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Governmentality - Foucault

The document defines and discusses the concept of governmentality. It was first developed by Michel Foucault to refer to the way governments try to produce ideal citizens through organized practices and techniques of governance. Governmentality can be understood as the art of government, the calculated means of directing behavior, or governmental rationality. It has since been elaborated on by other scholars to examine the rationalities and techniques by which societies are rendered governable, particularly under neoliberalism. The document provides a detailed definition and history of the term as developed by Foucault and other scholars.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
304 views

Governmentality - Foucault

The document defines and discusses the concept of governmentality. It was first developed by Michel Foucault to refer to the way governments try to produce ideal citizens through organized practices and techniques of governance. Governmentality can be understood as the art of government, the calculated means of directing behavior, or governmental rationality. It has since been elaborated on by other scholars to examine the rationalities and techniques by which societies are rendered governable, particularly under neoliberalism. The document provides a detailed definition and history of the term as developed by Foucault and other scholars.

Uploaded by

Flavia Maia
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Governmentality
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

GovernmentalityisaconceptfirstdevelopedbytheFrenchphilosopherMichelFoucaultinthelater
yearsofhislife,roughlybetween1977andhisdeathin1984,particularlyinhislecturesattheCollge
deFranceduringthistime.
Theconcepthasbeenelaboratedfurtherfroman"AngloNeoFoucauldian"perspectiveinthesocial
sciences,especiallybyauthorssuchasPeterMiller,NikolasRose,andMitchellDean.Governmentality
canbeunderstoodas:
thewaygovernmentstrytoproducethecitizenbestsuitedtofulfillthosegovernments'policies
theorganizedpractices(mentalities,rationalities,andtechniques)throughwhichsubjectsare
governed[1]
Governmentalitymayalsobeunderstoodas:
the"artofgovernment"[2]
the"how"ofgoverning(thatis,thecalculatedmeansofdirectinghowwebehaveandact)[3]
"governmentalrationality"[4]
"a'guideline'fortheanalysisthatMichelFoucaultoffersbywayofhistoricalreconstructions
embracingaperiodstartingfromAncientGreecerightthroughtomodernityandneo
liberalism"[5][6][7]
"thetechniquesandstrategiesbywhichasocietyisrenderedgovernable"[8]
Thereasonedwayofgoverningbestand,atthesametime,reflectiononthebestpossiblewayof
governing[9]

Contents
1Thesemanticsofgovernmentality
2Basicdefinitionofgovernmentality
3Historyoftheterm
4Furtherdevelopmentsoftheconcept
4.1Mentalityofrule
4.2Fromgovernmentalitytoneoliberalgovernmentality:cartography
4.2.1Governmentalityandcartography
4.2.2Neoliberalgovernmentalityandcartography
4.2.2.1Powerknowledgerelations:OpenStreetMap
4.2.2.2RetreatoftheState:OpenStreetMap
4.3Selfgoverningcapabilities
4.4Technologiesofpower
4.4.1Technologiesoftheself
4.4.2Responsibilisation
4.4.3Healthism
4.4.4Normalisation
4.4.5Selfesteem
4.4.6Technologiesofthemarket
4.5Ecogovernmentality
4.6CrisesofGovernmentality
4.7Applicationtohealthcare
4.8BeyondtheWest
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4.8BeyondtheWest
5Seealso
6References
7Furtherreading

Thesemanticsofgovernmentality
Thistermwasthoughtbysomecommentatorstobemadebythe"linkingofgoverning("gouverner")
andmodesofthought("mentalit")".[10]Infact,itwasnotcoinedbyunitingwords"gouvernement"and
"mentalit",butsimplybymakinggouvernementintogouvernementalitjustlikemusicalinto
musicalit[i.e.government+aladjective+itabstractnoun](seeMichelSenellart's"Course
Context"inFoucault's"Security,territory,population"lectures).Tofullyunderstandthisconcept,itis
importanttorealizethatinthiscase,Foucaultdoesnotonlyusethestandard,strictlypoliticaldefinition
of"governing"orgovernmentusedtoday,buthealsousesthebroaderdefinitionofgoverningor
governmentthatwasemployeduntiltheeighteenthcentury.[11]Thatistosay,thatinthiscase,for
Foucault,"...'government'alsosignifiedproblemsofselfcontrol,guidanceforthefamilyandfor
children,managementofthehousehold,directingthesoul,etc."[12]Inotherwords,forourpurposes,
governmentis"theconductofconduct..."[13]

