CDMA TECHNOLOGY

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CHAPTER - 1
1. INTRODUCTION

We are moving into a new era of communications and information technology.

Personal competitiveness in business in relies more and more on increase
personal productivity and responsiveness. Today everybody is on the move
and mobile is the only way to keep contact with that person. But now a days
peoples want multimedia facilities from their mobile handset. But it requires
high data rate, hi efficiency and many more technical things, which are
available in third generation. (CDMA) so the CDMA TECHNOLOGY makes
existing mobile handset more efficient and attractive.
CDMA (3G) mobile devices and services will transform wireless
communications into on-line, real-time connectivity. 3G wireless technology
will allow an individual to have immediate access to location-specific services
that offer information on demand. The first generation of mobile phones
consisted of the analog models that emerged in the early 1980s. The second
generation of digital mobile phones appeared about ten years later along with
the first digital mobile networks. During the second generation, the mobile
telecommunications industry experienced exponential growth both in terms of
subscribers as well as new types of value-added services. Mobile phones are
rapidly becoming the preferred means of personal communication, creating the
world's largest consumer electronics industry.
The rapid and efficient deployment of new wireless data and Internet
services has emerged as a critical priority for communications equipment
manufacturers. Network components that enable wireless data services are
fundamental to the next-generation network infrastructure. Wireless data

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services are expected to see the same explosive growth in demand that Internet
service and wireless voice services have seen in recent years.
This report presents an overview of current technology trends in the
wireless technology market, a historical overview of the evolving wireless
technologies and an examination of how the communications industry plans to
implement 3G wireless technology standards to address the growing demand
for wireless multimedia services.

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CHAPTER - 2
2. HISTORY OF CDMA

2.1 The Cellular Challenge

The world's first cellular networks were introduced in the early 1980s, using
analog radio transmission technologies such as AMPS (Advanced Mobile
Phone System). Within a few years, cellular systems began to hit a capacity
ceiling as millions of new subscribers signed up for service, demanding more
and more airtime. Dropped calls and network busy signals became common in
many areas.

To accommodate more traffic within a limited amount of radio spectrum, the

industry developed a new set of digital wireless technologies called TDMA
(Time Division Multiple Access) and GSM (Global System for Mobile).
TDMA and GSM used a time-sharing protocol to provide three to four times
more capacity than analog systems. But just as TDMA was being standardized,
an even better solution was found in CDMA.

2.2 Commercial Development

The founders of QUALCOMM realized that CDMA technology could be used

in commercial cellular communications to make even better use of the radio
spectrum than other technologies. They developed the key advances that made
CDMA suitable for cellular, then demonstrated a working prototype and began
to license the technology to telecom equipment manufacturers.
The first CDMA networks were commercially launched in 1995, and provided
roughly 10 times more capacity than analog networks - far more than TDMA

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or GSM. Since then, CDMA has become the fastest-growing of all wireless
technologies, with over 100 million subscribers worldwide. In addition to
supporting more traffic, CDMA brings many other benefits to carriers and
consumers, including better voice quality, broader coverage and stronger
security.

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CHAPTER - 3
3. METHODS OF MULTIPLE ACCESSES

There are three common technologies used to create an air interface:

 FDMA, Frequency Division Multiple Access

 TDMA, Time Division Multiple Access
 CDMA, Code Division Multiple Access

figure 1: multipale access technology

All three are Multiple Access System technologies, so called because more
than one person can access the system at a time.

Within a communication system you have a fixed amount of resources. A fixed

amount of spectrum, a fixed amount of equipment, and a fixed number of

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channels. You also have multiple subscriber units (people) who are trying to
access the system at the same time.

The system has to manage resources appropriately in order to cover and

support all the people that want to access the system.

3.1 FDMA

FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access.

In Frequency Division Multiple Access, the available spectrum is divided into

multiple frequency bands or channels. Each user is assigned a channel to make
a call. As long as the user has the call established they are using their assigned
frequency. No one else can use it.

