WELDING METALLURGY

No material is pure in the universe. The prime impurity of any metal is oxygen in the form
of its oxide.Besides oxygen it contains any other elements of metal or non metal is called
impurity. But the elements of metal or non metal are added intentionally with the pure
metal , is called alloys.
Due to impurity of basic metal, the total metallurgy is concerned with time and
temperature.
If the metal is pure, just below the melting temperature solidification or nucleation begins
at constant time temperature and it forms typical grain structures which produces good
mechanical properties.

Solidification behavior is shown as below at different alloys percentage.

X X
X Y
Y Y

100 % 25 / 75 % 50 / 50 %
Antimony

X
Y
Y
X
75 / 25 % 100 %
Bismuth
The above diagrams show in case of 100 % pure element solidification starts at X, moves
horizontal and stops at Y. The horizontal line shows that solidification takes place at
constant temperature. But the intermediate diagrams show that solidification takes place at
different at time and temperature due to different proportion of alloys mixtures. Hence the
grain structures produced by bismuth and antimony will be typical which will produce a
good mechanical property. But due to different proportion of alloys ratio grain structures
will not be typical which will not produce a good mechanical property.
Welding metallurgy involves five stages
1. Melting
2. Freezing or solidification
3. Solid state transformation
4. Thermal stress
5. Shrinkage forces
Iron-Corbon diagram is very much help full to understand the solidification behavior.
15380 C
Liquid

1
M-L+ 

Austenite+
14000 C L+ Austenite
12000 C L+ Cementite
Austenite 11290 C
10000 C
TEMP. 9080 C Eutectic
800 0 C 7230 C
Austenite+Ferrite
Eutectoid
Pearlite+Cementite Cementite
Ferrite 600 C
0

Ferrite+Pearlite
0.8 % 2.0 % 4.3 % 6.67 %
Carbon content
IRON CORBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

At 15380 C carbon steel reaches its melting point and it has complete liquid state. Just
below the melting point temperature 1538 0 C nucleation starts and the diagram shows
different stages at different temperature and carbon percentage such as
Liquid,
Sulfur
liquid+austenite
Liquid +cementite
Austenite
austenite+cementite
austenite+ferrite
Ferrite
pearlite
pearlite+cementite
cementite
Eutectic: - The point at which temperature falls and residue is solidified as a whole. At
eutectic point, solid is formed with 48% of austenite and 52% of cementite which can be
shown by equilibrium diagram.
Equilibrium diagram:- It shows the phase existing in the system at any temperature and
composition.
 Rapid cooling characteristic of all castings produce a special type of iron structure is
known as martensite.
 Alloys of iron and carbon containing less than 1.7% of carbon are known as steel.
 Steel containing more than 0.89% of carbon will form cementite and less than 0.89%
will form ferrite.
 Ferrite is nothing but pure iron.
 Ferrite formation is upto 2% of carbon.
 Cementite is formed above 4.3% of carbon and maximum 6.67%.

Type of carbon steel Carbon content

 Low carbon steel  0.3% soft ductile
 Medium carbon steel 0.3 --- 0.6% hard brittle

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 High carbon steel  0.6%
On the basis of deoxidation steels are classified

1. Remmed steel: Molten steel contains large amount of dissolved oxygen and other
gases.
2. Killed steel: Dissolved oxygen is completely removed by deoxidising agent like Al, Si,
Mn.
3. Semi-killed steel: In this steel a part of dissolved oxygen is removed.

12000 Austenite
10000
8000

6000 MS MS = Martensite Starts Temperature

4000 Martensit Mf = Martensite finished Temperature

Mf e
2000
Temp.
1000
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10 1.4
Carbon percentage
During rapid cooling from austenite phase, martensite formation starts at some
temperature and as temperature goes down martensite formation goes on increasing at
same the temperature and almost austenite will be transformed into martensite.But some
small amount of austenite will still remain below Mf.This diagram shows that as carbon
percentage increases martensite formation starts more and as carbon percentage decreases
marten site tends to finish. 0.7% carbon Mf is very close to room temperature.

INVOLVEMENT IN WELDING
1. Process
2. Consumable use
3. Base metal

1. Type of welding process: i. Shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

ii. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
iii. Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)
iv. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
v. Gas Tungsten Arc Process (Tig)
vi. Plasma Arc Process
vii. Atomic Hydrogen Welding

2. Consumable type: i. Electrode

ii. Filler wire
3. Base metal type: Variable

Welding: - In simple language it can be said that consumable is melted either by electric
arc or by supplying heat by gas and molten metal is poured at desired place of base metal.

