
=

Similarly,

(R 1 R 2 )h 2
2 (R 1 R 2 ) 2
h2
=
2 (R 1 R 2 )
3) Error due to contact pressure: The variations in the
contact pressure between the anvils of the instrument and
the work piece being measured produce considerable
difference in reading. The deformation of the work piece
and the anvils of instrument depend upon the contact
pressure and the shape of the contact surfaces.
Therefore, (a+b) =

Stylus

Workpiece deformation

Stylus deformation
Work piece

4) Error due to vibrations: The errors due to vibrations can

be avoided by
a)
locating the laboratory away from the sources of
vibration
b)
keeping slipping cork, felt, rubber pads under the
gauge
c)
mounting the gauge pedestal or floor sections on
tar mastic
d)
putting a gauge on a surface plate resting in turn on
a heavy plate.
5) Error due to dirt: If the datum surface is not flat or if the
foreign matter such as dirt, chips, etc are present between

the datum and the work piece surface, then error will be
introduced in the reading taken.

6) Error due to poor contact: To avoid this type of error,

the gauge with lesser area of contact should be used while
measuring irregular or curved surface and correct pressure
should be applied while making the contact.
7) Error due to wear in gauges: Wear of measuring
surfaces of instrument occurs due to repeated use. This
error can be avoided by hardening the surfaces or by using
chrome plated parts for contact surfaces.
8) Error due to looseness : Looseness can be tested by
setting the gauge contact on gauge anvil and zeroing the
meter; and then applying finger pressure or a light tab to
each location, where looseness might be expected and
noting the reading again.
9) Error due to location: Figure drawn below shows how
imperfect location of surface causes errors.
Reading = a + b = c tan + t sec
Error
= a + b - t = c tan + t (sec - 1)
10) Error due to parallax effect: Parallax error occurs when;
i) the line of vision is not directly in line with the
measuring scale.
ii) the scale and the pointer are separated from each
other.

In the figure shown below, d = separation of scale and

pointer
D = distance between pointer and observers eye
= angle which the line of sight makes with the
normal to scale

Unit 2

Linear & Angular

Measurements
Measurement of Engineering Components

Gauges are used mainly to check the Engineering

Components produced on mass scale, where the job is
usually handled by semi-skilled workers. This type of
measurement cannot be relied upon where accuracy is more
important. The different methods and instruments used for
precision & accurate (linear & angular) measurements are
discussed in this unit.
Comparator
It is a precision instrument employed to compare the
dimension of a given component with a working standard
(generally slip gauges).
It does not measure the actual
dimension but indicates how much it differs from the basic
dimension (working standard).
Uses of Comparator :

For calibrating the working gauges

Used as working gauges
Used as final inspection gauges

Essential characteristics of a good Comparator :

Robust design and construction

Linear characteristics of scale
High magnification
Quick in results
Versatility
Minimum wear of contact point
Free from back lash
Quick insertion of work piece
Provision for compensation from temperature
effects
Provision for means to prevent damage during use.

Classification of comparators
1) Mechanical comparator
a)
Dial indicator
b)
Johansson Mikrokator comparator
c)
Sigma comparator
d)
Reed type mechanical comparator
2) Optical comparator
a)
Zeiss Ultra optimeter
b)
Zeiss optotest comparator
3) Mechanical Optical comparator
4) Electrical comparator
5) Fluid displacement comparator
6) Pneumatic comparator
a)
Back pressure comparator
b)
Flow velocity Pneumatic comparator
In addition, the comparators used in standards room
for calibration of gauges are :
7) Brookes Level comparator
8) Eden-Rolt Millionth Comparator
Basic principle of operation of comparator
The comparator is first adjusted to zero on its dial or
recording device with a gauge block in position. The gauge
block (slip gauges) is of dimension which the work piece