Basicdefinitionofgovernmentality
InhislecturesattheCollgedeFrance,Foucaultoftendefinesgovernmentalityasthe"artof
government"inawidesense,i.e.withanideaof"government"thatisnotlimitedtostatepoliticsalone,
thatincludesawiderangeofcontroltechniques,andthatappliestoawidevarietyofobjects,fromone's
controloftheselftothe"biopolitical"controlofpopulations.IntheworkofFoucault,thisnotionis
indeedlinkedtootherconceptssuchasbiopoliticsandpowerknowledge.Thegenealogicalexploration
ofthemodernstateas"problemofgovernment"doesnotonlydeepenFoucaultsanalyseson
sovereigntyandbiopoliticsitoffersananalyticsofgovernmentwhichrefinesbothFoucaultstheoryof
powerandhisunderstandingoffreedom.[14]
Theconceptof"governmentality"developsanewunderstandingofpower.Foucaultencouragesusto
thinkofpowernotonlyintermsofhierarchical,topdownpowerofthestate.Hewidensour
understandingofpowertoalsoincludetheformsofsocialcontrolindisciplinaryinstitutions(schools,
hospitals,psychiatricinstitutions,etc.),aswellastheformsofknowledge.Powercanmanifestitself
positivelybyproducingknowledgeandcertaindiscoursesthatgetinternalisedbyindividualsandguide
thebehaviourofpopulations.Thisleadstomoreefficientformsofsocialcontrol,asknowledgeenables
individualstogovernthemselves.
"Governmentality"appliestoavarietyofhistoricalperiodsandtodifferentspecificpowerregimes.
However,itisoftenused(byotherscholarsandbyFoucaulthimself)inreferenceto"neoliberal
governmentality",i.e.toatypeofgovernmentalitythatcharacterizesadvancedliberaldemocracies.In
thiscase,thenotionofgovernmentalityreferstosocietieswherepowerisdecenteredanditsmembers
playanactiveroleintheirownselfgovernment,e.g.aspositedinneoliberalism.Becauseofitsactive
role,individualsneedtoberegulatedfrom'inside'.Aparticularformofgovernmentalityischaracterized
byacertainformofknowledge("savoir"inFrench).Inthecaseofneoliberalgovernmentality(akindof
governmentalitybasedonthepredominanceofmarketmechanismsandoftherestrictionoftheactionof
thestate)theknowledgeproducedallowstheconstructionofautoregulatedorautocorrectingselves.
InhislecturetitledGovernmentality,Foucaultgivesusadefinitionofgovernmentality:
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"1.Theensembleformedbytheinstitutions,procedures,analysesandreflections,the
calculationsandtacticsthatallowtheexerciseofthisveryspecificalbeitcomplexformof
power,whichhasasitstargetpopulation,asitsprincipalformofknowledgepolitical
economy,andasitsessentialtechnicalmeansapparatusesofsecurity.
2.Thetendencywhich,overalongperiodandthroughouttheWest,hassteadilyled
towardsthepreeminenceoverallotherforms(sovereignty,discipline,etc)ofthistypeof
powerwhichmaybetermedgovernment,resulting,ontheonehand,informationofa
wholeseriesofspecificgovernmentalapparatuses,and,ontheother,inthedevelopmentof
awholecomplexofsavoirs.
3.Theprocess,orrathertheresultoftheprocess,throughwhichthestateofjusticeofthe
MiddleAges,transformedintotheadministrativestateduringthefifteenthandsixteenth
centuries,graduallybecomes'governmentalized'."[15]
AsFoucaultsexplicitdefinitionisratherbroad,perhapsfurtherexaminationofthisdefinitionwouldbe
useful.
WeshallbeginwithacloserinspectionofthefirstpartofFoucaultsdefinitionofgovernmentality:
Thisstrandofthethreepartdefinitionstatesthatgovernmentalityis,inotherwords,allofthe
componentsthatmakeupagovernmentthathasasitsendthemaintenanceofawellorderedandhappy
society(population).Thegovernmentsmeanstothisendisits"apparatusesofsecurity,"thatistosay,
thetechniquesitusestoprovidethissocietyafeelingofeconomic,political,andculturalwellbeing.
Thegovernmentachievestheseendsbyenacting"politicaleconomy,"andinthiscase,themeaningof
economyistheolderdefinitionoftheterm,thatistosay,"economyattheleveloftheentirestate,which
meansexercisingtowardsitsinhabitants,andthewealthandbehaviorofeachandall,aformof
surveillanceandcontrolasattentiveasthatoftheheadofafamilyoverhishouseholdandhisgoods".[16]
Thus,weseethatthisfirstpartofthedefinitionstatesthatgovernmentalityisagovernmentwithspecific
ends,meanstotheseends,andparticularpracticesthatshouldleadtotheseends.
ThesecondpartofFoucaultsdefinition(the"resulting,ontheonehand,informationofawholeseries
ofspecificgovernmentalapparatuses,and,ontheother,inthedevelopmentofawholecomplexof
savoirs"[15])presentsgovernmentalityasthelong,slowdevelopmentofWesterngovernmentswhich
eventuallytookoverfromformsofgovernancelikesovereigntyanddisciplineintowhatitistoday:
bureaucraciesandthetypicalmethodsbywhichtheyoperate.
ThenextandlaststrandofFoucaultsdefinitionofgovernmentalityis"3.Theprocess,orratherthe
resultoftheprocess,throughwhichthestateofjusticeoftheMiddleAges,transformedintothe
administrativestateduringthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,graduallybecomes
'governmentalized'."[2]ThisstrandcanberestatedastheevolutionfromtheMedievalstate,that
maintaineditsterritoryandanorderedsocietywithinthisterritorythroughabluntpracticeofsimply
imposingitslawsuponitssubjects,totheearlyrenaissancestate,whichbecamemoreconcernedwith
the"disposingofthings",[17]andsobegantoemploystrategiesandtacticstomaintainacontentandthus
stablesociety,orinotherwordsto"renderasocietygovernable".[18]
Thus,ifonetakesthesethreestrandstogether,governmentalitymaybedefinedastheprocessthrough
whichaformofgovernmentwithspecificends(ahappyandstablesociety),meanstotheseends
("apparatusesofsecurity"[19]),andwithaparticulartypeofknowledge("politicaleconomy"[19]),to
achievetheseends,evolvedfromamedievalstateofjusticetoamodernadministrativestatewith
complexbureaucracies.
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Historyoftheterm
TheconceptofgovernmentalityseguesfromFoucault'sethical,politicalandhistoricalthoughtsfromthe
late1970stotheearly1980s.Hismostwidelyknownformulationofthisnotionishislectureentitled
"Security,territoryandpopulation"(1978).Adeeperandricherreflectiononthenotionof
governmentalityisprovidedinFoucault'scourseon"TheBirthofBiopolitics"attheCollgedeFrance
in19781979.ThecoursewasfirstpublishedinFrenchin2004asNaissancedelabiopolitique:Cours
auCollgedeFrance(19781979)(Paris:Gallimard&Seuil).Thisnotionisalsopartofawider
analysisonthetopicofdisciplinaryinstitutions,onneoliberalismandthe"RuleofLaw",the
"microphysicsofpower"andalsoonwhatFoucaultcalledbiopolitics.Inthesecondandthirdvolumes
ofTheHistoryofSexuality,namely,TheUseofPleasure(1984)andTheCareoftheSelf(1984),andin
hislectureon"TechnologiesoftheSelf"(1982),Foucaultelaboratedadistinctionbetween
subjectivationandformsofsubjectificationbyexploringhowselveswerefashionedandthenlivedin
wayswhichwerebothheteronomouslyandautonomouslydetermined.Also,inaseriesoflecturesand
articles,including"TheBirthofBiopolitics"(1979),"OmnesetSingulatim:TowardsaCriticismof
PoliticalReason"(1979),"TheSubjectandPower"(1982)and"WhatisEnlightenment?"(1984),he
posedquestionsaboutthenatureofcontemporarysocialorders,theconceptualizationofpower,human
freedomandthelimits,possibilitiesandsourcesofhumanactions,etc.thatwerelinkedtohis
understandingofthenotionof"governmentality".
Thenotionofgovernmentality(nottoconfusewithgovernance)gainedattentionintheEnglish
speakingacademicworldmainlythroughtheeditedbookTheFoucaultEffect(1991),whichcontaineda
seriesofessaysonthenotionofgovernmentality,togetherwithatranslationofFoucault's1978short
texton"gouvernementalit".