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Electric arc supply heat about 3000 0 C minimum where as we need 1538 0 C to 1600 0 C
heat to melt the carbon steel.
When metal is heated, there will be expansion in molecules. If heating is continued, the
molecules will so expand that they will not come closure to each other and it will form
liquid shape. But when temperature just goes down from melting point the molecules start
getting contracted to each other which produce a solid form.
Now property of solid depends upon how the solidification takes place. When
solidification begins at higher temperature, it produces a fine grain structures which gives
good mechanical property. Its tensile value will be always higher. But when solidification
takes place at lower temperature, the grain size will be bigger and tensile value will be
always less. Thus for a better mechanical property the grain sizes should be identical which
is only possible when solidification takes place at constant temperature which is not
always true.
In actual manner welding can be defined as, welding is a process of joining two pieces of
metal by complete fusion of filler and partial fusion of parent metal.

Heat Zone

HAZ HAZ

In welding same metal or closer to parent metal is melted and deposited at joint which
joins two different pieces. In case of iron melting take place at about 1600 0 C at heat
zone. At heat zone 2 to 3 mm parent metal is melted and submerged with filler metal.
Molten metal of filler solidifies at the rate of natural cooling. First heat is transferred to
parent metal and it creates heat affected zone changing grain size of parent metal. So we
get three different types of mechanical property at the joint. i. Heat zone
ii. Heat affected zone &
iii. Parent metal.
i. Heat zone: The filler metal is melted and solidifies within no time. So due to fast
cooling rate it forms martensite and increases hardness and tensile values.
ii. Heat affected zone: Due to heat the grain size is changed which gives different types
of mechanical property other than parent metal and weld metal. It is very difficult to judge
heat affected zone. It depends upon material and thickness.
iii. Parent metal: The parent metal where heat effect is not there, definitely its hardness
and tensile values will remain same and different than weld metal and heat affected zone.
Weld metal: Due to different rate of cooling at root, inter passes and final pass, in weld
itself we get different hardness and tensile values. That is what for welding joint, bend test
is carried in two ways face and transverse.
i. Root: At the root due to narrow gap heat flow is in two directions towards parent metal.
so cooling rate is faster.
ii. Inter passes: Here the cooling rate is different. Heat transfer is not so faster due to
existing temperature on previous run and few amount of heat is lossed due to radiation.
iii. Final pass: At this pass cooling rate differs from inter pass and root run due to wide gap
and heat loss in radiation is more.
During welding or casting solidification starts from outer surface which is in atmospheric
contact and at the centre solidification takes place at last. Thus as time spends,
temperature is reduced which effect the grain size. Just below the melting temperature

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solidification starts and some solid rejects liquid which solidification will take place at
further lower temperature. So among solid and liquid there is dendrite formation in
different directions and rest of the liquid comes in between dendrite arms and solidifies at
low temperature which grain growth will be bigger.

For strengthening the weld there are four common mechanisms

1. Solidification grain structure
2. Solid solution strengthening
3. Transformation hardening
4. Precipitation hardening

Growth of Precipitate in HAZ of Precipitation hardening alloy.

1700 0 C
1500 0 C

L+ Austenite
Austenite
1 1 11290 C 1300 0 C
2 1100 0 C
3 2
4 3 7230 C
A3 4 700 0 C
Pearlite+Cementite
4 3 2 1 500 0
C
Parent Metal Weld Metal
HAZ 0.3 % C
Carbon percentage
3 is point when austenite Iron carbon diagram
Begins to reject ferrite and
cementite.
Figure shows that solidification takes place from austenite phase and forms martensite
100%. So weld metal hardness will be more and its tensile value will increase. Line 1
shows heat affected zone which is very close to weld metal. Line 2 shows that cooling
begins from austenite and it forms martensite at low temperature between (1-2) zone
which hardness will be lesser than weld metal.
Line 3 starts from (ferrite+ austenite) phase. So between (2-3) at heat affected zone grain
formation is above 723 0 C.
Line 4 starts from (pearlite+cementite) phase. So between (3-4) at heat affected zone grain
growth at 600 0 C is called coarse is a weaker zone where failure always takes place
during tensile test. At low temperature (600 0 C) grain growth reduces hardness,tensile
value and increases ductility.
This way we come to the conclusion that heating the carbon steel above 600 0 C and below
800 0 C grain structures are rearranged and gives better mechanical property than earlier.
But heating the carbon steel above 900 0 C and higher temperature, it will come in
austenite phase and after rapid cooling it will produce martensite increasing the hardness
too high which may be unwanted due to not meeting the mechanical property. Even after
expansion and cooling, there will be contraction among molecules which shorten the size
also.