should have. The work piece to be checked is then placed

in position and the comparator gives the difference in
dimension in relation to the gauge block. The dimension of
the work piece may be less than, equal to, or greater than
the standard dimension. The difference in the dimension
will be shown in the dial or in the recording device of the
comparator.
Mechanical Comparators: Various mechanical comparators
are discussed next.
Dial indicator
It is the simplest type of mechanical comparator. It consists
of a base with a rigid column and an arm carrying dial
gauge (dial indicator). The arm can be adjusted vertically
up and down along the column.
The arm can be
swivelled and the dial gauge also can be locked in any
position along its arm. The whole set up is placed on the
surface place which is used as a datum surface.
Johansson Mikrokator
A thin metal strip carries at the centre of its length a very
light glass tube pointer. From the centre, the strip is
permanently twisted to form right and left hand helices.
One end of the strip is fixed to the adjustable cantilever
strip, the other being anchored to the spring strip elbow,
one arm of which is carried on the measuring plunger. As
the measuring plunger moves, either upwards or down
wards, the elbow acts as a bell crank lever and causes the
twisted strip to change its length and thus further twist, or
untwist. Hence, the pointer at the centre of the twisted strip
rotates an amount proportional to the change in length of
the strip. It can be shown that the ratio
9 .1
d
amplification
d
W2n
where

l is the length of twisted strip, measured along its neutral

axis.
W is the width of twisted strip
n is the number of turns
is the twist of mid point of strip with respect to end.
The setup is diagrammatically shown below

Johansson Mikrokator

Sigma comparator
The plunger, mounted on a pair of slit diaphragms to give a
frictionless linear movement, has mounted upon it a knife
edge which bears upon the face of the moving member of a
cross strip hinge. It consists of the moving component and
a fixed member, connected by thin flexible strips alternately
at right angles to each other. It can be shown that if an
external force is applied to the moving member, it will
pivot, as would a hinge, about the line of intersection of
the strips. Attached to the moving member is an arm which
divides into a Y form. If the effective length of this arm is
L and the distance form the hinge pivot to the knife edge is
x, then the first stage of the magnification is L/x. To the
extremities of the Y arm is attached a phosphorbronze
strip which is passed around a drum of radius r attached
to the pointer spindle. If the pointer is of length R then the
second stage of magnification is R/r and the magnification
is LR/(xr).

Sigma Mechanical Comparator

The magnification can be adjusted by slackening one and

tightening the other screw attaching the knife edge to the
plunger and thus adjusting distance x, while a range of
instruments of differing magnifications can be produced by
having drums of different radii r and suitable strips.
The other interesting features of this instrument are:
a) More safety
b) Dead beat readings can be obtained
c) Fine adjustment is possible
d) Parallax error is avoided
e) Constant measuring pressure by the use of magnet
plunger.
Mechanical Optical Comparator
In this system, a small displacement of the measuring
plunger is amplified first by a mechanical system consisting
of pivoted levers. The amplified mechanical movement is
further amplified by a single optical system involving the
projection of an image. The setup is shown below.
Screen & Scale
Light Source
Condensers
50
Projection Lens
Mirror
Pivot

Lever
1

Pivot

20

In such a system,
Plungeramplification = 1 x 20 x 1 = 20 units
Mechanical

Fig. 2.4 Principle of Optical Comparator

Optical amplification
Total amplification

= 50 x 2 = 100 units
= 20 x 100 = 2000 units

Pneumatic Comparator
In this system, no physical contact is made either with the
setting gauge or the part being measured, and that internal
dimensions may be readily measured, not only with respect
to tolerance boundaries, but also geometric form. Further,
the system lends itself to the inspection of
a single, or a
number of dimensions simultaneously, either during or
immediately after the operating cycle of a machine tool.

Pneumatic Comparator
Back-pressure (Pneumatic) comparator: It uses a water
manometer for the indication of back pressure. It consists
of a vertical metal cylinder filled with water upto a certain

level and a dip tube immersed into it upto a depth

corresponding to the air pressure required. A calibrated
manometer tube is connected between the cylinder and
control orifice as shown in fig. 2.5.
The air from its normal source of supply is filtered and
passes through a flow valve. Its pressure is then reduced
and maintained at a constant value by a dip tube into a
water chamber, the pressure value being determined by the
head of the water displace, excess air escaping to
atmosphere. The air at reduced pressure then passes
through the control orifice, and escapes from the measuring
orifice. The back pressure in the circuit is indicated by the
head of water displaced in the manometer tube. The tube is
graduated linearly to show changes of pressure resulting
from changes in dimensiond. Amplifications of up to
50000 are obtainable with this system.
Slip gauges
These gauges are other wise called as Gauge blocks or Block
gauges and are universally accepted as end standards of
length in industry. Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of
high grade steel (or tungsten carbide) with less co-efficient
of thermal expansion. These blocks are highly hardened
(more than 800 HV) through out to ensure maximum
resistance to wear and are then stabilised by heating and
cooling successively in stages so that the hardening stresses
are removed. After hardening, they are subjected to
lapping to a high degree of finish, flatness and accuracy.
The cross sections of these gauges are 9 x 30 mm for sizes
up to 10 mm and 9 x 35 mm for larger sizes. The dimension
(height) is marked on one of the measuring faces of gauge
blocks.
Wringing of Slip gauges:
The slip gauges are wrung together by hand through a
combined sliding and twisting motion. The air gap
between the gauge faces is expelled out and the adhesion is