FDMA is an inefficient use of spectrum.

figure 2: freqency division multiple access

Earlier, TDD and FDD were explained. Most systems use FDD - Frequency
Division Duplexing. This means Users 1, 2 and 3 are assigned frequency bands

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1, 2, and 3 for reverse link communication. A similar set of frequency bands
are assigned for the forward link. Remember, these frequencies are assigned
for the entire duration of the call.

However, in a conversation, one person usually talks while another person

listens. This means that one channel is being used and the other channel is not
being used. Only half the spectrum is being used. Unfortunately, the unused
half is still assigned to the call and no one else can use it.

One other problem is voice activity. When a user is talking, they are actually
emitting a sound only about 45-50% of the time. This varies by language, but
45-50% is typical. The rest of the time consists of pauses between syllables, a
breath at the end of a sentence, or when a user is thinking of the next thing to
say. So now the channel that is in use is only being used about 50% of the
time.

So, there are two issues with regard to frequency and FDMA systems. First,
only half the assigned spectrum is being used at any one time because only one
person is talking at a time. Second, that half is further reduced by half again
because of voice activity. Half of a half means the user makes use of only
about 25% of the spectrum that could be used

This growth forced engineers to think differently about the efficient use of
spectrum. There was pressure on them to figure out how to resolve the
frequency waste that was occurring.

Many users were going to need to get on the system and the network was
wasting resources. A more efficient system means more subscribers. To
carriers such as Verizon, Sprint, and BellSouth SBC, more subscribers means
more revenue.

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3.2 TDMA

To improve capacity, carriers started looking at a technology called Time

Division Multiple Access (TDMA). In TDMA, engineers take the frequency
channel and instead of giving it to one person, they divide it up among many
users by giving each user their own time slot.

figure3: time division multiple access

The time slots are short, only 30 - 40 milliseconds, and cycle between users
there by allowing each user to have access to a common frequency channel. At
the receive end, the time slots are put back together and the information is
passed to the receiving user. When the time slots are assembled into one voice
stream the human ear can't tell the difference from a conversation that was not
broken into time slots.

In the United States, TDMA is known as IS-136. The standard began as IS-54,
then 54B, and eventually evolved to IS-136. Standards are always evolving.
The abbreviation IS stands for Interim Standard. Interim standards are

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assigned through the TIA/EIA - Telecommunications Industries
Association/Electronics Industries Association.

The draw back however is that with the narrower band there is a greater
likelihood of distortion and consequently more susceptibility to noise on the
receiving end. So, capacity has increased but the voice isn't necessarily as
clear.

3.3 CDMA

CDMA, or Code Division Multiple Access, is popularly known as IS-95. .

figure 4: code division multiple access

CDMA was developed by QUALCOMM Incorporated, a company in San

Diego, California. QUALCOMM engineers decided to do something different
and applied spread spectrum techniques to a multiple access system, which
ultimately became CDMA.

In spread spectrum, instead of giving each person a channel, or each group of 3

or 8 people a time slot, CDMA puts everyone in the same channel at the same
time.

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At first thought, it would seem to be an impossible task to make work, but it
does work. The reason it works is explained in the first two words of CDMA,
Code Division.

Each user in the system is separated from every other user by a unique digital
code. And, to make sure everyone could have one of these codes of their own,
engineers designed 4.4 trillion of them into the system specification.

The fact is, each user is provided their own code for the reverse link. On the
forward link, a group of codes is available for users of the system. There is a
little more digital processing going on here that will be explained in more
detail later. For now, once CDMA processing is complete, the information is
converted to an RF signal and sent out over the air link.

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CHAPTER – 4

4.Multiple Access Wireless Communications

 The goals of multiple access communications systems, meaning cellular

and PCS, are:

 Near-wireline quality voice service

 Near-universal geographical coverage
 Low equipment cost, both subscriber stations and fixed plant
 Mimimum number of fixed radio sites

Regulatory agencies have allocated limited bandwidth to these services,

so that the solutions must achieve high spectral efficiency, measured in Erlangs
per unit service area, per MHz. Cellular operators have 25 MHz each, split
between the two directions of communications.

When a subscriber moves between cells, over-the-air messaging is used

to transfer control from the old cell to the new cell. This transfer of control is
termed handoff or handover.