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Welding is a very effective method of joining metals.The method involves melting,
solidification, gaseous reaction, liquid metal reaction, surface phenomena and solid state
reaction. These reactions occur very rapidly during welding with respect to other
metallurgical reaction in metal manufacturing , casting and heat treatment.
i. Melting
ii. Solidification: these two have been already explained earlier.
iii. Gaseous reaction: H2, O2 & N2. These three gases are very active for welding. They are
ready to react at higher temperature with weld metal. Some times during welding gas is
intraped in weld and produces porosity cluster, that is due to O 2 and N2 which are
available in atmosphere. H2 is lighter gas which available source is dirty atmosphere.
During welding it will not intrap with molten metal but comes out very soon out of the
weld metal as hydrogen crack. In case of higher thick plate, due to more weld deposition
hydrogen cracking is more and to avoid it low hydrogen electrode is used by baking it at
250 0 C to 350 0 C to make it moisture free.
iv. Liquid metal reaction: Sulfur content produces sulfur induced cracking in weld. So
filler metal flux contains magnise which reacts with sulfur and produces MnS and avoid
cracking. Flux should contain Mn 30 times more than sulfur to avoid crack.
v. Surface phenomena : Weld surface should be free from moisture, grease rust / dust
etc. otherwise it may cause for porosity and crack in weld. Some times from oily/dirty
surface molten metal pick up corbon and increases its percentage.
vi. Solid state reaction : As explained earlier.

 When E 6013 electrode is used which contains higher value of H 2. During welding H2 is
itraped and slowly it comes out after a day or more within week, that develops crack in
weld which is known as delayed crack. For avoiding, thermal stress relieve should be
done before development period.
 Medium carbon steel where carbon content is 0.3 to 0.6 % preheating required below
600 0 C. Below 600 0 C There will be pearlite state.

NATURE OF ARC
 Arc: The main function of arc is to supply the heat to melt the electrode and base
metal. But under certain conditions it also must supply the means to transport the molten
metal from the tip of the electrode to the work. Arc strike generates heat 3000 0 C
minimum, may be 6000 0 C maximum.
 Arc is an electric current flowing between two electrodes through plasma column.
Plasma column is an ionized column of gas.
In arc welding electrode is touched to the workpiece and then withdrawn and held close to
the workpiece maintaining required gap and this gap is filled with ionized column of gas
which passes electric current.

The space between electrode and workpiece can be divided into three areas of heat
generation. i.The cathode ii.The anode iii. Plasma column
Plasma
Anode + column - Cathode
gas ion

Heat at anode area is generated by striking the electrode. The plasma column is a mixture
of neutral and excited gas atom. The hottest part of the plasma is the centre column. The

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distribution of heat at the three zones can be changed by changing the arc length and by
changing the shielding gas.
Heat generation at anode and cathode makes differences. Power source has two terminal
points positive and negative. When electrode is given +ve connection is called reverse
polarity because in plasma column flow of positive ions is in reverse direction and when
electrode is given -ve connection is called straight polarity. But heat out put at -ve is 1/3
and at +ve is 2/3. This indicates anode generates more heat than cathode.

BASIC WELDING CIRCUIT

Electrode Electrode holder

Power source
Power cable
Arc
Work cable
work piece
Power source has two terminal points negative and positive. When positive and negative
terminals are connected then one circuit is completed which produces heat energy. Eighter
job can be given positive and electrode negative to complete one circuit or vice-versa. It
depends upon thickness of job. Which one needs more heat for melting eighter job or
electrode.
Electrons move from -ve to +ve means heat flows from -ve terminal to +ve terminal. So at
+ve terminal more heat is generated. Heat in put can be calculated as

Heat in put (in Jule) = Voltage x amperage x 60

Travel speed (in./min.)
When circuit is completed the electrode tip is touched the ground workpiece and then
withdrawn and held close to the spot of contact. An arc is created across the gap and it
produces temperature about 36000 C or more than adequate for melting most metals at the
tip of the electrode. A common pool of molten metal is produced, called creater. The
creater solidifies behind the electrode as Ir. moves along joint.