caused partly by molecular attraction and partly by

atmospheric pressure. The gap between the two wrung slip
gauges is only of the order of 0.00635 m which is
negligible.
When taking the slip gauges apart, the gauges are slid apart.
Procedure for wringing:
i) The slip gauges are first cleaned using a lint free cloth or
chamois leather or a cleansing tissue.
ii) One slip gauge is then placed at 90 to other by using
light pressure and then it is rotated until the blocks are
brought in one line.
Indian Standards on Slip gauges:
Grade II : Workshop grade for rough checks.
Grade I : Used for setting up sine bars, checking gap
gauges and setting dial test indicators to zero.
Grade 0 : Used in tool room and inspection department.
Grade 00 : Kept in standard room and used for high
precision work such as checking Grade I and Grade II slip
gauges.
Applications of Slip gauges:

Direct precise measurement

For calibration of vernier callipers, micrometers, and
other measuring instruments.
For setting up a comparator to a specific dimension
For angular measurement in conjunction with sine bar
For checking gap between parallel locations such as in
gap gauges or between two mating parts.

Selection of Slip gauges for required dimension:

Always start with the last decimal place and deduct this
from the required dimension. Select the next smallest
figure in the same way, find the remainder and continue
this until the required dimension is completed. Minimum

number of slip gauges should be selected to build up the

given dimension.
Roller gauges
Cylindrical rollers with their lengths equal to their
diameters may be used as gauges, secondary to block
gauges (slip gauges). These are produced to fine tolerances.
Limit gauges
These are inspection tools for rigid design, without a scale,
which serve to check the dimensions of manufactured parts.
Gauges do not indicate the actual value of the inspected
dimension on the work. They can only be used for
determining as to whether the inspection parts are made
within the specified limits. These gauges are made up of
suitable wear resisting steel and are normally hardened to
not less than 750 HV and suitably stabilised and ground
and lapped.
The Go and No Go gauges may be in the form of separate
single ended gauge, or may be combined on one handle to
form a double ended gauge. Progressive gauge is the single
ended gauge with one gauging member having two
diameters to the Go and No Go limits respectively.
A typical limit plug gauge and limit snap gauge are shown
in the next page.

Limit Plug Gauge

Limit Snap Gauge

Gauge Design
Every gauge is a copy of the part which mates with the part
for which the gauge is designed. For example, a bush is
made which is to mate with a shaft; in this case, the shaft is
the mating part. The bush is check by a plug gauge which
in so far as the form of its surface and its size is concerned,
is a copy of the mating part (shaft).

Taylors principle: According to Taylor, Go and No Go

gauges should be designed to check maximum and
minimum material limits which are checked as below:
Go limit: This is applied to upper limit of a shaft and lower
limit of a hole.
No Go limit: This is applied to lower limit of a shaft and
the upper limit of a hole.
Taylors principle states that the Go gauges should check all the
possible elements of dimensions at a time (roundness, size,
location, etc.) and
the No Go gauge should check only
one element of the dimension at a time.
Based on Taylors principle, Go gauge is designed for
maximum material condition and No Go gauge is
designed for minimum material condition.
Problem : Design a general type GO and NO GO gauge for
components having 20H7f8 fit. Given :
(i)
i (micron) = 0.45 (D)1/3 + 0.001 D
(ii) fundamental deviation of f shaft = -5.5 (D)0.41 (D is in
mm)
(iii) 20mm falls in the diameter step of 18mm to 30 mm.
(iv) IT7 = 16 i
(v) IT8 = 25 i
Solution : From the standard table, it is found that 20 lies
between 18& 30 Hence, D = D 1 xD 2 = 18 x 30 = 23.2379
mm