Furtherdevelopmentsoftheconcept
HuntandWickham,intheirworkFoucaultandLaw[1994]beginthesectionongovernmentalitywitha
verybasicdefinitionderivedfromFoucaultswork.Theystate,"governmentalityisthedramatic
expansioninthescopeofgovernment,featuringanincreaseinthenumberandsizeofthegovernmental
calculationmechanisms"[1994:76].Inotherwords,governmentalitydescribesthenewformof
governingthataroseinthemideighteenthcenturythatwascloselyalliedwiththecreationandgrowth
ofthemodernbureaucracies.Ingivingthisdefinition,HuntandWickhamconceiveofthetermas
consistingoftwoparts'governmental'and'ity'governmentalmeaningpertainingtothegovernmentof
acountryandthesuffixitymeaningthestudyof.Theyacknowledgethatthisdefinitionlackssomeof
FoucaultsfinernuancesandtrytoredressthisbyexplainingsomemoreofFoucaultsideas,including
reasonofstate,theproblemofpopulation,modernpoliticaleconomy,liberalsecuritisation,andthe
emergenceofthehumansciences"[1994:77].
Kerrsapproachtothetermismorecomplex.Heconceivesofthetermasanabbreviationof
"governmentalrationality"[1999:174].Inotherwordsitisawayofthinkingaboutthegovernmentand
thepracticesofthegovernment.Tohimitisnot"azoneofcriticalrevolutionarystudy,butonethat
conceptuallyreproducescapitalistrule"[1999:197]byassertingthatsomeformofgovernment(and
power)willalwaysbenecessarytocontrolandconstitutesociety.Bydefininggovernmentalityonlyin
termsofthestate,Kerrfailstotakeaccountofotherformsofgovernanceandtheideaofmentalitiesof
governmentinthisbroadersense.
Deansunderstandingofthetermincorporatesbothotherformsofgovernanceandtheideaof
mentalitiesofgovernment,aswellasHuntandWickhams,andKerrsapproachestotheterm.Inline
withHuntandWickhamsapproach,Deanacknowledgesthatinaverynarrowsense,governmentality
canbeusedtodescribetheemergenceofagovernmentthatsawthattheobjectofgoverningpowerwas
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tooptimise,useandfosterlivingindividualsasmembersofapopulation[1999:19].Healsoincludesthe
ideaofgovernmentrationalities,seeinggovernmentalityasonewayoflookingatthepracticesof
government.Inadditiontotheabove,heseesgovernmentasanythingtodowithconductingoneselfor
others.Thisisevidentinhisdescriptionofthewordinhisglossary:"Governmentality:Howwethink
aboutgoverningothersandourselvesinawidevarietyofcontexts..."[1999:212].Thisreflectsthatthe
termgovernmenttoFoucaultmeantnotsomuchthepoliticaloradministrativestructuresofthemodern
stateasthewayinwhichtheconductofindividualsorofgroupsmaybedirected.Toanalyse
governmentistoanalysethosemechanismsthattrytoshape,sculpt,mobiliseandworkthroughthe
choices,desires,aspirations,needs,wantsandlifestylesofindividualsandgroups[Dean,1999:12].
Dean'smaincontributiontothedefinitionoftheterm,however,comesfromthewayhebreakstheterm
upintogovernmentality,ormentalitiesofgoverningmentalitybeingamentaldispositionor
outlook.Thismeansthattheconceptofgovernmentalityisnotjustatoolforthinkingaboutgovernment
andgoverningbutalsoincorporateshowandwhatpeoplewhoaregovernedthinkaboutthewaythey
aregoverned.Hedefinesthinkingasa"collectiveactivity"[1999:16],thatis,thesumoftheknowledge,
beliefsandopinionsheldbythosewhoaregoverned.Healsoraisesthepointthatamentalityisnot
usually"examinedbythosewhoinhabitit"[1999:16].Thisraisestheinterestingpointthatthosewhoare
governedmaynotunderstandtheunnaturalnessofboththewaytheyliveandthefactthattheytakethis
wayoflifeforgrantedthatthesameactivityinwhichtheyengagein"canberegardedasadifferent
formofpracticedependingonthementalitiesthatinvestit"[1999:17].Deanhighlightsanother
importantfeatureoftheconceptofgovernmentalityitsreflexivity.Heexplains:
Ontheonehand,wegovernothersandourselvesaccordingtowhatwetaketobetrue
aboutwhoweare,whataspectsofourexistenceshouldbeworkedupon,how,withwhat
means,andtowhatends.Ontheotherhand,thewaysinwhichwegovernandconduct
ourselvesgiverisetodifferentwaysofproducingtruth.[1999:18]
Bydrawingattentiontothehowandwhy,Deanconnects"technologiesofpower"[Lemke,2001:191]
totheconceptofgovernmentality.AccordingtoDeananydefinitionofgovernmentalityshould
incorporateallofFoucaultsintendedideas.Acompletedefinitionofthetermgovernmentalitymust
includenotonlygovernmentintermsofthestate,butgovernmentintermsofany"conductofconduct"
[Dean,1999:10].Itmustincorporatetheideaofmentalitiesandtheassociationsthatgowiththat
concept:thatitisanattitudetowardssomething,andthatitisnotusuallyunderstood"fromwithinits
ownperspective"[1999:16],andthatthesementalitiesarecollectiveandpartofasocietysculture.It
mustalsoincludeanunderstandingofthewaysinwhichconductisgoverned,notjustbygovernments,
butalsobyourselvesandothers.
Thesemanticlinkingofgoverningandmentalitiesingovernmentalityindicatesthatitisnotpossibleto
studytechnologiesofpowerwithoutananalysisofthementalityofruleunderpinningthem.Thepractice
ofgoingtothegym,expoundedbelow,isausefulexamplebecauseitshowshowourchoices,desires,
aspirations,needs,wantsandlifestyleshavebeenmobilisedandshapedbyvarioustechnologiesof
power.

