20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Governmentality
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

GovernmentalityisaconceptfirstdevelopedbytheFrenchphilosopherMichelFoucaultinthelater
yearsofhislife,roughlybetween1977andhisdeathin1984,particularlyinhislecturesattheCollge
deFranceduringthistime.
Theconcepthasbeenelaboratedfurtherfroman"AngloNeoFoucauldian"perspectiveinthesocial
sciences,especiallybyauthorssuchasPeterMiller,NikolasRose,andMitchellDean.Governmentality
canbeunderstoodas:
thewaygovernmentstrytoproducethecitizenbestsuitedtofulfillthosegovernments'policies
theorganizedpractices(mentalities,rationalities,andtechniques)throughwhichsubjectsare
governed[1]
Governmentalitymayalsobeunderstoodas:
the"artofgovernment"[2]
the"how"ofgoverning(thatis,thecalculatedmeansofdirectinghowwebehaveandact)[3]
"governmentalrationality"[4]
"a'guideline'fortheanalysisthatMichelFoucaultoffersbywayofhistoricalreconstructions
embracingaperiodstartingfromAncientGreecerightthroughtomodernityandneo
liberalism"[5][6][7]
"thetechniquesandstrategiesbywhichasocietyisrenderedgovernable"[8]
Thereasonedwayofgoverningbestand,atthesametime,reflectiononthebestpossiblewayof
governing[9]

Contents
1Thesemanticsofgovernmentality
2Basicdefinitionofgovernmentality
3Historyoftheterm
4Furtherdevelopmentsoftheconcept
4.1Mentalityofrule
4.2Fromgovernmentalitytoneoliberalgovernmentality:cartography
4.2.1Governmentalityandcartography
4.2.2Neoliberalgovernmentalityandcartography
4.2.2.1Powerknowledgerelations:OpenStreetMap
4.2.2.2RetreatoftheState:OpenStreetMap
4.3Selfgoverningcapabilities
4.4Technologiesofpower
4.4.1Technologiesoftheself
4.4.2Responsibilisation
4.4.3Healthism
4.4.4Normalisation
4.4.5Selfesteem
4.4.6Technologiesofthemarket
4.5Ecogovernmentality
4.6CrisesofGovernmentality
4.7Applicationtohealthcare
4.8BeyondtheWest
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

1/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

4.8BeyondtheWest
5Seealso
6References
7Furtherreading

Thesemanticsofgovernmentality
Thistermwasthoughtbysomecommentatorstobemadebythe"linkingofgoverning("gouverner")
andmodesofthought("mentalit")".[10]Infact,itwasnotcoinedbyunitingwords"gouvernement"and
"mentalit",butsimplybymakinggouvernementintogouvernementalitjustlikemusicalinto
musicalit[i.e.government+aladjective+itabstractnoun](seeMichelSenellart's"Course
Context"inFoucault's"Security,territory,population"lectures).Tofullyunderstandthisconcept,itis
importanttorealizethatinthiscase,Foucaultdoesnotonlyusethestandard,strictlypoliticaldefinition
of"governing"orgovernmentusedtoday,buthealsousesthebroaderdefinitionofgoverningor
governmentthatwasemployeduntiltheeighteenthcentury.[11]Thatistosay,thatinthiscase,for
Foucault,"...'government'alsosignifiedproblemsofselfcontrol,guidanceforthefamilyandfor
children,managementofthehousehold,directingthesoul,etc."[12]Inotherwords,forourpurposes,
governmentis"theconductofconduct..."[13]

Basicdefinitionofgovernmentality
InhislecturesattheCollgedeFrance,Foucaultoftendefinesgovernmentalityasthe"artof
government"inawidesense,i.e.withanideaof"government"thatisnotlimitedtostatepoliticsalone,
thatincludesawiderangeofcontroltechniques,andthatappliestoawidevarietyofobjects,fromone's
controloftheselftothe"biopolitical"controlofpopulations.IntheworkofFoucault,thisnotionis
indeedlinkedtootherconceptssuchasbiopoliticsandpowerknowledge.Thegenealogicalexploration
ofthemodernstateas"problemofgovernment"doesnotonlydeepenFoucaultsanalyseson
sovereigntyandbiopoliticsitoffersananalyticsofgovernmentwhichrefinesbothFoucaultstheoryof
powerandhisunderstandingoffreedom.[14]
Theconceptof"governmentality"developsanewunderstandingofpower.Foucaultencouragesusto
thinkofpowernotonlyintermsofhierarchical,topdownpowerofthestate.Hewidensour
understandingofpowertoalsoincludetheformsofsocialcontrolindisciplinaryinstitutions(schools,
hospitals,psychiatricinstitutions,etc.),aswellastheformsofknowledge.Powercanmanifestitself
positivelybyproducingknowledgeandcertaindiscoursesthatgetinternalisedbyindividualsandguide
thebehaviourofpopulations.Thisleadstomoreefficientformsofsocialcontrol,asknowledgeenables
individualstogovernthemselves.
"Governmentality"appliestoavarietyofhistoricalperiodsandtodifferentspecificpowerregimes.
However,itisoftenused(byotherscholarsandbyFoucaulthimself)inreferenceto"neoliberal
governmentality",i.e.toatypeofgovernmentalitythatcharacterizesadvancedliberaldemocracies.In
thiscase,thenotionofgovernmentalityreferstosocietieswherepowerisdecenteredanditsmembers
playanactiveroleintheirownselfgovernment,e.g.aspositedinneoliberalism.Becauseofitsactive
role,individualsneedtoberegulatedfrom'inside'.Aparticularformofgovernmentalityischaracterized
byacertainformofknowledge("savoir"inFrench).Inthecaseofneoliberalgovernmentality(akindof
governmentalitybasedonthepredominanceofmarketmechanismsandoftherestrictionoftheactionof
thestate)theknowledgeproducedallowstheconstructionofautoregulatedorautocorrectingselves.
InhislecturetitledGovernmentality,Foucaultgivesusadefinitionofgovernmentality:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