i = 0.45 (D)1/3 + 0.001 D microns

= 0.45 (23.2379)1/3 + 0.001 (23.2379)
= 1.3074 microns
IT7 = 16 i microns
= 16 x 1.3074 microns
= 20.918 microns = 0.021 mm
IT8 = 25 i microns
= 25 x 1.3074 microns
= 33 microns = 0.033 mm

fundamental deviation of shaft = - 5.5 D0.41 microns

= - 5.5 x 23.2379 0.41
= - 20 microns = - 0.02 mm
Lower deviation of H - hole = zero
Hence, Limits for hole 20 H7 = 20 + 0.021, + 0.000 mm
Limits for shaft 20 f8 :
Higher Limit of shaft = 20 + fundamental deviation
= 20 0.02 mm
Lower Limit of shaft = 20 + funda deviation IT8
= 20 0.02 0.033
= 20 0.053 mm
Hence, Limits for shaft 20 f8 = 20 0.02, -0.053 mm
Gauge tolerance for plug gauge = 10% of work tolerance
(hole)
= 0.1 x 0.021 = 0.0021 mm
Wear allowance for plug gauge = 10% of gauge tolerance
(hole)
= 0.1 x 0.0021 = 0.00021 mm
Gauge tolerance for snap gauge = 10% of work tolerance
(shaft)
= 0.1 x 0.033 = 0.0033 mm
Wear allowance on snap gauge = 10% of gauge tolerance
(shaft)
= 0.1 x 0.0033
= 0.00033 mm
For Hole :
Upper limit of Go plug gauge = 20 + 0.0021 +
0.00021
= 20 + 0.00231 mm
Lower limit of Go plug gauge = 20 + 0.00021 mm
= 20+ 0.00021 mm
Now, upper limit of No-Go plug gauge = 20.021 + 0.0021 =
20.0231 mm
lower limit of No-Go plug gauge = 20.021 mm

For Shaft :
Upper limit of Go snap gauge = 20.00 0.02
0.00033
= 20 0.02033 mm
Lower limit of Go snap gauge = 20.00 0.02
0.0033 0.00033
= 20.00 0.02363 mm
Now, upper limit of No-Go snap gauge = 19.947 = 19.947
mm
= 20 0.0530 mm
lower limit of No-Go snap gauge = 19.947 0.0033
mm
= 20 0.0563 mm
Types of Limit Gauges
The various types of limit gauges used for gauging internal
diameters of holes are:
1) Full form cylindrical plug gauge: The gauging surface is
in the form of an external cylinder. Generally a small
circumferential groove is cut near the leading end of the
gauge and the remaining short cylindrical surface is slightly
reduced in order to act as a pilot.

Fig. 2.8 Full form cylindrical plug gauge

2) Full form spherical plug or disc gauge: The gauging
surface is in the form of a sphere from which two equal
segments are cut off by planes normal to the axis of the
handle.

3) Segmental cylindrical bar gauge: The gauging surface is

in one of the two forms: one form; external cylindrical form
from which two axial segments are made by lowering down
surface at other places. (Fig.2.10) the other form; external
cylindrical form in which segments are formed by removing
remaining material. (Fig. 2.11).

Fig.2.10 Segmental cylindrical bar gauge

4) Segmental spherical plug gauge: It is similar to full form

spherical plug gauge but has two equal segments cut off by
planes parallel to the axis of the handle in addition to the
Fig.cut
2.11
cylindrical
bar
gauge
segments
offSegmental
by planes normal
to the
axis
of the handle.

Fig. 2.12 Segmental Spherical plug gauge

5) Segmental cylindrical bar gauge with reduced measuring
faces: It is similar to the segmental cylindrical bar gauge

but has reduced measuring faces in a plane parallel to the

axis of the handle.

Fig.2.13 Segmental cylindrical bar gauge

6) Rod gauge with spherical ends: It has spherical end
surfaces which form part of one single sphere.