Mentalityofrule
Amentalityofruleisanyrelativelysystematicwayofthinkingaboutgovernment.Itdelineatesa
discursivefieldinwhichtheexerciseofpowerisrationalised[Lemke,2001:191].ThusNeoliberalism
isamentalityofrulebecauseitrepresentsamethodofrationalisingtheexerciseofgovernment,a
rationalisationthatobeystheinternalruleofmaximumeconomy[Foucault,1997:74].Fukuyama[in
Rose,1999:63]writes"aliberalStateisultimatelyalimitedState,withgovernmentalactivitystrictly
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boundedbythesphereofindividualliberty".However,onlyacertaintypeofliberty,acertainwayof
understandingandexercisingfreedomiscompatiblewithNeoliberalism.IfNeoliberalistgovernmentis
tofullyrealizeitsgoals,individualsmustcometorecognizeandactuponthemselvesasbothfreeand
responsible[Rose,1999:68].ThusNeoliberalismmustworktocreatethesocialrealitythatitproposes
alreadyexists.ForasLemkestates,amentalityofgovernment"isnotpure,neutralknowledgethat
simplyrepresentsthegoverningreality"[Lemke,2001:191]instead,Neoliberalismconstitutesan
attempttolinkareductioninstatewelfareservicesandsecuritysystemstotheincreasingcallfor
subjectstobecomefree,enterprising,autonomousindividuals.Itcanthenbegintogovernitssubjects,
notthroughintrusivestatebureaucraciesbackedwithlegalpowers,theimpositionofmoralstandards
underareligiousmandate,butthroughstructuringthepossiblefieldofactioninwhichtheygovern
themselves,togovernthemthroughtheirfreedom.Throughthetransformationofsubjectswithduties
andobligations,intoindividuals,withrightsandfreedoms,modernindividualsarenotmerelyfreeto
choosebutobligedtobefree,"tounderstandandenacttheirlivesintermsofchoice"[Rose,1999:87].
Thisfreedomisadifferentfreedomtothatofferedinthepast.Itisafreedomtorealizeourpotentialand
ourdreamsthroughreshapingthewayinwhichweconductourlives.

Fromgovernmentalitytoneoliberalgovernmentality:cartography
Governmentalityandcartography
Cartographicmappinghashistoricallybeenakeystrategyofgovernmentality.[20]Harley,[21]drawingon
Foucault,affirmsthatStateproducedmaps"extendandreinforcethelegalstatutes,territorial
imperatives,andvaluesstemmingfromtheexerciseofpoliticalpower".Typically,Stateledmapping
conformstoBentham'sconceptofapanopticon,inwhich'theoneviewsthemany'.FromaFoucauldian
vantagepoint,thiswastheblueprintfordisciplinarypower.[22]
Neoliberalgovernmentalityandcartography
Throughprocessesofneoliberalism,theStatehas"hollowedout"someofitscartographic
responsibilitiesanddelegatedpowertoindividualswhoareatalowergeographicalscale.[23]'Peoples
cartography'isbelievedtodeliveramoredemocraticspatialgovernancethantraditionaltopdownState
distributionofcartographicknowledge.[24]ThussubvertingHarley's[21]theorythatmappingisuniquely
asourceofpowerforthepowerful.Joyce[25]challengesFoucauldiannotionsofPanopticism,contending
thatneoliberalgovernmentalityismoreadequatelyconceptualisedbyanomniopticon'themany
surveillingthemany'.[26]CollaborativemappinginitiativesutilisingGPStechnologyarearguably
omniopticons,[27]withtheabilitytoreversethepanopticgaze.[28]
Powerknowledgerelations:OpenStreetMap

AprimeexampleofanomniopticformofneoliberalgovernmentalityisOpenStreetMap
(http://www.openstreetmap.org/)(OSM).OSM,amappingwebsitefoundedbySteveCoastinAugust
2004,doesnotrelyonthegovernmentratheronthousandsofvolunteerswithportableGPSdevices.[29]
OSMhasaclearCodeofConduct
(http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Automated_Edits/Code_of_Conduct)andexerts'disciplinarypower'
ifthisisnotabidedby.[30]InFoucauldianterms,disciplineisthediscursiveframeworkthroughwhich
activityisorganisedsothatthe'correcttraining'ofindividualsisensured.[31]Forinstance,anOSM
guidelineisthat"theworkofothersmustberespected".[32]Hence,ifauserstartsan'editwar',theymay
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bebannedfromcontributingtowardsthewebsite.OSMthusconformstoHannah's[22]notionthat
neoliberalgovernmentality"consistentlyblendstheprinciplesoffreedomandregulation".Itisclearthat
evengrassrootcartographicinitiativesdonotexistoutsideofpowerknowledgedynamics.[33]
RetreatoftheState:OpenStreetMap