2/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

"1.Theensembleformedbytheinstitutions,procedures,analysesandreflections,the
calculationsandtacticsthatallowtheexerciseofthisveryspecificalbeitcomplexformof
power,whichhasasitstargetpopulation,asitsprincipalformofknowledgepolitical
economy,andasitsessentialtechnicalmeansapparatusesofsecurity.
2.Thetendencywhich,overalongperiodandthroughouttheWest,hassteadilyled
towardsthepreeminenceoverallotherforms(sovereignty,discipline,etc)ofthistypeof
powerwhichmaybetermedgovernment,resulting,ontheonehand,informationofa
wholeseriesofspecificgovernmentalapparatuses,and,ontheother,inthedevelopmentof
awholecomplexofsavoirs.
3.Theprocess,orrathertheresultoftheprocess,throughwhichthestateofjusticeofthe
MiddleAges,transformedintotheadministrativestateduringthefifteenthandsixteenth
centuries,graduallybecomes'governmentalized'."[15]
AsFoucaultsexplicitdefinitionisratherbroad,perhapsfurtherexaminationofthisdefinitionwouldbe
useful.
WeshallbeginwithacloserinspectionofthefirstpartofFoucaultsdefinitionofgovernmentality:
Thisstrandofthethreepartdefinitionstatesthatgovernmentalityis,inotherwords,allofthe
componentsthatmakeupagovernmentthathasasitsendthemaintenanceofawellorderedandhappy
society(population).Thegovernmentsmeanstothisendisits"apparatusesofsecurity,"thatistosay,
thetechniquesitusestoprovidethissocietyafeelingofeconomic,political,andculturalwellbeing.
Thegovernmentachievestheseendsbyenacting"politicaleconomy,"andinthiscase,themeaningof
economyistheolderdefinitionoftheterm,thatistosay,"economyattheleveloftheentirestate,which
meansexercisingtowardsitsinhabitants,andthewealthandbehaviorofeachandall,aformof
surveillanceandcontrolasattentiveasthatoftheheadofafamilyoverhishouseholdandhisgoods".[16]
Thus,weseethatthisfirstpartofthedefinitionstatesthatgovernmentalityisagovernmentwithspecific
ends,meanstotheseends,andparticularpracticesthatshouldleadtotheseends.
ThesecondpartofFoucaultsdefinition(the"resulting,ontheonehand,informationofawholeseries
ofspecificgovernmentalapparatuses,and,ontheother,inthedevelopmentofawholecomplexof
savoirs"[15])presentsgovernmentalityasthelong,slowdevelopmentofWesterngovernmentswhich
eventuallytookoverfromformsofgovernancelikesovereigntyanddisciplineintowhatitistoday:
bureaucraciesandthetypicalmethodsbywhichtheyoperate.
ThenextandlaststrandofFoucaultsdefinitionofgovernmentalityis"3.Theprocess,orratherthe
resultoftheprocess,throughwhichthestateofjusticeoftheMiddleAges,transformedintothe
administrativestateduringthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,graduallybecomes
'governmentalized'."[2]ThisstrandcanberestatedastheevolutionfromtheMedievalstate,that
maintaineditsterritoryandanorderedsocietywithinthisterritorythroughabluntpracticeofsimply
imposingitslawsuponitssubjects,totheearlyrenaissancestate,whichbecamemoreconcernedwith
the"disposingofthings",[17]andsobegantoemploystrategiesandtacticstomaintainacontentandthus
stablesociety,orinotherwordsto"renderasocietygovernable".[18]
Thus,ifonetakesthesethreestrandstogether,governmentalitymaybedefinedastheprocessthrough
whichaformofgovernmentwithspecificends(ahappyandstablesociety),meanstotheseends
("apparatusesofsecurity"[19]),andwithaparticulartypeofknowledge("politicaleconomy"[19]),to
achievetheseends,evolvedfromamedievalstateofjusticetoamodernadministrativestatewith
complexbureaucracies.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

3/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Historyoftheterm
TheconceptofgovernmentalityseguesfromFoucault'sethical,politicalandhistoricalthoughtsfromthe
late1970stotheearly1980s.Hismostwidelyknownformulationofthisnotionishislectureentitled
"Security,territoryandpopulation"(1978).Adeeperandricherreflectiononthenotionof
governmentalityisprovidedinFoucault'scourseon"TheBirthofBiopolitics"attheCollgedeFrance
in19781979.ThecoursewasfirstpublishedinFrenchin2004asNaissancedelabiopolitique:Cours
auCollgedeFrance(19781979)(Paris:Gallimard&Seuil).Thisnotionisalsopartofawider
analysisonthetopicofdisciplinaryinstitutions,onneoliberalismandthe"RuleofLaw",the
"microphysicsofpower"andalsoonwhatFoucaultcalledbiopolitics.Inthesecondandthirdvolumes
ofTheHistoryofSexuality,namely,TheUseofPleasure(1984)andTheCareoftheSelf(1984),andin
hislectureon"TechnologiesoftheSelf"(1982),Foucaultelaboratedadistinctionbetween
subjectivationandformsofsubjectificationbyexploringhowselveswerefashionedandthenlivedin
wayswhichwerebothheteronomouslyandautonomouslydetermined.Also,inaseriesoflecturesand
articles,including"TheBirthofBiopolitics"(1979),"OmnesetSingulatim:TowardsaCriticismof
PoliticalReason"(1979),"TheSubjectandPower"(1982)and"WhatisEnlightenment?"(1984),he
posedquestionsaboutthenatureofcontemporarysocialorders,theconceptualizationofpower,human
freedomandthelimits,possibilitiesandsourcesofhumanactions,etc.thatwerelinkedtohis
understandingofthenotionof"governmentality".
Thenotionofgovernmentality(nottoconfusewithgovernance)gainedattentionintheEnglish
speakingacademicworldmainlythroughtheeditedbookTheFoucaultEffect(1991),whichcontaineda
seriesofessaysonthenotionofgovernmentality,togetherwithatranslationofFoucault's1978short
texton"gouvernementalit".

Furtherdevelopmentsoftheconcept
HuntandWickham,intheirworkFoucaultandLaw[1994]beginthesectionongovernmentalitywitha
verybasicdefinitionderivedfromFoucaultswork.Theystate,"governmentalityisthedramatic
expansioninthescopeofgovernment,featuringanincreaseinthenumberandsizeofthegovernmental
calculationmechanisms"[1994:76].Inotherwords,governmentalitydescribesthenewformof
governingthataroseinthemideighteenthcenturythatwascloselyalliedwiththecreationandgrowth
ofthemodernbureaucracies.Ingivingthisdefinition,HuntandWickhamconceiveofthetermas
consistingoftwoparts'governmental'and'ity'governmentalmeaningpertainingtothegovernmentof
acountryandthesuffixitymeaningthestudyof.Theyacknowledgethatthisdefinitionlackssomeof
FoucaultsfinernuancesandtrytoredressthisbyexplainingsomemoreofFoucaultsideas,including
reasonofstate,theproblemofpopulation,modernpoliticaleconomy,liberalsecuritisation,andthe
emergenceofthehumansciences"[1994:77].
Kerrsapproachtothetermismorecomplex.Heconceivesofthetermasanabbreviationof
"governmentalrationality"[1999:174].Inotherwordsitisawayofthinkingaboutthegovernmentand
thepracticesofthegovernment.Tohimitisnot"azoneofcriticalrevolutionarystudy,butonethat
conceptuallyreproducescapitalistrule"[1999:197]byassertingthatsomeformofgovernment(and
power)willalwaysbenecessarytocontrolandconstitutesociety.Bydefininggovernmentalityonlyin
termsofthestate,Kerrfailstotakeaccountofotherformsofgovernanceandtheideaofmentalitiesof
governmentinthisbroadersense.
Deansunderstandingofthetermincorporatesbothotherformsofgovernanceandtheideaof
mentalitiesofgovernment,aswellasHuntandWickhams,andKerrsapproachestotheterm.Inline
withHuntandWickhamsapproach,Deanacknowledgesthatinaverynarrowsense,governmentality
canbeusedtodescribetheemergenceofagovernmentthatsawthattheobjectofgoverningpowerwas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