Several hundred channels are available within the spectrum allocation.

One channel of one base station is used for each conversation. Upon handoff,
the subscriber station is directed via messaging to discontinue use of the old
channel and tune to the new one, on which it will find the new cell.

4.1 Frequency Reuse

Central to the cellular concept is the concept of frequency reuse. Although

there are hundreds of channels available, if each frequency were assigned to

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only one cell, total system capacity would equal to the total number of
channels, adjusted for the Erlanger blocking probability: only a few thousand
subscribers per system. By reusing channels in multiple cells the system can
grow without geographical limits.

Typical cellular reuse (pre-CDMA, that is!) is easily rationalized by

considering an idealized system. The cell boundaries are at the equisignal
points, then a planar service area is optimally covered by the classical
hexagonal array of cells ...

Seven sets of channels are used, one set in each colored cell. This seven-
cell unit is then replicated over the service area.

No similarly colored cells are adjacent, and therefore there are no adjacent
cells using the same channel. While real systems do not ever look like these
idealized hexagonal tilings of a plane, the seven-way reuse is typical of that
achieved in practice.

4.2 The CDMA Revolution

Historically, the capacity was calculated using simple arguments. Reality, of

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course, is much more complicated than the idealized models. Real cell
coverage areas are highly irregular, not the neat hexagons found in textbook
models. Offered load is not spatially uniform, changes dramatically with time-
of-day, and is often subject to other uncontrollable influences.

4.3 Background

An idealized multiple access mobile radio system consists of a family of base

stations, or "cells," geographically distributed over the service area, and
mobile stations. We use the term "mobile" generically to mean any subscriber
station, whether it moves or not. The majority of new cellular sales are now in
fact hand held portable units, and the market outlook is for that trend to
continue for the foreseeable future.

Communication between base stations and mobile stations is established by a

negotiation upon call origination. Once communication is established between
base and mobile, movement of the mobile is detected and the service is handed
over from one base station to another. One cell at a time services each mobile
in the narrowband services. The concept of handoff is extended to a multi-way
simultaneous "soft" handoff in the CDMA standards.

4.4 Traditional Multiple Access Communication

Traditionally radio communication systems have separated users by either

frequency channels, time slots, or both. These concepts date from the earliest
days of radio.

In large systems the assignments to the time-frequency slots cannot be unique.

Slots must be reused in multiple cells in order to cover large service areas.

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Satisfactory performance in these systems depends critically on control of the
mutual interference arising from the reuse. The reuse concept is familiar even
in television broadcasting, where channels are not reused in adjacent cities.

An idealized system geometry shown in the figure. The same frequency

obviously cannot be reused in any adjacent pair of cells because a user on the
boundary between those cells would receive both signals with equal
amplitude, leading to an unacceptably high interference level. A plane can be
tiled with hexagonal cells, labeled in accordance with the seven-way pattern
shown in the figure. Thus, if a unique set of channels is assigned to each of the
seven cells, then the pattern can be repeated without violating the adjacency
requirement. Although this idealized pattern is not strictly applicable in all real
systems, the seven-way reuse pattern is approximately correct. The capacity of
systems built in this way is determined by the bandwidth per channel and the
seven-way reuse pattern.

figure 6: cell sites

4.5 The "Magic" of CDMA

CDMA offers an answer to the capacity problem. The key to its high capacity

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is the use of noise-like carrier waves, as was first suggested decades ago by
Claude Shannon. Instead of partitioning either spectrum or time into disjoint
"slots" each user is assigned a different instance of the noise carrier. While
those waveforms are not rigorously orthogonal, they are nearly so. Practical
application of this principle has always used digitally generated pseudo-noise,
rather than true thermal noise. The basic benefits are preserved, and the
transmitters and receivers are simplified because large portions can be
implemented using high density digital devices.