Foucault[34]affirmsthatneoliberalgovernmentalityisnotabouttheretreatoftheStaterathera
restructuringofpowerrelationsinsociety.WhentheHaitiearthquakestruckon12January2010,an
OSMcrowdsourcingeffortenabledtheconstructionofamapdepictingthepositionofhospitals.[35]
AlthoughOSMuserswereempoweredthroughtheabilitytocontributegeographicdata,government
agenciesprintedtheOSMmaps,distributedtheminPortauPrice,anduploadedthemtomobileGPS
units.[35]Thus,theStatespowerhasnoteroded:ratheritsfocushasshiftedfromcontroloverterritory,
"towardsthegoverningofacomplexcomposedofmen[sic]andthings".[36]Inbrief,theStatehas
transformedfromsolepurveyorofgeographicinformationtoaninstitutionalbodyofoversight.
Ultimately,adheringtoFoucauldiannotionsofneoliberalgovernmentality,OSMindicatesthatwhilst
theStateisnolongerthelocusofallpower,itssteeringcapacityshouldnotbeunderestimated.[37]This
opposesCrampton's[24]affirmationthatOSMis"mappingwithoutanet"ametaphorindicatingthe
Statesallegedretractionfromthecartographicproject.

Selfgoverningcapabilities
Throughourfreedom,particularselfgoverningcapabilitiescanbeinstalledinordertobringourown
waysofconductingandevaluatingourselvesintoalignmentwithpoliticalobjectives[Rose,1996:155].
Thesecapabilitiesareenterpriseandautonomy.Enterpriseheredesignatesanarrayofrulesforthe
conductofoneseverydayexistence:energy,initiative,ambition,calculation,andpersonal
responsibility.Theenterprisingselfwillmakeanenterpriseofitslife,seektomaximizeitsownhuman
capital,projectitselfafuture,andseektoshapelifeinordertobecomewhatitwishestobe.The
enterprisingselfisthusbothanactiveselfandacalculatingself,aselfthatcalculatesaboutitselfand
thatactsuponitselfinordertobetteritself[Rose,1996:154].Autonomyisabouttakingcontrolofour
undertakings,definingourgoals,andplanningtoachieveourneedsthroughourownpowers[Rose,
1996:159].Theautonomyoftheselfisthusnottheeternalantithesisofpoliticalpower,butoneofthe
objectivesandinstrumentsofmodernmentalitiesfortheconductofconduct[Rose,1996:155].
Thesethreequalities:freedom,enterpriseandautonomyareembodiedinthepracticeofgoingtothe
gym.Itisourchoicetogothegym,ourchoicewhichgymtogoto.Bygoingtothegymweareworking
onourselves,onourbodyshapeandourphysicalfitness.Wearegivingourselvesqualitiestohelpus
performbetterthanothersinlife,whethertoattractabettermatethanothers,ortobeabletoworkmore
efficiently,moreeffectivelyandforlongerwithoutrunningoutofsteamtogiveusanadvantageover
ourcompetitors.Whenwegotothegym,wegothroughourowndiscipline,onourowntimetable,to
reachourowngoals.Wedesignandactoutourroutinebyourselves.Wedonotneedtheideasor
supportofateam,itisourselfthatmakesitpossible.Thepracticeofgoingtothegym,ofbeingfree,
enterprising,autonomous,isimbuedwithparticulartechnologiesofpower.