4/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

tooptimise,useandfosterlivingindividualsasmembersofapopulation[1999:19].Healsoincludesthe
ideaofgovernmentrationalities,seeinggovernmentalityasonewayoflookingatthepracticesof
government.Inadditiontotheabove,heseesgovernmentasanythingtodowithconductingoneselfor
others.Thisisevidentinhisdescriptionofthewordinhisglossary:"Governmentality:Howwethink
aboutgoverningothersandourselvesinawidevarietyofcontexts..."[1999:212].Thisreflectsthatthe
termgovernmenttoFoucaultmeantnotsomuchthepoliticaloradministrativestructuresofthemodern
stateasthewayinwhichtheconductofindividualsorofgroupsmaybedirected.Toanalyse
governmentistoanalysethosemechanismsthattrytoshape,sculpt,mobiliseandworkthroughthe
choices,desires,aspirations,needs,wantsandlifestylesofindividualsandgroups[Dean,1999:12].
Dean'smaincontributiontothedefinitionoftheterm,however,comesfromthewayhebreakstheterm
upintogovernmentality,ormentalitiesofgoverningmentalitybeingamentaldispositionor
outlook.Thismeansthattheconceptofgovernmentalityisnotjustatoolforthinkingaboutgovernment
andgoverningbutalsoincorporateshowandwhatpeoplewhoaregovernedthinkaboutthewaythey
aregoverned.Hedefinesthinkingasa"collectiveactivity"[1999:16],thatis,thesumoftheknowledge,
beliefsandopinionsheldbythosewhoaregoverned.Healsoraisesthepointthatamentalityisnot
usually"examinedbythosewhoinhabitit"[1999:16].Thisraisestheinterestingpointthatthosewhoare
governedmaynotunderstandtheunnaturalnessofboththewaytheyliveandthefactthattheytakethis
wayoflifeforgrantedthatthesameactivityinwhichtheyengagein"canberegardedasadifferent
formofpracticedependingonthementalitiesthatinvestit"[1999:17].Deanhighlightsanother
importantfeatureoftheconceptofgovernmentalityitsreflexivity.Heexplains:
Ontheonehand,wegovernothersandourselvesaccordingtowhatwetaketobetrue
aboutwhoweare,whataspectsofourexistenceshouldbeworkedupon,how,withwhat
means,andtowhatends.Ontheotherhand,thewaysinwhichwegovernandconduct
ourselvesgiverisetodifferentwaysofproducingtruth.[1999:18]
Bydrawingattentiontothehowandwhy,Deanconnects"technologiesofpower"[Lemke,2001:191]
totheconceptofgovernmentality.AccordingtoDeananydefinitionofgovernmentalityshould
incorporateallofFoucaultsintendedideas.Acompletedefinitionofthetermgovernmentalitymust
includenotonlygovernmentintermsofthestate,butgovernmentintermsofany"conductofconduct"
[Dean,1999:10].Itmustincorporatetheideaofmentalitiesandtheassociationsthatgowiththat
concept:thatitisanattitudetowardssomething,andthatitisnotusuallyunderstood"fromwithinits
ownperspective"[1999:16],andthatthesementalitiesarecollectiveandpartofasocietysculture.It
mustalsoincludeanunderstandingofthewaysinwhichconductisgoverned,notjustbygovernments,
butalsobyourselvesandothers.
Thesemanticlinkingofgoverningandmentalitiesingovernmentalityindicatesthatitisnotpossibleto
studytechnologiesofpowerwithoutananalysisofthementalityofruleunderpinningthem.Thepractice
ofgoingtothegym,expoundedbelow,isausefulexamplebecauseitshowshowourchoices,desires,
aspirations,needs,wantsandlifestyleshavebeenmobilisedandshapedbyvarioustechnologiesof
power.

Mentalityofrule
Amentalityofruleisanyrelativelysystematicwayofthinkingaboutgovernment.Itdelineatesa
discursivefieldinwhichtheexerciseofpowerisrationalised[Lemke,2001:191].ThusNeoliberalism
isamentalityofrulebecauseitrepresentsamethodofrationalisingtheexerciseofgovernment,a
rationalisationthatobeystheinternalruleofmaximumeconomy[Foucault,1997:74].Fukuyama[in
Rose,1999:63]writes"aliberalStateisultimatelyalimitedState,withgovernmentalactivitystrictly
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

5/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

boundedbythesphereofindividualliberty".However,onlyacertaintypeofliberty,acertainwayof
understandingandexercisingfreedomiscompatiblewithNeoliberalism.IfNeoliberalistgovernmentis
tofullyrealizeitsgoals,individualsmustcometorecognizeandactuponthemselvesasbothfreeand
responsible[Rose,1999:68].ThusNeoliberalismmustworktocreatethesocialrealitythatitproposes
alreadyexists.ForasLemkestates,amentalityofgovernment"isnotpure,neutralknowledgethat
simplyrepresentsthegoverningreality"[Lemke,2001:191]instead,Neoliberalismconstitutesan
attempttolinkareductioninstatewelfareservicesandsecuritysystemstotheincreasingcallfor
subjectstobecomefree,enterprising,autonomousindividuals.Itcanthenbegintogovernitssubjects,
notthroughintrusivestatebureaucraciesbackedwithlegalpowers,theimpositionofmoralstandards
underareligiousmandate,butthroughstructuringthepossiblefieldofactioninwhichtheygovern
themselves,togovernthemthroughtheirfreedom.Throughthetransformationofsubjectswithduties
andobligations,intoindividuals,withrightsandfreedoms,modernindividualsarenotmerelyfreeto
choosebutobligedtobefree,"tounderstandandenacttheirlivesintermsofchoice"[Rose,1999:87].
Thisfreedomisadifferentfreedomtothatofferedinthepast.Itisafreedomtorealizeourpotentialand
ourdreamsthroughreshapingthewayinwhichweconductourlives.

