Mobile

& Wireless Networks

Wireless Transmission
q Frequencies
q Signals
q Antenna

q Signal propagation
q Multiplexing
qCellular systems

Frequencies for communication

twisted
pair

coax cable

1 Mm
300 Hz

10 km
30 kHz

VLF

LF

optical transmission

100 m
3 MHz

MF

HF

VLF = Very Low Frequency

LF = Low Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency
HF = High Frequency
VHF = Very High Frequency

1m
300 MHz

VHF

UHF

10 mm
30 GHz

SHF

EHF

infrared

UHF = Ultra High Frequency

SHF = Super High Frequency
EHF = Extra High Frequency
UV = Ultraviolet Light

Frequency and wave length:

l = c/f
wave length l, speed of light c @ 3x108m/s, frequency f

100 m
3 THz

1 m
300 THz

visible light UV

Frequencies for mobile communication

qVHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
simple, small antenna for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections

qSHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication

small antenna, focusing
large bandwidth available

qWireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum

some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance
frequencies)
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.

Frequencies and regulations

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands
worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Cellular
Phones

Cordless
Phones

Wireless
LANs

Others

Europe

USA

Japan

GSM 450-457, 479486/460-467,489496, 890-915/935960,

1710-1785/18051880
UMTS (FDD) 19201980, 2110-2190
UMTS (TDD) 19001920, 2020-2025
CT1+ 885-887, 930932
CT2
864-868
DECT
1880-1900
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
HIPERLAN 2
5150-5350, 54705725
RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433,
868

AMPS, TDMA, CDMA

824-849,
869-894
TDMA, CDMA, GSM
1850-1910,
1930-1990

PDC
810-826,
940-956,
1429-1465,
1477-1513

PACS 1850-1910, 19301990

PACS-UB 1910-1930

PHS
1895-1918
JCT
254-380

902-928
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
5150-5350, 5725-5825

IEEE 802.11
2471-2497
5150-5250

RF-Control
315, 915

RF-Control
426, 868

Signals I

qphysical representation of data

qfunction of time and location
qsignal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
qclassification

continuous time/discrete time

continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values

qsignal parameters of periodic signals:

period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift j
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:
s(t) = At sin(2 p ft t + jt)

Fourier representation of periodic signals

1
g (t ) = c + an sin( 2pnft ) + bn cos( 2pnft )
2
n =1
n =1

0
t

ideal periodic signal

real composition
(based on harmonics)

Signals II
qDifferent representations of signals
amplitude (amplitude domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase j in polar coordinates)
Q = M sin j

A [V]

A [V]
t[s]

j
I= M cos j

f [Hz]

qComposed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier

transformation
qDigital signals need
infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)

Antennas: isotropic radiator

qRadiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of
wires to space for radio transmission
qIsotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
qReal antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
qRadiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna

z
y
x

ideal
isotropic
radiator

Antennas: simple dipoles

qReal antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths l/4
on car roofs or l/2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
l/4

l/2

qExample: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y

y
x

side view (xy-plane)

z
z

side view (yz-plane)

simple
dipole

top view (xz-plane)

qGain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to the
power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)

Antennas: directed and sectorized

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile
phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
y

side view (xy-plane)

side view (yz-plane)

top view (xz-plane)

z

top view, 3 sector

directed
antenna

top view, 6 sector

sectorized
antenna

Antennas: diversity
qGrouping of 2 or more antennas
multi-element antenna arrays

qAntenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output

diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
cophasing needed to avoid cancellation

l/2
l/4

l/2

+
ground plane

l/4

l/2

l/2

Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate

Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication
possible

Interference range
signal may not be
detected
signal adds to the
background noise

sender
transmission
distance
detection
interference

Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
Receiving power proportional to 1/d
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
qfading (frequency dependent)
qshadowing
qreflection at large obstacles
qrefraction depending on the density of a medium
qscattering at small obstacles
qdiffraction at edges

shadowing

reflection

refraction

scattering

diffraction

Real world example

Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference

(ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted

distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts

Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received (short term fading)
power

Additional changes in

long term
fading

distance to sender
obstacles further away
slow changes in the average power

received (long term fading)

short term fading

Effects of mobility
Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems

Path Loss [dB]

5
10
15
20
25

20

30

10

20

15

Shadowing [dB]

20
30
40

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance Between Transmitter and Receiver

5
0
5

10

50

15

60

20

70

Path loss
0

10

10

25

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance Between Transmitter and Receiver

Shadowing
0

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance Between Transmitter and Receiver

10
5
0

Fast Fading [dB]

Overall Signal Strength [dB]

Total Signal

5
10
15
20
25
30

Fast fading

35
40

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance Between Transmitter and Receiver

Figure 1.5: The three scales of mobile signal variation

Chapter 5 and examined in detail in Chapters 6, 7 and 8 in the context of fixed terrestrial links,

Propagation model (macro-scale)

Large Scale Fading

General Formulation of Path Loss

ending on the environment, it is seen that the path loss (or the RSS)
s as some
power of the distance from the transmitter d
Depending on the environment, it is seen that the path loss (or the RSS)
33 power of the distance from the
varies as some
transmitter
d
Pt
General Formulation of Path Loss
Pt
Pr (d)
/
r (d)
! Large
variation
of
signal
P
/ scale

or

Average decrease of power

strength with distance

10

Received signal strength

d
Consider
average
signal Depending on the environment, it is seen that the p
L (d ) 10
log
d
d
strength
values
varies as some power of the distance from the trans
L0 (d
log
NoteP
r [dBm]
t [dBm]by measurements
0 ) in10
that
2 and=is P
determined
typical
environment.
10
d