Technologiesofpower
Technologiesofpowerarethose"technologiesimbuedwithaspirationsfortheshapingofconductinthe
hopeofproducingcertaindesiredeffectsandavertingcertainundesiredones"[Rose,1999:52].Thetwo
maingroupsoftechnologiesofpoweraretechnologiesoftheself,andtechnologiesofthemarket.
Foucaultdefinedtechnologiesoftheselfastechniquesthatallowindividualstoeffectbytheirown
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meansacertainnumberofoperationsontheirownbodies,minds,souls,andlifestyle,soastotransform
themselvesinordertoattainacertainstateofhappiness,andqualityoflife.Technologiesofthemarket
arethosetechnologiesbasedaroundthebuyingandsellingofgoodsthatenableustodefinewhoweare,
orwanttobe.Thesetwotechnologiesarenotalwayscompletelydistinct,asbothborrowbitsofeach
otherfromtimetotime.
Technologiesoftheself
Technologiesoftheselfrefertothepracticesandstrategiesbywhichindividualsrepresentto
themselvestheirownethicalselfunderstanding.Oneofthemainfeaturesoftechnologiesofselfisthat
ofexpertise.Expertisehasthreeimportantaspects.First,itsgroundingofauthorityinaclaimto
scientificityandobjectivitycreatesdistancebetweenselfregulationandthestatethatisnecessarywith
liberaldemocracies.Second,expertisecan"mobiliseandbemobilisedwithinpoliticalargumentin
distinctiveways,producinganewrelationshipbetweenknowledgeandgovernment.Expertisecomesto
beaccordedaparticularroleintheformulationofprogramsofgovernmentandinthetechnologiesthat
seektogivethemeffect"[Rose,1996:156].Third,expertiseoperatesthrougharelationshipwiththe
selfregulatingabilitiesofindividuals.Theplausibilityinherentinaclaimtoscientificitybinds
"subjectivitytotruthandsubjectstoexperts"[Rose,1996:156].Expertiseworksthroughalogicof
choice,throughatransformationofthewaysinwhichindividualsconstitutethemselves,through
"inculcatingdesiresforselfdevelopmentthatexpertiseitselfcanguideandthroughclaimstobeableto
allaytheanxietiesgeneratedwhentheactualityoflifefailstoliveuptoitsimage[Rose,1999:88].
Thetechnologiesoftheselfinvolvedinthepracticeof,forexample,goingtothegymarethe:
technologyofresponsibilisation,technologyofhealthism,technologyofnormalisationandtechnology
ofselfesteem.
Responsibilisation
Inlinewithitsdesiretoreducethescopeofgovernment(e.g.welfare)Neoliberalismcharacteristically
developsindirecttechniquesforleadingandcontrollingindividualswithoutbeingresponsibleforthem.
Themainmechanismisthroughthetechnologyofresponsibilisation.Thisentailssubjectsbecoming
responsibilisedbymakingthemseesocialriskssuchasillness,unemployment,poverty,etc.notasthe
responsibilityofthestate,butactuallylyinginthedomainforwhichtheindividualisresponsibleand
transformingitintoaproblemofselfcare[Lemke,2001:201]andof'consumption'.[38]Thepracticeof
goingtothegymcanbeseenasaresultofresponsibilisation,ourresponsibilitytoremainfreeofillness
soastobeabletoworkandtocareforourdependants(children,elderlyparentsetc.)Thistechnology
somewhatoverlapswiththetechnologyofhealthism.
Healthism
Healthismlinksthe"publicobjectivesforthegoodhealthandgoodorderofthesocialbodywiththe
desireofindividualsforhealthandwellbeing"[Rose,1999:74].Healthybodiesandhygienichomes
maystillbeobjectivesofthestate,butitnolongerseekstodiscipline,instruct,moraliseorthreatenus
intocompliance.Rather"individualsareaddressedontheassumptionthattheywanttobehealthyand
enjoinedtofreelyseekoutthewaysoflivingmostlikelytopromotetheirownhealth"[Rose,1999:86
87]suchasgoingtothegym.Howeverwhilethetechnologyofresponsibilisationmaybearguedtobea
calculatedtechniqueofthestate,thewaveofHealthismislesslikelytobeaconsequenceofstate
planning,butarisingoutofthenewersocialsciencessuchasnutritionandhumanmovement.Healthism
assigns,asdomosttechnologiesoftheself,akeyroletoexperts.Foritisexpertswhocantellushowto
conductourselvesintermsofsafe,precisetechniquestoimprovecardiovascularfitness,muscle
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strength,andoverallhealth.Theborrowingfromtechnologiesofthemarketbytechnologiesoftheself
canbeclearlyseenintheareaofhealthism.Theideaofhealth,thegoalofbeinghealthy,thejoys
broughtbygoodhealthandthewaysofachievingitareadvertisedtousinthesamemannerasgoods
andservicesaremarketedbysalespeople.Byadheringtotheprinciplesofhealthism,ourpersonalgoals
arealignedwithpoliticalgoalsandwearethusrenderedgovernable.
Normalisation
Anothertechnologyofpowerarisingfromthesocialsciencesisthatofnormalisation.Thetechnologyof
normswasgivenapushbythenewmethodsofmeasuringpopulation.Anormisthat"whichissocially
worthy,statisticallyaverage,scientificallyhealthyandpersonallydesirable".[39]Theimportantaspectof
normality,isthatwhilethenormisnatural,thosewhowishtoachievenormalitywilldosobyworking
onthemselves,controllingtheirimpulsesineverydayconductandhabits,andinculcatingnormsof
conductintotheirchildren,undertheguidanceofothers.Normsareenforcedthroughthecalculated
administrationofshame.Shameentailsananxietyovertheexteriorbehaviourandappearanceofthe
self,linkedtoaninjunctiontocareforoneselfinthenameofachievingqualityoflife[Rose,1999:73].
Normsareusuallyalignedwithpoliticalgoals,thusthenormwouldbefit,virile,energeticindividuals,
abletowork,earnmoney,andspenditandthussustaintheeconomy.Forinstance,thepracticeofgoing
tothegymallowsonetoachievethisnormality.Throughshamewearegovernedintoconformingwith
thegoalsofNeoliberalism.
Selfesteem
Selfesteemisapracticalandproductivetechnologylinkedtothetechnologyofnorms,whichproduces
ofcertainkindsofselves.Selfesteemisatechnologyinthesensethatitisaspecialisedknowledgeof
howtoesteemourselvestoestimate,calculate,measure,evaluate,discipline,andtojudgeourselves.[40]
Theselfesteemapproachconsidersawidevarietyofsocialproblemstohavetheirsourceinalackof
selfesteemonthepartofthepersonsconcerned.'Selfesteem'thushasmuchmoretodowithself
assessmentthanwithselfrespect,astheselfcontinuouslyhastobemeasured,judgedanddisciplinedin
ordertogearpersonal'empowerment'tocollectiveyardsticks.[41]Thesecollectiveyardsticksare
determinedbythenormspreviouslydiscussed.Selfesteemisatechnologyofselffor"evaluatingand
actinguponourselvessothatthepolice,theguardsandthedoctorsdonothavetodoso".[42]Bytaking
upthegoalofselfesteem,weallowourselvestobegovernablefromadistance.Thetechnologyofself
esteemandothersimilarpsychologicaltechnologiesalsoborrowfromtechnologiesofthemarket,
namelyconsumption.Ahugevarietyofselfhelpbooks,tapes,videosandotherparaphernaliaare
availableforpurchasebytheindividual.
Technologiesofthemarket
Thetechnologiesofthemarketthatunderliethepracticeofgoingtothegymcanbedescribedasthe
technologyofdesire,andthetechnologyofidentitythroughconsumption.Thetechnologyofdesireisa
mechanismthatinducesinusdesiresthatweworktosatisfy.Marketerscreatewantsandartificialneeds
inusthroughadvertisinggoods,experiencesandlifestylesthataretemptingtous.Theseadvertisements
seektoconveythesenseofindividualsatisfactionbroughtaboutbythepurchaseoruseofthis
product.[43]Wecometodesirethesethingsandthusactinamannerthatallowsustoachievethese
things,whetherbyworkingharderandearningmoremoneyorbyemployingtechnologiesoftheselfto
shapeourlifestyletothemannerwedesire.Theborrowingoftechnologiesoftheselfbytechnologies
ofthemarketextendsevenfurtherinthiscase.Marketersusetheknowledgecreatedbypsyche