Fromgovernmentalitytoneoliberalgovernmentality:cartography
Governmentalityandcartography
Cartographicmappinghashistoricallybeenakeystrategyofgovernmentality.[20]Harley,[21]drawingon
Foucault,affirmsthatStateproducedmaps"extendandreinforcethelegalstatutes,territorial
imperatives,andvaluesstemmingfromtheexerciseofpoliticalpower".Typically,Stateledmapping
conformstoBentham'sconceptofapanopticon,inwhich'theoneviewsthemany'.FromaFoucauldian
vantagepoint,thiswastheblueprintfordisciplinarypower.[22]
Neoliberalgovernmentalityandcartography
Throughprocessesofneoliberalism,theStatehas"hollowedout"someofitscartographic
responsibilitiesanddelegatedpowertoindividualswhoareatalowergeographicalscale.[23]'Peoples
cartography'isbelievedtodeliveramoredemocraticspatialgovernancethantraditionaltopdownState
distributionofcartographicknowledge.[24]ThussubvertingHarley's[21]theorythatmappingisuniquely
asourceofpowerforthepowerful.Joyce[25]challengesFoucauldiannotionsofPanopticism,contending
thatneoliberalgovernmentalityismoreadequatelyconceptualisedbyanomniopticon'themany
surveillingthemany'.[26]CollaborativemappinginitiativesutilisingGPStechnologyarearguably
omniopticons,[27]withtheabilitytoreversethepanopticgaze.[28]
Powerknowledgerelations:OpenStreetMap

AprimeexampleofanomniopticformofneoliberalgovernmentalityisOpenStreetMap
(http://www.openstreetmap.org/)(OSM).OSM,amappingwebsitefoundedbySteveCoastinAugust
2004,doesnotrelyonthegovernmentratheronthousandsofvolunteerswithportableGPSdevices.[29]
OSMhasaclearCodeofConduct
(http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Automated_Edits/Code_of_Conduct)andexerts'disciplinarypower'
ifthisisnotabidedby.[30]InFoucauldianterms,disciplineisthediscursiveframeworkthroughwhich
activityisorganisedsothatthe'correcttraining'ofindividualsisensured.[31]Forinstance,anOSM
guidelineisthat"theworkofothersmustberespected".[32]Hence,ifauserstartsan'editwar',theymay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

6/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

bebannedfromcontributingtowardsthewebsite.OSMthusconformstoHannah's[22]notionthat
neoliberalgovernmentality"consistentlyblendstheprinciplesoffreedomandregulation".Itisclearthat
evengrassrootcartographicinitiativesdonotexistoutsideofpowerknowledgedynamics.[33]
RetreatoftheState:OpenStreetMap

Foucault[34]affirmsthatneoliberalgovernmentalityisnotabouttheretreatoftheStaterathera
restructuringofpowerrelationsinsociety.WhentheHaitiearthquakestruckon12January2010,an
OSMcrowdsourcingeffortenabledtheconstructionofamapdepictingthepositionofhospitals.[35]
AlthoughOSMuserswereempoweredthroughtheabilitytocontributegeographicdata,government
agenciesprintedtheOSMmaps,distributedtheminPortauPrice,anduploadedthemtomobileGPS
units.[35]Thus,theStatespowerhasnoteroded:ratheritsfocushasshiftedfromcontroloverterritory,
"towardsthegoverningofacomplexcomposedofmen[sic]andthings".[36]Inbrief,theStatehas
transformedfromsolepurveyorofgeographicinformationtoaninstitutionalbodyofoversight.
Ultimately,adheringtoFoucauldiannotionsofneoliberalgovernmentality,OSMindicatesthatwhilst
theStateisnolongerthelocusofallpower,itssteeringcapacityshouldnotbeunderestimated.[37]This
opposesCrampton's[24]affirmationthatOSMis"mappingwithoutanet"ametaphorindicatingthe
Statesallegedretractionfromthecartographicproject.

Selfgoverningcapabilities
Throughourfreedom,particularselfgoverningcapabilitiescanbeinstalledinordertobringourown
waysofconductingandevaluatingourselvesintoalignmentwithpoliticalobjectives[Rose,1996:155].
Thesecapabilitiesareenterpriseandautonomy.Enterpriseheredesignatesanarrayofrulesforthe
conductofoneseverydayexistence:energy,initiative,ambition,calculation,andpersonal
responsibility.Theenterprisingselfwillmakeanenterpriseofitslife,seektomaximizeitsownhuman
capital,projectitselfafuture,andseektoshapelifeinordertobecomewhatitwishestobe.The
enterprisingselfisthusbothanactiveselfandacalculatingself,aselfthatcalculatesaboutitselfand
thatactsuponitselfinordertobetteritself[Rose,1996:154].Autonomyisabouttakingcontrolofour
undertakings,definingourgoals,andplanningtoachieveourneedsthroughourownpowers[Rose,
1996:159].Theautonomyoftheselfisthusnottheeternalantithesisofpoliticalpower,butoneofthe
objectivesandinstrumentsofmodernmentalitiesfortheconductofconduct[Rose,1996:155].
Thesethreequalities:freedom,enterpriseandautonomyareembodiedinthepracticeofgoingtothe
gym.Itisourchoicetogothegym,ourchoicewhichgymtogoto.Bygoingtothegymweareworking
onourselves,onourbodyshapeandourphysicalfitness.Wearegivingourselvesqualitiestohelpus
performbetterthanothersinlife,whethertoattractabettermatethanothers,ortobeabletoworkmore
efficiently,moreeffectivelyandforlongerwithoutrunningoutofsteamtogiveusanadvantageover
ourcompetitors.Whenwegotothegym,wegothroughourowndiscipline,onourowntimetable,to
reachourowngoals.Wedesignandactoutourroutinebyourselves.Wedonotneedtheideasor
supportofateam,itisourselfthatmakesitpossible.Thepracticeofgoingtothegym,ofbeingfree,
enterprising,autonomous,isimbuedwithparticulartechnologiesofpower.

Technologiesofpower
Technologiesofpowerarethose"technologiesimbuedwithaspirationsfortheshapingofconductinthe
hopeofproducingcertaindesiredeffectsandavertingcertainundesiredones"[Rose,1999:52].Thetwo
maingroupsoftechnologiesofpoweraretechnologiesoftheself,andtechnologiesofthemarket.
Foucaultdefinedtechnologiesoftheselfastechniquesthatallowindividualstoeffectbytheirown
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