! The average is computed 0
Shadow
Fading
Pt
Slope
&
= 2.5 Fading
might be used for rural / sub-urban areas
Shadow
P
(d)
/
r
either
over
short periods
of environment.
that 2
is bedetermined
byareas
measurements
in typical
=and
4.8 might
used for dense urban
Intercept
time or short lengths of
or
Shadowing occurs when line
of site is blocked
distance

Shadowing
occurs
when
line
of
site
is
blocked
= 2.5 might
be used for rural / sub-urban areas
Pr [dBm] = Pt [dBm] L0 (d0 ) 10 lo
Modeled by an additive, zero-mean Gaussian signal component
! A straight line is fit to the
Shadow
Fading
XAdditive zero-mean Gaussian shadowing
be
N (0,
) [dBm].
= 4.8 might
used
urban
areas
Modeled
byfor
andense
additive,
zero-mean
Gaussian signal component
average
values
Note that 2 and is determined by measuremen

d
X NP(0,
[dBm])=[dBm].
P [dBm] L (d ) 10 log
+X
! The slope and the intercept
give
d
= 2.5 might be used for rural / sub-urban areas

Variation
youruralthe
expression
for
the
path
Typical values for are:
3 dB, Suburban 6 dB, urban 8 dB, dense
d = 4.821/25
might be used for dense urban areas
urban 10 dB occurs
Shadowing
when
line of site
Ploss
= Pt [dBm]
L0 (dis
10 log10
+X
r [dBm]
0 ) blocked
d0
Impact on the coverage
! The variation around the fit is the
Log distance
The Prob{P (d) P (d) > z} can be found from a Gaussian distribution table
Modeled
by
an
additive,
zero-mean
Gaussian
signal
component
fading
Typical
values
are:
rural component
3 dB, Suburban 6 dB, urban 8 dB, dense
with mean
P , andshadow
.for
N
Often,
at the )
designed
cell edge, only 50% of the locations have adequate RSS
X
(0,
[dBm].
urban
10
dB

Impact on the coverage
d
Pr [dBm]
=
P
[dBm]
L
(d
)
10

log
+ X table
The Prob{P
Pd (d)
from a Gaussian
t > z} can be
0 found
0
t (d)
10 distribution
d
0
with mean Pr , and .

!
Pr [dBm] = P
t [dBm]

21/25

10

22/25

Often, at the designed cell edge, only 50% of the locations have adequate RSS
Typical
values for are: rural 3 dB, Suburban 6 dB, urban 8 dB, dense

190

Propagation model (macro-scale)

Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication

-20

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

system. In Figure 9.4, the cell range would be around 9.5 km if shadowing were ne
then only 50% of locations at the edge of the cell would be properly covered. By ad
fade margin, the cell radius is reduced to around 5.5 km but the reliability is greatly in
Figure 9.2: Typical variation of shadowing with mobile position at fixed BS distance
as a much smaller proportion of points exceed the maximum acceptable path loss.
Distance [m]

-60

0.04
Measured
Normal distribution

0.035

-70
-80

Total path loss [-dB]

Probability density

0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015

-90
-100
-110

0.01

-120

0.005

-130

0
30

20

10

0
10
Shadowing level [dB]

20

30

40

Figure 9.3: Probability density function of shadowing. Measured values are produced by subtracting the empirical model shown in Figure 8.2 from the total path loss measurements. Theoretical
values come from the log-normal distribution

Median
path loss

Maximum
Fade
margin, z [dB]

acceptable
path loss

Maximum cell
range

-140
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

Distance from base station [m]

Figure 9.4: Effect of shadowing margin on cell range

The probability that the shadowing increases the median path loss by at least z [dB
given by
"
#
Z1
Z1
1
L2S
p exp & 2 dLS
PrLS > z"
pLS dLS
2!L
!L 2"
LS z

LS z

It is then convenient to normalise the variable z by the location variability:

PrLS > z"

Z1
xz=!L

$ %
" 2#
1
x
z
p exp &
dx Q
!L
2
2"

Multiplexing
channels ki
k1

Multiplexing in 4 dimensions

space (si)
time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)

k2

k3

k5

k6

c
t

c
t

s1

Goal: multiple use

of a shared medium
Important: guard spaces needed!

k4

s2

c
t

s3

Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
qno dynamic coordination
necessary
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
qworks also for analog signals
c
Disadvantages:
qwaste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
qinflexible
qguard spaces
t

k6

Time multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
Advantages:
qonly one carrier in the
medium at any time
qthroughput high even
for many users

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

Disadvantages:
qprecise
synchronization
necessary
t

Time and frequency multiplex

Combination of both methods

A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Example: GSM
Advantages:
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
better protection against
tapping
protection against frequency
selective interference
higher data rates compared to
code multiplex

but: precise coordination

required
t

c
f

Code multiplex
Each channel has a unique code
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages:

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization necessary
good protection against interference and tapping

Disadvantages:

lower user data rates

more complex signal regeneration

WCDMA 3G
t

Cell structure

Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain

transmission area (cell)
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
Advantages of cell structures:

higher capacity, higher number of users

less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally

Problems:

fixed network needed for the base stations

handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
interference with other cells

Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side (GSM)
- even less for higher frequencies

Frequency planning I
Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base
stations
Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f4
f3

f5
f1
f2

f3
f6
f7

f2
f4

f5
f1

Fixed frequency assignment:

certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
problem: different traffic load in different cells

Dynamic frequency assignment:

base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already
used in neighbor cells
more capacity in cells with more traffic
assignment can also be based on interference measurements