The major benefit of noise-like carriers is that the system sensitivity to

interference is fundamentally altered. Traditional time or frequency slotted
systems must be designed with a reuse ratio that satisfies the worst-case
interference scenario, but only a small fraction of the users actually experience
that worst-case. Use of noise-like carriers, with all users occupying the same
spectrum, makes the effective noise the sum of all other-user signals. The
receiver correlates its input with the desired noise carrier, enhancing the signal
to noise ratio at the detector. The enhancement overcomes the summed noise
enough to provide an adequate SNR at the detector. Because the interference is
summed, the system is no longer sensitive to worst-case interference, but
rather to average interference. Frequency reuse is universal, that is, multiple
users utilize each CDMA carrier frequency...

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figure 7: frequency shared by many user
The rainbow cells indicate that the entire 1.25 MHz passband is used by each
user, and that same passband is reused in each cell.

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CHAPTER - 5
5. CDMA EVOLUTION

CDMA2000 Evolution

figure 8 : evolution of CDMA 2000

CDMA ONE CDMA ONE CDMA2000 1X- CDMA2000
IS-95A IS-95B EV-DO 1XEV-DV
 Voice  115 Voice  2x increases  Optimized
 Data  Data up to in voice , very
up to Kbps capacity high-speed
14.4  Up to 307 data
Kbps kbps* packet (Phase 1)
data on a  Up to
single (1.25 2.4Mbps*
MHz) carrier packet
 First 3G data on a
system for single
technology (1.25
worldwide MHz)
carrier.
 Integrated
voice and
data
(Phase 2);
up to 3.09
Mbps

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CDMA2000 is a family of technologies allowing seamless evolution from
CDMA2000 1X to CDMA2000 1xEV-DO and CDMA2000 1xEV-DV.
CDMA2000 requires only 1.25 MHz of spectrum per channel or carrier and is
backward compatible with cdmaOne IS-95A/B systems.

The Family of IS-95 CDMA Technologies

cdmaOne describes a complete wireless system based on the TIA/EIA IS-95
CDMA standard, including IS-95A and IS-95B revisions. It represents the end-
to-end wireless system and all the necessary specifications that govern its
operation. cdmaOne provides a family of related services including cellular,
PCS and fixed wireless (wireless local loop).

5.1 CDMA ONE IS-95A:

The first CDMA cellular standard TIA/EIA IS-95 (Telecommunications

Industry Association / Electronic Industries Association Interim Standard - 95)
was first published in July 1993. The IS-95A revision was published in May
1995 and is the basis for many of the commercial 2G CDMA systems around
the world. IS-95A describes the structure of the wideband 1.25 MHz CDMA
channels, power control, call processing, hand-offs, and registration techniques
for system operation. In addition to voice services, many IS-95A operators
provide circuit-switched data connections at 14.4 kbps. IS-95A was first
deployed in September 1996 by Hutchison (HK).

5.2 CDMA ONE IS-95B: 2.5G

The IS-95B revision, also termed TIA/EIA-95, combines IS-95A, ANSI-J-

STD-008 and TSB-74 into a single document. The ANSI-J-STD-008
specification, published in 1995, defines a compatibility standard for 1.8 to 2.0
GHz CDMA PCS systems. TSB-74 describes interaction between IS-95A and

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CDMA PCS systems that conform to ANSI-J-STD-008. Many operators that
have commercialized IS-95B systems offer 64 kbps packet-switched data, in
addition to voice services. Due to the data speeds IS-95B is capable of
reaching, it is categorized as a 2.5G technology. IS-95B is categorized as a
2.5G technology. cdmaOne IS-95B was first deployed in September 1999 in
Korea and has since been adopted by operators in Japan and Peru.

5.3 CDMA2000 1xEV-DO

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO was recognized as an IMT-2000 technology at the

Stockholm Conference in 2001. Optimized for packet data services,
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO provides a peak data rate of 2.4 Mbps within one 1.25
MHz CDMA carrier. It leverages the existing suite of Internet Protocols (IP),
and hence supports all popular operating systems and software applications.
1xEV-DO offers an "always on" user experience, so that users are free to send
and receive information from the Internet and their corporate intranets, any
time, anywhere. 1xEV-DO is a solution that allows any bursty data application
to run on any device, in order to make the user's life more productive and fun.