7/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

meansacertainnumberofoperationsontheirownbodies,minds,souls,andlifestyle,soastotransform
themselvesinordertoattainacertainstateofhappiness,andqualityoflife.Technologiesofthemarket
arethosetechnologiesbasedaroundthebuyingandsellingofgoodsthatenableustodefinewhoweare,
orwanttobe.Thesetwotechnologiesarenotalwayscompletelydistinct,asbothborrowbitsofeach
otherfromtimetotime.
Technologiesoftheself
Technologiesoftheselfrefertothepracticesandstrategiesbywhichindividualsrepresentto
themselvestheirownethicalselfunderstanding.Oneofthemainfeaturesoftechnologiesofselfisthat
ofexpertise.Expertisehasthreeimportantaspects.First,itsgroundingofauthorityinaclaimto
scientificityandobjectivitycreatesdistancebetweenselfregulationandthestatethatisnecessarywith
liberaldemocracies.Second,expertisecan"mobiliseandbemobilisedwithinpoliticalargumentin
distinctiveways,producinganewrelationshipbetweenknowledgeandgovernment.Expertisecomesto
beaccordedaparticularroleintheformulationofprogramsofgovernmentandinthetechnologiesthat
seektogivethemeffect"[Rose,1996:156].Third,expertiseoperatesthrougharelationshipwiththe
selfregulatingabilitiesofindividuals.Theplausibilityinherentinaclaimtoscientificitybinds
"subjectivitytotruthandsubjectstoexperts"[Rose,1996:156].Expertiseworksthroughalogicof
choice,throughatransformationofthewaysinwhichindividualsconstitutethemselves,through
"inculcatingdesiresforselfdevelopmentthatexpertiseitselfcanguideandthroughclaimstobeableto
allaytheanxietiesgeneratedwhentheactualityoflifefailstoliveuptoitsimage[Rose,1999:88].
Thetechnologiesoftheselfinvolvedinthepracticeof,forexample,goingtothegymarethe:
technologyofresponsibilisation,technologyofhealthism,technologyofnormalisationandtechnology
ofselfesteem.
Responsibilisation
Inlinewithitsdesiretoreducethescopeofgovernment(e.g.welfare)Neoliberalismcharacteristically
developsindirecttechniquesforleadingandcontrollingindividualswithoutbeingresponsibleforthem.
Themainmechanismisthroughthetechnologyofresponsibilisation.Thisentailssubjectsbecoming
responsibilisedbymakingthemseesocialriskssuchasillness,unemployment,poverty,etc.notasthe
responsibilityofthestate,butactuallylyinginthedomainforwhichtheindividualisresponsibleand
transformingitintoaproblemofselfcare[Lemke,2001:201]andof'consumption'.[38]Thepracticeof
goingtothegymcanbeseenasaresultofresponsibilisation,ourresponsibilitytoremainfreeofillness
soastobeabletoworkandtocareforourdependants(children,elderlyparentsetc.)Thistechnology
somewhatoverlapswiththetechnologyofhealthism.
Healthism
Healthismlinksthe"publicobjectivesforthegoodhealthandgoodorderofthesocialbodywiththe
desireofindividualsforhealthandwellbeing"[Rose,1999:74].Healthybodiesandhygienichomes
maystillbeobjectivesofthestate,butitnolongerseekstodiscipline,instruct,moraliseorthreatenus
intocompliance.Rather"individualsareaddressedontheassumptionthattheywanttobehealthyand
enjoinedtofreelyseekoutthewaysoflivingmostlikelytopromotetheirownhealth"[Rose,1999:86
87]suchasgoingtothegym.Howeverwhilethetechnologyofresponsibilisationmaybearguedtobea
calculatedtechniqueofthestate,thewaveofHealthismislesslikelytobeaconsequenceofstate
planning,butarisingoutofthenewersocialsciencessuchasnutritionandhumanmovement.Healthism
assigns,asdomosttechnologiesoftheself,akeyroletoexperts.Foritisexpertswhocantellushowto
conductourselvesintermsofsafe,precisetechniquestoimprovecardiovascularfitness,muscle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

8/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

strength,andoverallhealth.Theborrowingfromtechnologiesofthemarketbytechnologiesoftheself
canbeclearlyseenintheareaofhealthism.Theideaofhealth,thegoalofbeinghealthy,thejoys
broughtbygoodhealthandthewaysofachievingitareadvertisedtousinthesamemannerasgoods
andservicesaremarketedbysalespeople.Byadheringtotheprinciplesofhealthism,ourpersonalgoals
arealignedwithpoliticalgoalsandwearethusrenderedgovernable.
Normalisation
Anothertechnologyofpowerarisingfromthesocialsciencesisthatofnormalisation.Thetechnologyof
normswasgivenapushbythenewmethodsofmeasuringpopulation.Anormisthat"whichissocially
worthy,statisticallyaverage,scientificallyhealthyandpersonallydesirable".[39]Theimportantaspectof
normality,isthatwhilethenormisnatural,thosewhowishtoachievenormalitywilldosobyworking
onthemselves,controllingtheirimpulsesineverydayconductandhabits,andinculcatingnormsof
conductintotheirchildren,undertheguidanceofothers.Normsareenforcedthroughthecalculated
administrationofshame.Shameentailsananxietyovertheexteriorbehaviourandappearanceofthe
self,linkedtoaninjunctiontocareforoneselfinthenameofachievingqualityoflife[Rose,1999:73].
Normsareusuallyalignedwithpoliticalgoals,thusthenormwouldbefit,virile,energeticindividuals,
abletowork,earnmoney,andspenditandthussustaintheeconomy.Forinstance,thepracticeofgoing
tothegymallowsonetoachievethisnormality.Throughshamewearegovernedintoconformingwith
thegoalsofNeoliberalism.
Selfesteem
Selfesteemisapracticalandproductivetechnologylinkedtothetechnologyofnorms,whichproduces
ofcertainkindsofselves.Selfesteemisatechnologyinthesensethatitisaspecialisedknowledgeof
howtoesteemourselvestoestimate,calculate,measure,evaluate,discipline,andtojudgeourselves.[40]
Theselfesteemapproachconsidersawidevarietyofsocialproblemstohavetheirsourceinalackof
selfesteemonthepartofthepersonsconcerned.'Selfesteem'thushasmuchmoretodowithself
assessmentthanwithselfrespect,astheselfcontinuouslyhastobemeasured,judgedanddisciplinedin
ordertogearpersonal'empowerment'tocollectiveyardsticks.[41]Thesecollectiveyardsticksare
determinedbythenormspreviouslydiscussed.Selfesteemisatechnologyofselffor"evaluatingand
actinguponourselvessothatthepolice,theguardsandthedoctorsdonothavetodoso".[42]Bytaking
upthegoalofselfesteem,weallowourselvestobegovernablefromadistance.Thetechnologyofself
esteemandothersimilarpsychologicaltechnologiesalsoborrowfromtechnologiesofthemarket,
namelyconsumption.Ahugevarietyofselfhelpbooks,tapes,videosandotherparaphernaliaare
availableforpurchasebytheindividual.
Technologiesofthemarket
Thetechnologiesofthemarketthatunderliethepracticeofgoingtothegymcanbedescribedasthe
technologyofdesire,andthetechnologyofidentitythroughconsumption.Thetechnologyofdesireisa
mechanismthatinducesinusdesiresthatweworktosatisfy.Marketerscreatewantsandartificialneeds
inusthroughadvertisinggoods,experiencesandlifestylesthataretemptingtous.Theseadvertisements
seektoconveythesenseofindividualsatisfactionbroughtaboutbythepurchaseoruseofthis
product.[43]Wecometodesirethesethingsandthusactinamannerthatallowsustoachievethese
things,whetherbyworkingharderandearningmoremoneyorbyemployingtechnologiesoftheselfto
shapeourlifestyletothemannerwedesire.Theborrowingoftechnologiesoftheselfbytechnologies
ofthemarketextendsevenfurtherinthiscase.Marketersusetheknowledgecreatedbypsyche