Fig. 2.14 Rod guage with spherical ends

The various types of limit gauges used for gauging external
diameters of shaft are:
1) Full form cylindrical ring gauge: The gauging surface is
in the form of an internal cylinder and whose wall is thick
enough to avoid deformation under normal conditions of
use.
2) Gap gauge: It has one flat surface and one cylindrical
surface, the axis of the two surfaces being parallel to the
axis of the shaft being checked. The surfaces constituting
the working size may both be flat or both cylindrical also.
The gauges (for internal taper) are marked with a ring on
the gauge planes another ring to indicate the minimum
depth of internal taper. The distance between the two ring
marks Z corresponds to the permissible deviation of the
gauge plane for particular taper. For testing the external

taper of the tanged end shank, the ring gauge is inserted, as

far as it goes with light pressure. At the extreme position,
no part of the tang under test should extend beyond the
surfaces A, B and C. The shank surfaces may however, lie
flush with these surfaces.
The Autocollimator
It is an optical instrument used for the measurement of
small angular differences. It is essentially an infinity
telescope and a collimator combined into one instrument.
Principle of Autocollimator:
If a point source of light O is placed at the principal focus of
a collimating lens, it will be projected as a parallel beam of
light as in fig.2.17. If this parallel beam now strikes a plane
reflector which is normal to the optical axis, it will be
reflected back along its own path and refocused at the
source O.
If the plane reflector is now tilted through some small angle
, the reflected parallel beam will turn through 2, and will
be brought to a focus at O1, in the focal plane, a distance x
from O. This effect is shown in fig.2.18. If the ray passing
through the geometric centre of the lens is considered, as it
is, unaffected by refraction, it can be seen that x = 2 f mm,
where f is the focal length of the lens.

Point source of light in focal plane of a collimating lens

The important points about this collimation of a beam of
light are:
a) The distance between the reflector and the lens has no
effect on the separation x between source and image.
b) For high sensitivity, i.e., a large value of x for a small
angular deviation , a long focal length is required.
c) Although the distance of the reflector does not affect the
reading x, if, at given value of , it is moved too far back, all
of the reflected rays will miss the lens completely, and no
image will be formed. Thus, for a wide range of readings,
the minimum distance between lens and reflector is
essential.

Projection of a point source being reflected form an

inclined reflector

The Microptic Auto-Collimator

The concept of projecting the image of a point source of
light is not practical, so in this instrument a pair of target
wires in the focal plane of the collimating lens is
illuminated from behind and their images are projected.
Fig.2.19 shows the optical arrangement of the instrument,
the projected image striking a plane reflector and the
reflection of the image being brought to a focus in the plane
of the target wires.
The wires and their images are viewed simultaneously in an
eyepiece, which also contains a pair of adjustable setting
wires and a scale. The setting wires are adjusted by a
micrometer until they straddle
the reflected image (not
the target wire). The scale is read to the nearest
min,
and the micrometer drum which moves the wires min
per revolution, is divided into 60 equal parts. Thus, 1
division of the micrometer drum represents an angular
deflection of the reflector of one sec of arc. With care,
and given a rigid mounting for the instrument, repeat
readings of 0.2 sec are possible. The instrument normally
has a range of readings of 10 min of arc up to a range of 10
m. It is invaluable in machine tool alignment testing or for
any large scale measurement involving small angular
deviations.

The Microptic Auto-collimator

The Angle Dekkor
In this system, an illuminated scale is set in the focal plane
of the collimating lens outside the field of view of a
microscope eyepiece. It is then projected as a parallel beam
and strikes a plane reflector below the instrument. It is
reflected, and refocused by the lens so that its image is in
the field of view of the eyepiece. The image falls, not across
a simple datum line, but across a similar fixed scale at right
angles to the illuminated image. Thus, the reading on the
illuminated scale measures angular deviations from one
axis at 90 to the optical axis, and the reading on the fixed
scale gives the deviation about an axis mutually at right
angles to the other two. This feature enables angular errors
in two planes to be dealt with, or more important, to ensure
that the reading on a setting master and on the work is the
same in one plane, the error being read in the other. Thus,
induced compound angle errors are avoided. The setup
consists of a lapped flat and reflective base above which the
optical details are mounted in a tube on an adjustable

bracket. The optical system and the view in the eyepiece

are shown in next page
In use, a master, either a sine bar or a group of combination
angle gauges is set up on the base plate and the instrument
is adjusted until a reading on both sides is obtained. It is
now replaced by the work, a gauge block to give a good
reflective surface being placed on the face to be checked.
The gauge block can usefully be held in place with elastic
bands.
The work is now slowly rotated until the
illuminated scale moves across the fixed scale, and is
adjusted until the fixed scale reading is the same as on the
setting gauge. The error in the work angle is the difference
in the two readings on the illuminated scale.