OPEN CIRCUIT VOLT

100 maximum
ocv
80

minimum 50 50 mkjljljl
ocv 32 long arc length
22 short length normal arc length

Voltage in volt

15
100 40 200

7
Current in ampere

The welding arc is characterised as high current, low voltage arc that requires a high
concentration of electrodes to carry the current. More heat can not be given to the
electrode because it will damage the electrode flux and it will not serve the purpose. So
there is range fixed to use the voltage and current.
In the figure we find, when voltage is below 100 then ampere is above 100 and when
voltage is minimum, current is maximum. To ignite the electrode a minimum gap between
electrode and job is required which is called arc length. As it is shown in the figure in
normal practice three types of arc length are used.
i. Short arc length it begins at 22 volt.
ii. Normal arc length
iii. Long arc length it begins at 32 volt and current range is from 100 to 140
amps.
Since we know that when voltage increases, current decreases and vice-versa but here we
do not find so much difference due to device inbuilt with the welding machine. Even
voltage used just below 100 then also current produced is in between 100 and 200 amp.
That is what it does not make so much difference in arc length.

ARC SHIELDING
In welding an electric arc is used which produces very high temperature to melt the metals
and the main constituents O2 and N2 of air are always ready to react at high temperature
with molten pool and they cause porosity in weld metal. For the reason to protect arc and
molten pool are shielded. For shielding there are various techniques such as use of inert
gas, active gas, flux, coated electrode etc.

Extruded Casing (flux) Electrode

Gaseous Shield

Slag Arc Stream

Molten Pool

Base Metal

Shielding method provides a blanket of gas, vapour or slag which prevents contact of
molten metal with air. In case of stick electrode which has coating of flux during welding,
it generates gas which forms a gas blanket and shields the arc. Electrode flux contains
deoxidizer which reacts with unwanted elements of molten metal and brings out of the
weld. Since the density of the flux is lesser than molten metal so it comes out very soon
and shields the molten metal. This way it prevents the contact of atmosphere effect with
molten pool. That is what slag should not be removed from weld unless temperature goes
down below 2000 C. Because if slag is removed above 2000 C the weld will come in

8
contact of open atmosphere and some elements available in atmosphere may react with hot
weld metal and weld will be defective.
Low hydrogen elected is baked prior to use 250 0C for two hours and 3500C for one hour.
Above this temperature flux will not insist temperature and flux will be damaged. It has
been found during welding due to some reason electrode gets red hot.That time welding
should be stopped and electrode has to be thrown out.
In case of E 6013 electrode some manufacturers have recommended to bake it upto 150 0C
as per climate condition. But generally it is not baked. Because electrode is designed such
way that it does require baking. If it is baked as low hydrogen electrode, its flux will be
damaged and it will not serve the purposes. Some times as per job suitability welders bend
the electrode and use it due to which flux gets damaged and it is not acceptable.

Type of welding process

1. Shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
2. Shielded Flux Core or Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)
3. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
4. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (Tig)
5. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
6. Plasma Arc Process
7. Atomic Hydrogen Welding

1. Shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

In SMAW heat energy is given between electrode and job to melt electrode and parent
metal (impartial). The available sources to get the energy are
i. Transformer : It produces AC
ii. Rectifier : It produces AC, DC & Half AC & half DC.
iii. Generator : it produces DC only.
In shield metal arc welding electrode is touched to the workpiece and then withdrawn and
held close to the workpiece maintaining required gap and this gap is filled with ionised
column of gas which passes electric current inform of arc. Arc generates temperature
36000 C minimum and melts stick electrode / base metal.
Mainly there are three types of electrode in SMAW : i. Rutile electrode
ii. Cellulose electrode
iii. Low hydrogen electrode
The above electrodes differ from each other due to covering constituents in flux. There are
nine types of fluxes and total constituents in flux are not less than 20 in number in which
five constituents are common.
1. Silicate
2. Carbonate
3. Cellulose
4. Powder fluoride oxides
5. Metal alloys
Rutile electrode type electrode E 6013 is recommended to use transformer which
produces AC. In DC we get continuos flow of current which gives proper fusion to the
electrode. But in case of AC it does not flow straight and it does not give proper fusion to
the electrode.
Characteristic of Alternate Current
Maximum

9
++
AC Starts Zero
_

Current starts, goes maximum +ve then comes down and becomes zero. Again it goes
maximum -ve then reaches zero and again restarts. During welding when we use
transformer for E 6013 electrode, it starts burning and in a fraction of second when
current reaches zero the electrode burning gets stopped and when current comes in
positive path burning again restarts. So during process it is found, electrode melts and
stops and so on again and again due to which between every start and stop there is a lack
of fusion or poor quality of weld. Therefore there is a high amount of potassium as main
constituent in E 6013 electrode‘s flux. As soon as current becomes zero and electrode
stops arcking, potassium which available in flux helps to reignite the electrode and this
way it gives continuous arc in AC machine.