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discourses,especiallypsychologicalcharacteristicsasthebasisoftheirmarketsegmentation.This
allowsthemtoappealmoreeffectivelytoeachindividual.Thuswearegovernedintopurchasing
commoditiesthroughourdesire.
Thetechnologyofidentitythroughconsumptionutilisesthepowerofgoodstoshapeidentities.[44]Each
commodityisimbuedwithaparticularmeaning,whichisreflecteduponthosewhopurchaseit,
illuminatingthekindofpersontheyare,orwanttobe.Consumptionisportrayedasplacingan
individualwithinacertainformoflife.Thetechnologyofidentitythroughconsumptioncanbeseenin
thechoicesthatfacethegymattendee.Togotoanexpensivegymbecauseitdemonstrates
wealth/successortogotoamoderatelypricedgymsoastoappeareconomical.Therangeofgymwear
isextensive.Brandnametoportraytheabilitiesportrayedinitsadvertising,expensivetoportray
commitment,orcheaptoportrayyourunconcernforotherpeoplesopinions.Allofthesechoicesof
consumptionareusedtocommunicateouridentitytoothers,andthuswearegovernedbymarketersinto
choosingthoseproductsthatidentifywithouridentity.
Thesetechnologiesofthemarketandoftheselfaretheparticularmechanismswherebyindividualsare
inducedintobecomingfree,enterprisingindividualswhogovernthemselvesandthusneedonlylimited
directgovernancebythestate.Theimplementationofthesetechnologiesisgreatlyassistedbyexperts
fromthesocialsciences.Theseexpertsoperatearegimeoftheself,wheresuccessinlifedependsonour
continualexerciseoffreedom,andwhereourlifeisunderstood,notintermsoffateorsocialstatus,but
intermsofoursuccessorfailureinacquiringtheskillsandmakingthechoicestoactualiseourself.[45]If
weengageinthepracticeofgoingtothegym,weareundertakinganexerciseinselfgovernment.We
dosobydrawinguponcertainformsofknowledgeandexpertiseprovidedbygyminstructors,health
professionals,ofthepurveyorsofthelatestfitnessfad.Dependingonwhywegotothegym,wemay
calculatenumberofcaloriesburned,heartrate,ormusclesize.Inallcases,weattendthegymfora
specificsetofreasonsunderpinnedbythevarioustechnologiesoftheselfandthemarket.Thepartof
ourselvesweseektoworkupon,themeansbywhichwedoso,andwhowehopetobecome,allvary
accordingtothenatureofthetechnologyofpowerbywhichwearemotivated[Dean,1999:17].Allof
thesevariousreasonsandtechnologiesareunderpinnedbythementalityofgovernmentthatseeksto
transformusintoafree,enterprising,autonomousindividual:Neoliberalism.Furthermore,Neo
liberalismseekstocreateanddisseminatedefinitionsoffreedom,autonomyandwhatitmeanstobe
enterprisingthatrecreateformsofbehavioramenabletoneoliberalgoals.

Ecogovernmentality
Ecogovernmentality(orecogovernmentality)istheapplicationofFoucaultsconceptsofbiopowerand
governmentalitytotheanalysisoftheregulationofsocialinteractionswiththenaturalworld.Timothy
W.Luketheorizedthisasenvironmentalityandgreengovernmentality.Ecogovernmentalitybeganinthe
mid1990swithasmallbodyoftheorists(Luke,Darier,andRutherford)theliteratureon
ecogovernmentalitygrewasaresponsetotheperceivedlackofFoucauldiananalysisof
environmentalismandinenvironmentalstudies.
FollowingMichelFoucault,writingonecogovernmentalityfocusesonhowgovernmentagencies,in
combinationwithproducersofexpertknowledge,construct"TheEnvironment."Thisconstructionis
viewedbothintermsofthecreationofanobjectofknowledgeandaspherewithinwhichcertaintypes
ofinterventionandmanagementarecreatedanddeployedtofurtherthegovernmentslargeraimof
managingthelivesofitsconstituents.Thisgovernmentalmanagementisdependentonthedissemination
andinternalizationofknowledge/poweramongindividualactors.Thiscreatesadecenterednetworkof
selfregulatingelementswhoseinterestsbecomeintegratedwiththoseoftheState.

CrisesofGovernmentality
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AccordingtoFoucault,thereareseveralinstanceswheretheWestern,"liberalartofgovernment"enters
intoaperiodofcrisis,wherethelogicofensuringfreedom(whichwasdefinedagainstthebackground
ofriskordanger)necessitatesactions"whichpotentiallyriskproducingexactlytheopposite."[46]
TheinherentlycontradictorylogicsthatleadtosuchcontradictionsareidentifiedbyFoucaultas:
1.Liberalismdependsonthesocializationofindividualstofeartheconstantpresenceofdanger,e.g.,
publiccampaignsadvocatingsavingsbanks,publichygiene,anddiseaseprevention,thedevelopmentof
detectivenovelsasagenreandofnewsstoriesofcrime,andsexualanxietiessurrounding
"degeneration."[47]
2.Liberalfreedomrequiresdisciplinarytechniquesthatmanagetheindividual'sbehaviourandeveryday
lifesoastoensureproductivityandtheincreaseinprofitthroughefficientlabour,e.g.,Bentham's
Panopticonsurveillancesystem.Liberalismclaimstosupervisethenaturalmechanismsofbehaviour
andproduction,butmustintervenewhenitnotices"irregularities."[48]
3.Liberalismmustforceindividualstobefree:controlandinterventionbecomestheentirebasisof
freedom.Freedommustultimatelybemanufacturedbycontrolratherthansimply"counterweighted"by
it.[48]
ExamplesofthiscontradictorylogicwhichFoucaultcitesarethepoliciesoftheKeynesianwelfarestate
underF.D.Roosevelt,thethoughtoftheGermanliberalsintheFreiburgschool,andthethoughtof
AmericanlibertarianeconomistssuchastheChicagoSchoolwhichattempttofreeindividualsfromthe
lackoffreedomperceivedtoexistundersocialismandfascism,butdidsobyusingstateinterventionist
models.[48]
Thesegovernmentalcrisesmaybetriggeredbyphenomenasuchasadiscursiveconcernwithincreasing
economiccapitalcostsfortheexerciseoffreedom,e.g.,pricesforpurchasingresources,theneedfor
excessivestatecoercionandinterventionismtoprotectmarketfreedoms,e.g.,antitrustandanti
monopolylegislationthatleadstoa"legalstraitjacket"forthestate,[49]localprotestsrejectingthe
disciplinarymechanismsofthemarketsocietyandstate.[49]andfinally,thedestructiveandwasteful
effectsofineffectivemechanismsforproducingfreedom.[50]