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

9/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

discourses,especiallypsychologicalcharacteristicsasthebasisoftheirmarketsegmentation.This
allowsthemtoappealmoreeffectivelytoeachindividual.Thuswearegovernedintopurchasing
commoditiesthroughourdesire.
Thetechnologyofidentitythroughconsumptionutilisesthepowerofgoodstoshapeidentities.[44]Each
commodityisimbuedwithaparticularmeaning,whichisreflecteduponthosewhopurchaseit,
illuminatingthekindofpersontheyare,orwanttobe.Consumptionisportrayedasplacingan
individualwithinacertainformoflife.Thetechnologyofidentitythroughconsumptioncanbeseenin
thechoicesthatfacethegymattendee.Togotoanexpensivegymbecauseitdemonstrates
wealth/successortogotoamoderatelypricedgymsoastoappeareconomical.Therangeofgymwear
isextensive.Brandnametoportraytheabilitiesportrayedinitsadvertising,expensivetoportray
commitment,orcheaptoportrayyourunconcernforotherpeoplesopinions.Allofthesechoicesof
consumptionareusedtocommunicateouridentitytoothers,andthuswearegovernedbymarketersinto
choosingthoseproductsthatidentifywithouridentity.
Thesetechnologiesofthemarketandoftheselfaretheparticularmechanismswherebyindividualsare
inducedintobecomingfree,enterprisingindividualswhogovernthemselvesandthusneedonlylimited
directgovernancebythestate.Theimplementationofthesetechnologiesisgreatlyassistedbyexperts
fromthesocialsciences.Theseexpertsoperatearegimeoftheself,wheresuccessinlifedependsonour
continualexerciseoffreedom,andwhereourlifeisunderstood,notintermsoffateorsocialstatus,but
intermsofoursuccessorfailureinacquiringtheskillsandmakingthechoicestoactualiseourself.[45]If
weengageinthepracticeofgoingtothegym,weareundertakinganexerciseinselfgovernment.We
dosobydrawinguponcertainformsofknowledgeandexpertiseprovidedbygyminstructors,health
professionals,ofthepurveyorsofthelatestfitnessfad.Dependingonwhywegotothegym,wemay
calculatenumberofcaloriesburned,heartrate,ormusclesize.Inallcases,weattendthegymfora
specificsetofreasonsunderpinnedbythevarioustechnologiesoftheselfandthemarket.Thepartof
ourselvesweseektoworkupon,themeansbywhichwedoso,andwhowehopetobecome,allvary
accordingtothenatureofthetechnologyofpowerbywhichwearemotivated[Dean,1999:17].Allof
thesevariousreasonsandtechnologiesareunderpinnedbythementalityofgovernmentthatseeksto
transformusintoafree,enterprising,autonomousindividual:Neoliberalism.Furthermore,Neo
liberalismseekstocreateanddisseminatedefinitionsoffreedom,autonomyandwhatitmeanstobe
enterprisingthatrecreateformsofbehavioramenabletoneoliberalgoals.

Ecogovernmentality
Ecogovernmentality(orecogovernmentality)istheapplicationofFoucaultsconceptsofbiopowerand
governmentalitytotheanalysisoftheregulationofsocialinteractionswiththenaturalworld.Timothy
W.Luketheorizedthisasenvironmentalityandgreengovernmentality.Ecogovernmentalitybeganinthe
mid1990swithasmallbodyoftheorists(Luke,Darier,andRutherford)theliteratureon
ecogovernmentalitygrewasaresponsetotheperceivedlackofFoucauldiananalysisof
environmentalismandinenvironmentalstudies.
FollowingMichelFoucault,writingonecogovernmentalityfocusesonhowgovernmentagencies,in
combinationwithproducersofexpertknowledge,construct"TheEnvironment."Thisconstructionis
viewedbothintermsofthecreationofanobjectofknowledgeandaspherewithinwhichcertaintypes
ofinterventionandmanagementarecreatedanddeployedtofurtherthegovernmentslargeraimof
managingthelivesofitsconstituents.Thisgovernmentalmanagementisdependentonthedissemination
andinternalizationofknowledge/poweramongindividualactors.Thiscreatesadecenterednetworkof
selfregulatingelementswhoseinterestsbecomeintegratedwiththoseoftheState.

CrisesofGovernmentality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

10/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

AccordingtoFoucault,thereareseveralinstanceswheretheWestern,"liberalartofgovernment"enters
intoaperiodofcrisis,wherethelogicofensuringfreedom(whichwasdefinedagainstthebackground
ofriskordanger)necessitatesactions"whichpotentiallyriskproducingexactlytheopposite."[46]
TheinherentlycontradictorylogicsthatleadtosuchcontradictionsareidentifiedbyFoucaultas:
1.Liberalismdependsonthesocializationofindividualstofeartheconstantpresenceofdanger,e.g.,
publiccampaignsadvocatingsavingsbanks,publichygiene,anddiseaseprevention,thedevelopmentof
detectivenovelsasagenreandofnewsstoriesofcrime,andsexualanxietiessurrounding
"degeneration."[47]
2.Liberalfreedomrequiresdisciplinarytechniquesthatmanagetheindividual'sbehaviourandeveryday
lifesoastoensureproductivityandtheincreaseinprofitthroughefficientlabour,e.g.,Bentham's
Panopticonsurveillancesystem.Liberalismclaimstosupervisethenaturalmechanismsofbehaviour
andproduction,butmustintervenewhenitnotices"irregularities."[48]
3.Liberalismmustforceindividualstobefree:controlandinterventionbecomestheentirebasisof
freedom.Freedommustultimatelybemanufacturedbycontrolratherthansimply"counterweighted"by
it.[48]
ExamplesofthiscontradictorylogicwhichFoucaultcitesarethepoliciesoftheKeynesianwelfarestate
underF.D.Roosevelt,thethoughtoftheGermanliberalsintheFreiburgschool,andthethoughtof
AmericanlibertarianeconomistssuchastheChicagoSchoolwhichattempttofreeindividualsfromthe
lackoffreedomperceivedtoexistundersocialismandfascism,butdidsobyusingstateinterventionist
models.[48]
Thesegovernmentalcrisesmaybetriggeredbyphenomenasuchasadiscursiveconcernwithincreasing
economiccapitalcostsfortheexerciseoffreedom,e.g.,pricesforpurchasingresources,theneedfor
excessivestatecoercionandinterventionismtoprotectmarketfreedoms,e.g.,antitrustandanti
monopolylegislationthatleadstoa"legalstraitjacket"forthestate,[49]localprotestsrejectingthe
disciplinarymechanismsofthemarketsocietyandstate.[49]andfinally,thedestructiveandwasteful
effectsofineffectivemechanismsforproducingfreedom.[50]