5.4 CDMA2000 1xEV-DV

As an evolution of CDMA technology, CDMA2000 1xEV-DV (CDMA2000

Rel C) builds on the architecture of CDMA2000 1X to provide unmatched
capabilities while preserving seamless backward compatibility to IS-95A/B
and CDMA2000 1X. The migration will require only simple upgrades to the
BTS, BSC, PDSN, and the AAA. CDMA2000 1xEV-DV will provide
integrated voice with simultaneous high-speed packet data services, such as
video, video-conferencing and other multimedia services at speeds of up to
3.09 Mbps. It was submitted to ITU for approval in July 2002.

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CHAPTER – 6
6. APPLICATIONS OVERVIEW OF CDMA

CDMA was designed with the Internet in mind, making it the ultimate
platform on which to build innovative applications. Already CDMA users are
experiencing a host of advanced services, including web browsing, m-
commerce, MMS (multimedia messaging services), streaming video, games,
enterprise solutions and email. To meet future demand for data services,
CDMA operators are building their portfolios at a rapid pace, creating
enormous opportunities for applications developers and content providers.

One of the newest offerings is Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), which

is already emerging as a very popular application. MMS allows mobile phone
subscribers to attach graphics, photos, audio or video to a text message. Users
are usually first introduced to MMS through person-to-person applications
such as photo and video messaging. Future MMS applications will include
multi-player games that have a messaging component, interactive video-and-
text advertisements, and much more.

The experiences of CDMA operators show that MMS has arrived in the
wireless world. As it evolves from nascent photo and video messaging
services, MMS will take on an increasingly pivotal role in bringing enhanced
mobile data services to the masses. Ongoing technological developments, as
well as marketing lessons learned from offering these early services, promise
to yield a vibrant business and multiple revenue streams that CDMA operators
will enjoy for years to come.

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CHAPTER - 7
7.0 ADVANTAGES OF CDMA

7.1 INCRESED VOICE CAPACITY

Voice is the major source of traffic and revenue for wireless operators, but
packet data will emerge in coming years as an important source of
incremental revenue. CDMA2000 delivers the highest voice capacity and
packet data throughput using the least amount of spectrum for the lowest cost.

7.2 HIGHER DATA THROUGHPUT

Today's commercial CDMA2000 1X networks (phase 1) support a peak data

rate of 153.6 kbps. CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, commercial in Korea, enables
peak rates of up to 2.4 Mbps and CDMA2000 1xEV-DV will be capable of
delivering data of 3.09 Mbps.

7.3 INCREASED BATTERY LIFE

CDMA2000 significantly enhances battery performance. Benefits include:

 Quick paging channel operation
 Improved reverse link performance
 New common channel structure and operation
 Reverse link gated transmission

7.4 SOFT HAND-OFF

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Even with dedicated channel operation, the terminal keeps searching for new
cells as it moves across the network. In addition to the active set, neighbor set,
and remaining set, the terminal also maintains a candidate set.
When a terminal is traveling in a network, the pilot from a new BTS (P2)
strength exceeds the minimum threshold TADD for addition in the active set.
However, initially its relative contribution to the total received signal strength
is not sufficient and the terminal moves P2 to the candidate set. The decision
threshold for adding a new pilot to the active set is defined by a linear
function of signal strength of the total active set. The network defines the
slope and cross point of the function. When strength of P2 is detected to be
above the dynamic threshold, the terminal signals this event to the network.
The terminal then receives a hand-off direction message from the network
requesting the addition of P2 in the active set. The terminal now operates in
soft hand-off.
The strength of serving BTS (P1) drops below the active set threshold,
meaning P1 contribution to the total received signal strength does not justify
the cost of transmitting P1. The terminal starts a hand-off drop timer. The
timer expires and the terminal notifies the network that P1 dropped below the
threshold. The terminal receives a hand-off message from the network moving
P1 from the active set to the candidate set. Then P1 strength drops below
TDROP and the terminal starts a hand-off drop timer, which expires after a set
time. P1 is then moved from candidate set to neighbor set. This step-by-step
procedure with multiple thresholds and timers ensures that the resource is
only used when beneficial to the link and pilots are not constantly added and
removed from the various lists, therefore limiting the associated signaling.
In addition to intrasystem, intrafrequency monitoring, the network may direct
the terminal to look for base stations on a different frequency or a different
system. CDMA2000 provides a framework to the terminal in support of the