Applicationtohealthcare
Scholars[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58]haverecentlysuggestedthattheconceptofgovernmentalitymaybe
usefulinexplainingtheoperationofevidencebasedhealthcareandtheinternalizationofclinical
guidelinesrelatingtobestpracticeforpatientpopulations,suchasthosedevelopedbytheAmerican
AgencyforHealthCareResearchandQualityandtheBritishNationalInstituteforHealthandClinical
Excellence(NICE).RecentresearchbyFischer(http://oxford.academia.edu/MichaelFischer)and
colleaguesattheUniversityofOxfordhasrenewedinterestinFoucault'sexplorationofpotential
resistancetogovernmentality,anditsapplicationtohealthcare,drawingonFoucault'srecently
publishedfinallecturesattheCollegedeFrance.[59][60][61]

BeyondtheWest
JeffreysandSigley(2009)highlightthatgovernmentalitystudieshavefocusedonadvancedliberal
democracies,andprecludeconsiderationsofnonliberalformsofgovernmentalityinbothwesternand
nonwesterncontexts.[62]RecentstudieshavebrokennewgroundbyapplyingFoucaultsconceptof
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governmentalitytononwesternandnonliberalsettings,suchasChina.Jeffreys(2009)forexample
providesacollectionofessayonChinasapproachtogovernance,development,education,the
environment,community,religion,andsexualhealthwherethenotionof'Chinesegovernmentally'is
basednotonthenotionoffreedomandliberty'asinthewesterntraditionbutrather,onadistinct
rationalapproachtoplanningandadministration.[63]SuchnewstudiesthususeFoucaults
Governmentalitiestooutlinethenatureofshiftsingovernanceandcontributetoemergingstudiesof
governmentalityinnonwesterncontexts.

Seealso
MichelFoucault
Politicalpower
Rationalityandpower

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41. Lemke,2001:202
42. Cruikshank,1996:234
43. Rose,1999:86
44. Rose,1999:76
45. Rose,1999:87
46. Foucault,Michel.TheBirthofBiopolitics:LecturesattheCollegedeFrance(19789).Trans.Graham
Burchell.Ed.MichaelSenellart.1stPicadorPaperbackEdition.NewYork:PalgraveMacMillan,2010,69.
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51. Ferlie,E.,Fitzgerald,L.,McGivern,G.,Dopson,S.,&Bennett,C.(2013)MakingWickedProblems
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58. Sheaff,R.etal.(2004)GovernmentalitybyNetworkinEnglishPrimaryCare.SocialPolicyand
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Furtherreading
Cruikshank,B.(1996)'Revolutionswithin:selfgovernmentandselfesteem',inAndrewBarry,
ThomasOsborne&NikolasRose(eds.)(1996),FoucaultandPoliticalReason:Liberalism,Neo
Liberalism,andRationalitiesofGovernment,Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.
Dean,M.(1999)Governmentality:PowerandRuleinModernSociety.London:Sage.
Joyce,P.(2003)TheRuleofFreedom:LiberalismandtheModernCity.London:Verso.
Foucault,M.(1997)Ethics:SubjectivityandTruth,editedbyPaulRabinow,NewYork:New
Press.
Foucault,M.(1982)'TechnologiesoftheSelf'(http://www.thefoucauldian.co.uk/tself.htm),in
LutherH.Martin,HuckGutmanandPatrickH.Hutton(eds)TechnologiesoftheSelf:ASeminar
withMichelFoucault,pp.1649.Amherst:TheUniversityofMassachusettsPress,1988.
Foucault,M.(1984)TheHistoryofSexualityVol.2:TheUseofPleasure,trans.RobertHurley.
NewYork:RandomHouse,1985.
Foucault,M.(1984)TheHistoryofSexualityVol.3:TheCareoftheSelf,trans.RobertHurley.
NewYork:VintageBooks,1988.
Foucault,M.(2004),Naissancedelabiopolitique:coursauCollgedeFrance(19781979).
Paris:Gallimard&Seuil.
Foucault,M.,(2008),Thebirthofbiopolitics.LecturesattheCollegedeFrance,197879.
PalgraveMacMillan
Hunt,H.&Wickham,G.(1994)FoucaultandLaw.London.PlutoPress.
Inda,J.X.(2005)."AnthropologiesofModernity:Foucault,Governmentality,andLifePolitics
(http://www.academia.edu/417342/Anthropologies_of_Modernity_Foucault_Governmentality_an
d_Life_Politics)".Malden,MA:WileyBlackwell.
Kerr,D.(1999)'Beheadingthekingandenthroningthemarket:AcritiqueofFoucauldian
governmentality'inScience&Society,NewYork:v.63,i.2p.173203(accessedthrough
ExpandedAcademicIndex).
Luke,T.W.(1997)Ecocritique:ContestingthePoliticsofNature,EconomyandCulture.
Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.
Nagl,D.(2013)'TheGovernmentalityofSlaveryinColonialBoston,16901760'inAmerican
Studies,58.1,pp.526.[1](http://www.winter
verlag.de/en/detail/t3699977/Nagel_The_Governmentality_of_Slavery/)
RiveraVicencio,E.(2014)Thefirmandcorporativegovernmentality.Fromtheperspectiveof
Foucault,Int.J.EconomicsandAccounting,Vol.5,No.4,pp.281305.
http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=67421
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Rose,N.(1996)InventingOurSelves.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Rose,N.(1999)PowersofFreedom:reframingpoliticalthought.Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
Scott,D.(1995)'ColonialGovernmentality'inSocialText,No.43(Autumn,1995),pp.191220.
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Governmentality&oldid=672083329"
Categories: MichelFoucault Politicalphilosophy Geography Devianceandsocialcontrol
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