Applicationtohealthcare
Scholars[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58]haverecentlysuggestedthattheconceptofgovernmentalitymaybe
usefulinexplainingtheoperationofevidencebasedhealthcareandtheinternalizationofclinical
guidelinesrelatingtobestpracticeforpatientpopulations,suchasthosedevelopedbytheAmerican
AgencyforHealthCareResearchandQualityandtheBritishNationalInstituteforHealthandClinical
Excellence(NICE).RecentresearchbyFischer(http://oxford.academia.edu/MichaelFischer)and
colleaguesattheUniversityofOxfordhasrenewedinterestinFoucault'sexplorationofpotential
resistancetogovernmentality,anditsapplicationtohealthcare,drawingonFoucault'srecently
publishedfinallecturesattheCollegedeFrance.[59][60][61]

BeyondtheWest
JeffreysandSigley(2009)highlightthatgovernmentalitystudieshavefocusedonadvancedliberal
democracies,andprecludeconsiderationsofnonliberalformsofgovernmentalityinbothwesternand
nonwesterncontexts.[62]RecentstudieshavebrokennewgroundbyapplyingFoucaultsconceptof
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

11/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

governmentalitytononwesternandnonliberalsettings,suchasChina.Jeffreys(2009)forexample
providesacollectionofessayonChinasapproachtogovernance,development,education,the
environment,community,religion,andsexualhealthwherethenotionof'Chinesegovernmentally'is
basednotonthenotionoffreedomandliberty'asinthewesterntraditionbutrather,onadistinct
rationalapproachtoplanningandadministration.[63]SuchnewstudiesthususeFoucaults
Governmentalitiestooutlinethenatureofshiftsingovernanceandcontributetoemergingstudiesof
governmentalityinnonwesterncontexts.

Seealso
MichelFoucault
Politicalpower
Rationalityandpower

References
1. Mayhew,Susan(ed)ADictionaryofGeography(Article:Governmentality)OxfordUniversityPress,2004
2. Foucault,M.(1991).'Governmentality',trans.RosiBraidottiandrevisedbyColinGordon,inGraham
Burchell,ColinGordonandPeterMiller(eds)TheFoucaultEffect:StudiesinGovernmentality,pp.87104.
Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.
3. [JeffreysandSigley(2009)'Governmentality,GovernanceandChina'inChina'sGovernmentalities,(ed.)
ElaineJeffreys,ISBN9780415547444]
4. Gordon,C(1991).'Governmentalrationality:anintroduction',inGrahamBurchell,ColinGordonandPeter
Miller(eds)TheFoucaultEffect:StudiesinGovernmentality,pp.148.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicago
Press.
5. MichelFoucault,TheGovernmentofSelfandOthers:LecturesattheCollgedeFrance19821983
(2010)http://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/foucaultstudies/article/view/3127/3298.pdf
6. MichelFoucaultTheCourageofTruth:LecturesattheCollgedeFrance19831984(2011)
7. MichelFoucaultTheBirthofBiopoliticsLecturesAtTheCollegedeFrance19781979(2008)
8. Foucault,Governmentality,andCritique(2002)
http://www.andosciasociology.net/resources/Foucault$2C+Governmentality$2C+and+Critique+IV2.pdf
9. Foucault,M.,(2008),Thebirthofbiopolitics.LecturesattheCollegedeFrance,197879.Palgrave
MacMillan
10. Lemke,T(2001).'Thebirthofbiopolitics:MichaelFoucaultslecturesattheCollegedeFranceonneo
liberalgovernmentality'inEconomyandSocietyv.30,i.2,p.190207.
11. Burchell,90
12. Lemke,2
13. FoucaultinBurchell,48
14. MaletteS.(2006).La"gouvernementalit"chezMichelFoucault.M.A.,FacultdePhilosophie
(http://www.theses.ulaval.ca/2006/23836/23836.pdf)(PDF).UniversitLavalQubec.
15. Burchell,GordonandMiller,1991:102103
16. Burchell,92
17. Burchell,95
18. Jones174
19. Burchell,102
20. RoseRedwood,R.B.(2006)."Governmentality,Geography,andtheGeoCodedWorld".ProgressinHuman
Geography.30(4):469486.doi:10.1191/0309132506ph619oa
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1191%2F0309132506ph619oa).
21. Harley,J.B.(1989)."DeconstructingtheMap".Cartographica.26(2):120.doi:10.3138/e63578271757
9t53(https://dx.doi.org/10.3138%2Fe635782717579t53).
22. Hannah,M.G(2000).GovernmentalityandtheMasteryofTerritoryinNineteenthCenturyAmerica.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
23. Jessop,B(2004)."HollowingOuttheNationStateandMultiLevelGovernance".InKennett,P.A
HandbookofComparativeSocialPolicy.Cheltenham:EdwardElgar.pp.1127.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

12/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

24. Crampton,J(October2008)."MappingWithoutaNet".PaperPresentedasPartofVirtualSeminarin
GIScienceandTechnology.
25. Joyce,P(2003).TheRuleofFreedom:LiberalismandtheModernCity.London:Verso.
26. Elwood,SLeszczy,L(2010)."Privacy,Reconsidered:NewRepresentations,DataPractices,andthe
Geoweb".Geoforum42:611.doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2010.08.003
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geoforum.2010.08.003).
27. Kingsbury,PJones,J.P(2009)."WalterBenjamin'sDionysianAdventuresonGoogleEarth".Geoforum40
(4):502513.doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2008.10.002(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geoforum.2008.10.002).
28. Natios,DYoung,Y."ReversingthePanopticon"(http://cartome.org/reversepanopticon.htm).Retrieved
29October2011.
29. Graham,M(2009)."NeogeographyandthePalimsestsofPlace:Web2.0andtheConstructionofaVirtual
Earth".RoyalDutchGeographicalSociety101(4):422436.doi:10.1111/j.14679663.2009.00563.x
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.14679663.2009.00563.x).
30. Foucault,M(1986).DisciplinaryPowerandSubjection.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress.
31. Jarret,K(2008)."InteractivityisEvil!ACriticalInvestigationofWeb2.0".FirstMonday13(3).
32. OpenStreetMap."AutomatedEdits/CodeofConduct"
(http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Automated_Edits/Code_of_Conduct).Retrieved29October2011.
33. Crampton,J.(8October2008)."MappingWithoutaNet.PaperPresentedasPartoftheVirtualSeminarsin
GIScienceandTechnology".
34. Foucault,M(2000).Fabian,J,ed.Power:TheEssentialWorkofMichelFoucault19541984Volume2.
London:AllenLane.
35. Mullins,J(2010)."HowCrowdsourcingisHelpingHaiti".NewScientist.2745:14.
36. Foucault,M(1993)."AbouttheBeginningoftheHermeneuticsoftheSelf".PoliticalTheory21(2):198
277.doi:10.1177/0090591793021002004(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0090591793021002004).
37. Leander,AMunster,R.V(2007)."PrivateSecurityContractorsintheDebateaboutDarfur:Reflectingand
ReinforcingNeoLiberalGovernmentality".InternationalRelations:201216.
38. *Giesler,MarkusVeresiu,Ela(2014)."CreatingtheResponsibleConsumer:MoralisticGovernance
RegimesandConsumerSubjectivity".JournalofConsumerResearch41(October):849867.
doi:10.1086/677842(https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F677842).
39. Rose,1999:76
40. Cruikshank,1996:273
41. Lemke,2001:202
42. Cruikshank,1996:234
43. Rose,1999:86
44. Rose,1999:76
45. Rose,1999:87
46. Foucault,Michel.TheBirthofBiopolitics:LecturesattheCollegedeFrance(19789).Trans.Graham
Burchell.Ed.MichaelSenellart.1stPicadorPaperbackEdition.NewYork:PalgraveMacMillan,2010,69.
47. Foucault,2008,66.
48. Foucault,2008,67.
49. Foucault,2008,68.
50. Foucault,2008,69.
51. Ferlie,E.,Fitzgerald,L.,McGivern,G.,Dopson,S.,&Bennett,C.(2013)MakingWickedProblems
Governable?:TheCaseofManagedNetworksinHealthCare.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress
52. Ferlie,E.,McGivern,G.,&Fitzgerald,L.(2012)Anewmodeoforganizinghealthcare?Governmentality
andmanagednetworksincancerservices.SocialScience&Medicine.743407
53. Ferlie,E.&McGivern,G.(2013)BringingAngloGovernmentalityintoPublicManagementScholarship:The
CaseofEvidenceBasedMedicineintheUK.JournalofPublicAdministrationResearch&Theory.Doi:
10.1093/jopart/mut002
54. Flynn,R.(2004)SoftBureaucracy,GovernmentalityandClinicalGovernance:TheoreticalApproachesto
EmergentPolicy.InGray,A&Harrison,S.GoverningMedicine.Maidenhead:OpenUniversityPress.
55. Waring,J.(2007)AdaptiveRegulationorGovernmentality?Patientsafetyandthechangingregulationof
medicine.SociologyofHealth&Illness.29(2)163179
56. Shaw,S.&Greenhalgh,T.(2008)BestResearchForWhat?BestHealthForWhom?Acritical
explorationofprimaryhealthcareresearchusingdiscourseanalysis.SocialScience&Medicine66:250619.
57. Doolin,B.(2002)EnterpriseDiscourse,ProfessionalIdentityandtheOrganizationalControlofHospital
Clinicians.OrganizationStudies,23(3)36990.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