Optical system of Angle dekkor

To check the squareness of the work piece, no master is
necessary. If gauge blocks are held against both faces and
the angle dekkor adjusted to give a reading, it will be found
to consist of two mirror images (due to double reflection) of
the illuminated scale, superimposed on each other. The
misalignment of the readings of these images will be double
the error in the right angle. The type of view obtained in
the eyepiece when the angle dekkor is used in this manner
is shown below. Initially, it is difficult to read, but with
practice, the method provides a quick and accurate means
of testing squareness. Although this instrument is not so
sensitive as the auto-collimator, it is extremely useful for a
wide range of angular measurements at short distances. It is
used in tool room inspection. Readings direct to 1 min over
a range of 50 min may be taken, and by estimation, readings
down to about 0.2 min are possible.

View in Angle dekkor eye piece

Combination angle gauges:
These combination angle gauges are used as master in
angle-dekkor. They are simply blocks, hardened and
lapped to precise angles so that they can be wrung together.
Unlike gauge blocks, it must be realised that angular blocks
can be added or subtracted as shown below.

Addition & Subtraction of combination angle gauges.

The values of the angles used are arranged in a modified
geometric progression with a common ratio of 3 as shown

below in a table. These thirteen gauges, along with a

square block, each of whose angles are calibrated, enable
any angle between 0 and 90 to be realised in increments of
3 sec. The gauges are used either in combination with each
other or may be subtracted from the square block.
The gauges, which are manufactured to the same high
standards as gauge blocks, are stabilised, have wringing
characteristics, and are calibrated to a high degree of
precision. The reflective properties of their lapped surfaces
make them particularly suitable for use with collimating
type of instruments.
Table: Nominal values of combination angle gauges.
Degrees
1
3
9
27
41

Minutes
1
3
9
27

Decimal minutes
0.05
0.1
0.3
0.5

The Alignment Telescope

It consists of two units, a collimating unit and a focusing
telescope, the body of each of which is ground truly
cylindrical and to a precise outside diameter. Further, the
optical axis and the mechanical axis are coincident. Thus,
each unit may be fit directly or by precision bushing into
two bearings, a considerable distance apart, and sightings
taken from the telescope unit to the collimating unit.
The collimating unit contains a light source and condensers,
in front of which is placed an angular graticule in the focal
plane of the collimating lens. This graticule scale is thus
projected as a parallel beam of light.
If the telescope is
focussed at infinity, it will bring to a focus the parallel rays
and the angular scale is seen against the datum lines in the

telescope. Thus, angular misalignment in both planes is

determined. The collimating unit also contains, in front of
the collimating lens,
a second graticule also having
two scales at right angles to each other. If the focus of the
telescope is now shortened, this graticule is seen against the
datum lines of the telescope and linear displacements are
measured directly. In this case, the collimating lens is
simply providing even illumination for the displacement
graticule, and the angular misalignment graticule cannot be
seen because it is so far out of focus. A line diagram of the
collimating unit and the view in the telescope eyepiece at
both conditions of focus is shown in fig. 2.23.

The Alignment Telescope

It should be noted that distance has no effect on the

angular misalignment readings, as these are taken using the
collimating principle. However, this is not so with the
linear displacement scale. The telescope only magnifies the
apparent size of the scale as seen by the eye. Thus, as the
distance is increased, the size of the displacement scale is
reduced and its readability is also reduced. Thus, the
accuracy of this reading diminishes with distance.
Sine bar
It is a precision measuring instrument and is an excellent
example of combination of linear measurement and angular
measurement when used in conjunction with gauge blocks
(slip gauges). It consists of a bar carrying a suitable pair of
rollers set a known centre distance. It is made of high
carbon, high chromium corrosion resistant steel, suitably
hardened, precision ground and stabilised. Relief holes are
provided for easy handling of sine bar and for reducing the
weight of the sine bar.
It should be used on a grade A
surface plate.
Dial Gauge