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inter- frequency handover measurements consisting of identity and system
parameters to be measured. The terminal performs required measurements as
allowed by its hardware capability.
In case of a terminal with dual receiver structure, the measurement can be
done in parallel. When a terminal has a single receiver, the channel reception
will be interrupted when performing the measurement. In this instance, during
the measurement, a certain portion of a frame will be lost. To improve the
chance of successful decoding, the terminal is allowed to bias the FL power
control loop and boost the RL transmit power before performing the
measurement. This method increases the energy per information bit and
reduces the risk of losing the link in the interval. Based on measurement
reports provided by the terminal, the network then decides whether or not to
hand-off a given terminal to a different frequency system. It does not release
the resource until it receives confirmation that hand-off was successful or the
timer expires. This enables the terminal to come back in case it could not
acquire the new frequency or the new system.

7.5 TRANSMIT DIVERSITY

Transmit diversity consists of de-multiplexing and modulating data into two

orthogonal signals, each of them transmitted from a different antenna at the
same frequency. The two orthogonal signals are generated using either
Orthogonal Transmit Diversity (OTD) or Space-Time Spreading (STS). The
receiver reconstructs the original signal using the diversity signals, thus taking
advantage of the additional space and/or frequency diversity.
7.6 VOICE AND DATA CHANNELS

The CDMA2000 forward traffic channel structure may include several

physical channels:

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 The Fundamental Channel (F-FCH) is equivalent to functionality Traffic
Channel (TCH) for IS-95. It can support data, voice, or signaling multiplexed
with one another at any rate from 750 bps to 14.4 kbps.
 The Supplemental Channel (F-SCH) supports high rate data services.
 The Dedicated Control Channel (F-DCCH) is used for signaling or bursty
data sessions. This channel allows for sending the signaling information
without any impact on the parallel data stream.

7.7 TRAFFIC CHANNEL

The traffic channel structure and frame format is very flexible. In order to
limit the signaling load that would be associated with a full frame format
parameter negotiation, CDMA2000 specifies a set of channel configurations.
It defines a spreading rate and an associated set of frames for each
configuration.

7.8 TURBO CODING

CDMA2000 provides the option of using either turbo coding or convolutional

coding. Both coding schemes are optional for the base station and the mobile
station, and the capability of each is communicated through signaling
messages prior to the set up of the call. In addition to peak rate increase and
improved rate granularity, the major improvement to the traffic channel
coding in CDMA2000 is the support of turbo coding at rate 1/2, 1/3, or 1/4.
CONCLUSION

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In view of the explosive growth of wireless communication over recent
decades and the lead-time required for the introduction of new technologies,
the time has come to develop a clear perspective of CDMA(3G) wireless
systems and services. This CDMA(3G) vision should exploit to
complementary approaches. One based on evolution though a network centric
view and the other based on the recently introduced user centric view. The
person to person communication concept needs to be enhanced to include
person to machine and machine to machine networking for ubiquitous
connectivity to Internet services.

Interworking between access networks implementing enhanced

versions of current technologies for broadcast cellular and short-range
communications should provide a good first solution for CDMA(3G)
services. This technology map can be extended to include access technologies
for transmission at more than 50 Mbit/s for fast moving users as well as ultra
wide band systems for wide area coverage. However several interesting
technologies challenges ad regulatory issues need to be addressed before the
CDMA(3G) vision becomes a reality.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1) Evolution of mobile : Telecommunications

telephone technologies (December 1995)

2) Cordless telephones : Computer networks by

Tanenbaum

3) Technologies used : Electronics for you (July

2002)

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REFERENCES :

Web sites :

http://www.palowireless.com

Search Engines

http//.www.google.com

http//www.ask.com

Magazines and Journals

Telecommunications

Electronics for you.

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