13/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

58. Sheaff,R.etal.(2004)GovernmentalitybyNetworkinEnglishPrimaryCare.SocialPolicyand
Administration70,77986.
59. Fischer,MichaelDanielFerlie,Ewan(1January2013)."Resistinghybridisationbetweenmodesofclinical
riskmanagement:Contradiction,contest,andtheproductionofintractableconflict".Accounting,
OrganizationsandSociety38(1):3049.doi:10.1016/j.aos.2012.11.002
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aos.2012.11.002).
60. Foucault,MichelEwald,FranoisBurchell,AlessandroFontanaEnglishserieseditor,ArnoldI.Davidson
translatedbyGraham(2012).Thecourageoftruth(thegovernmentofselfandothersII):lecturesatthe
CollgedeFrance,19831984.Houndmills,Basingstoke,Hampshire,UK:PalgraveMacmillan.
ISBN9781403986689.
61. Foucault,Michel(2011).Thegovernmentofselfandothers:lecturesattheCollegedeFrance,19821983
(Paperbackedition.ed.).Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan.ISBN9781403986672.
62. [Jeffreys,E.&Sigley,G.2009,'Governmentality,governanceandChina'inElaineJeffreys(eds),China's
Governmentalities:governingchange,changinggovernment,Routledge,NewYork,USA,pp.123]
63. [Jeffreys,E.2009,China'sGovernmentalities:governingchange,changinggovernment,Routledge,New
York.ISBN9780415547444]

Furtherreading
Cruikshank,B.(1996)'Revolutionswithin:selfgovernmentandselfesteem',inAndrewBarry,
ThomasOsborne&NikolasRose(eds.)(1996),FoucaultandPoliticalReason:Liberalism,Neo
Liberalism,andRationalitiesofGovernment,Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.
Dean,M.(1999)Governmentality:PowerandRuleinModernSociety.London:Sage.
Joyce,P.(2003)TheRuleofFreedom:LiberalismandtheModernCity.London:Verso.
Foucault,M.(1997)Ethics:SubjectivityandTruth,editedbyPaulRabinow,NewYork:New
Press.
Foucault,M.(1982)'TechnologiesoftheSelf'(http://www.thefoucauldian.co.uk/tself.htm),in
LutherH.Martin,HuckGutmanandPatrickH.Hutton(eds)TechnologiesoftheSelf:ASeminar
withMichelFoucault,pp.1649.Amherst:TheUniversityofMassachusettsPress,1988.
Foucault,M.(1984)TheHistoryofSexualityVol.2:TheUseofPleasure,trans.RobertHurley.
NewYork:RandomHouse,1985.
Foucault,M.(1984)TheHistoryofSexualityVol.3:TheCareoftheSelf,trans.RobertHurley.
NewYork:VintageBooks,1988.
Foucault,M.(2004),Naissancedelabiopolitique:coursauCollgedeFrance(19781979).
Paris:Gallimard&Seuil.
Foucault,M.,(2008),Thebirthofbiopolitics.LecturesattheCollegedeFrance,197879.
PalgraveMacMillan
Hunt,H.&Wickham,G.(1994)FoucaultandLaw.London.PlutoPress.
Inda,J.X.(2005)."AnthropologiesofModernity:Foucault,Governmentality,andLifePolitics
(http://www.academia.edu/417342/Anthropologies_of_Modernity_Foucault_Governmentality_an
d_Life_Politics)".Malden,MA:WileyBlackwell.
Kerr,D.(1999)'Beheadingthekingandenthroningthemarket:AcritiqueofFoucauldian
governmentality'inScience&Society,NewYork:v.63,i.2p.173203(accessedthrough
ExpandedAcademicIndex).
Luke,T.W.(1997)Ecocritique:ContestingthePoliticsofNature,EconomyandCulture.
Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.
Nagl,D.(2013)'TheGovernmentalityofSlaveryinColonialBoston,16901760'inAmerican
Studies,58.1,pp.526.[1](http://www.winter
verlag.de/en/detail/t3699977/Nagel_The_Governmentality_of_Slavery/)
RiveraVicencio,E.(2014)Thefirmandcorporativegovernmentality.Fromtheperspectiveof
Foucault,Int.J.EconomicsandAccounting,Vol.5,No.4,pp.281305.
http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=67421
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

14/15

20/07/2015

GovernmentalityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Rose,N.(1996)InventingOurSelves.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Rose,N.(1999)PowersofFreedom:reframingpoliticalthought.Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
Scott,D.(1995)'ColonialGovernmentality'inSocialText,No.43(Autumn,1995),pp.191220.
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Governmentality&oldid=672083329"
Categories: MichelFoucault Politicalphilosophy Geography Devianceandsocialcontrol
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon19July2015,at04:23.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionalterms
mayapply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality

15/15