Workpiece

Slip Gauges
Surface Plate

Fig. 2.24 Sine bar

If l is the linear distance between the axes of the rollers and

h is the height of the slip gauges, then sin = h/l
The design requirements of a sine bar are as follows, and
unless these are carefully maintained the order of accuracy
of angular measurement will fall:
i) The rollers must be of equal diameter and true geometric
cylinders.
ii) The distance between the roller axes must be precise and
known, and these axes must be mutually parallel.
iii) The upper surface of the beam must be flat and parallel
with the roller axes, and equidistant from each.
Working principle of Sine bar:
The sine bar is first kept on the surface plate. The work
piece is then placed on the sine bar such that the surface
whose taper angle is to be measured is facing upwards.
Place the set of slip gauges under one end of the roller of
sine bar such that the upper surface of the work piece is
approximately parallel with the table surface. Place the
plunger of the dial gauge on the upper surface of the work
piece. Take readings with the dial gauge at both ends and
note their difference, noting which end of the work is low.
Assuming that the end nearest the high end of the sine bar
is low, then the slip gauges height must be increased by an
amount equal to the difference in the dial gauge readings
multiplied by the proportion of sine bar length to work
length. For example, assuming that the end of a workpiece
was 0.01mm low, the sine bar being 250 mm long and the
work 100 mm long, then the required increase in height of
slip gauge set will be 0.01 x 250/100 = 0.025 mm. This will
not give an immediately correct setting from a first
approximation, but it is much quicker than a trial and error
method.

Note :
a) No sine bar should be used to set off angles greater than
45, as beyond this angle, the errors due to the centre
distance of rollers, and slip gauges, being in error are much
magnified.
b) Slip gauges should be kept beneath the setting roller
attached to the end which is with taper shape but not
beneath the hinge roller. This is to enable the slip gauges
not to hit the bottom surface of sine bar.
c)

If the work piece is of large size, then the sine bar is

kept upside down on the surface of the work piece
as shown below.

d)

Reading R2

Dial Test
Indicator a
Fiducial
Indicator

Component

Reading R1

Vernier
Height Gauge

Fig. 2.25 Use of Sine bar with large work piece

The height over the rollers can be measured by a vernier
height gauge; using a dial test gauge mounted on the anvil
of height gauge to ensure constant measuring pressure.
Sine Centre
It is the Sine bar carrying centres to hold conical work piece.
A typical Sine centre set up is shown in next page.

Roller
Pivot

Slip Gauges

Fig.2.26 Sine Centre

The principle of setting is the same as in the sine bar,

although a hazard to be avoided is of the work and centres
not being co-axial. To over come this, the work piece
should be rotated on the centres until the maximum dial
gauge reading is at the top. The angle is calculated from the
slip gauges set in this condition, and then the work piece
turned through 180 and the process is repeated. The mean
of the two angles determined will be the semi-angle of the
work piece, although it must be pointed out that any work
which runs out to a measurable extent would probably be
considered as sub-standard in quality and be rejected on
this account.
Sine table

It is the most convenient and accurate design for heavy

work piece.
The equipment consists of a self contained
sine bar hinged at one roller and mounted on its datum
surface. The table is quite rigid one and the weight of unit
and work piece is given fuller and safer support. The sine
bar may be safely swung to any angle from 0 to 90 by
pivoting it about its hinged end.
Bevel Protractor
It is the simplest angle measuring instrument. A simple
vernier bevel protractor with its various elements is shown
in fig.2.27.

Vernier Bevel Protractor

The body of the bevel protractor is designed in such a way
that its back is flat and there are no projections beyond its
back. The base plate is attached to the main body and an
adjustable blade is attached to a circular plate containing
vernier scale.
The main body carries a main scale
graduated in degrees. The adjustable blade which is
capable of rotating freely about the centre of the main scale

engraved on the body of the instrument can be locked in

any position. An acute angle attachment is provided at the
top. The base of the base plate is made flat so that it could
be laid flat upon the work piece. The blade can be moved
along throughout its length and can also be reversed. The
acute angle attachment can be readily fit into the body and
clamped in any position.
Universal Bevel protractor: The protractor dial is slotted to
hold a blade which can be rotated with the dial to the
required angle. It can also be adjusted independently to
any desired length. The blade can be locked in any position.
This instrument is capable of readings precisely within 5
minutes.
Optical Bevel protractor: This instrument is capable of
taking readings within 2 minutes of an arc. The interval
circular scale is graduated in divisions of 10 minutes of arc.
Readings are taken with the help of optical magnifying
system which is an integral part of the instrument.
Uses of Bevel protractor:
The bevel protractors can be used to test the flatness,
squareness,
parallelism,
straightness,
angular
measurements, etc.
Types of bevel protractors:
As per IS practice, there are two bevel protractors, namely;
1) Mechanical Bevel protractor
a) with vernier and acute angle attachment
b) without vernier and acute angle attachment
2) Optical Bevel protractor