ELECTRODE COVERING
i. Thick covering ii. Thin covering
i. Thick covering: In this covering additional iron power is added to the flux and flux
coating thickness is increased. It avoids arc strike. It gives high rate of production and
slag too. During process iron element which is covered with other flux constituents
goes to molten metal and deposited with weld. Due to low density the lighter
constituents of flux come out of molten metal shielding the weld. More slag will give
more protection to the weld.
ii. Thin covering: It produces good amount of gas which does not allow the atmospheric
gases to come in contact of weld metal.

LEVEL OF HYDROGEN
i. Low hydrogen type electrode (E 7018) : Level of hydrogen is 10 to 15ml in per 100gm
deposition of weld.
ii. Rutile electrode (E 6013) : Level of hydrogen in this type of electrode is 30 to 40ml in
per 100mg deposition.
Low hydrogen electrode is baked in mother oven at 2500 C for two hours or 3500 C for
one hour. Then temperature is reduced upto100 0 to1200 C. After that electrodes are to be
shifted in portable oven for use maintaing the temperature 100 0 to 1200 C or as per
manufacturer recommendation.
In case of electrode E 6013 some manufacturers have recommended to bake it upto 150 0
C as per climate condition. But generally it is not baked. Because baking the electrode will
damage the flux and it will not surve the purposes.
As per AWS A5 all mild steel and low alloy steel electrodes are classified with 4 digits
number putting prefixed “E” such as E 7018, E 6013 etc.
“E” = Electrode
First two digits = Tensile Strength (psi)
Third digit = Position of welding
Fourth digit = Type of coating and welding current

Third digit :
1 = All positions (flat, horizontal, vertical, overhead)
2 = Horizontal, fillet and flat position only.

10
4 = Flat, horizontal, overhead and vertical down

Fourth digit :
Fourth Digit Type of Coating Welding Current
0 Cellulose sodium DCEP
1 Cellulose potassium AC or DCEP
2 Titania sodium AC or DCEN
3 Titania potassium AC or DCEN or DCEP
4 Iron powder titania AC or DCEN or DCEP
5 Low hydrogen sodium DCEP
6 Low hydrogen potassium AC or DCEP
7 Iron powder iron oxide AC or DCEN
8 Low hydrogen potassium AC or DCEP
iron powder

 DCEP Direct Current Electrode Positive

 DCEN Direct Current Electrode Negative
 AC Alternate Current
 E 7018 70,000 psi minimum tensile strength required
 E 6013 60,000 psi minimum tensile strenght required
In manual metal arc welding (shield metal arc welding) the electrode length is 450mm
maximum.Electrode burning takes one minute, soon after another electrode is to be taken
and restarted . So every about 100 mm weld there is start and stop which may affect the
weld quality. From each electrode about 2 inches end stub is thrown.Each pass needs
better cleaning.Altogether we find depositon rate is not fast.To make the deposition rate
high only electrode length has to be increased in some meters which is not possible in
practice. Because from one or two meters distance welder can not take balance for
deposition. Secondly coated electrode can be kept in coil shape other wise flux will get
cracked/broken. Keeping it in view, without distructing the flux and increasing the rate of
deposition, FCAW (flux core arc welding ) was designed. In FCAW flux is compact inside
of tube. So there is no botheration of flux is getting damaged and can be made available in
sufficient lenght which will give high rate of deposition.

2. Shielded Flux Core or Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)

As it explained above, FCAW is nothing but a substitute of SMAW.Flux is inside of the

tube (filler metal) and filler metal is in open contact of air.
Advantage of flux core arc welding:
i. With respect to manual metal arc welding, deposition rate is four time higher. Weld cost
is 50 to 60 % less.
ii. Process is capable in producing crack free weld in medium carbon steel.
iii. Under normal condition moisture pick up is reduced with respect to low hydrogen
electrode.
iv. Eleminate stub loss and time, that is required to change the stick electrode.
v. Eleminate the need for wind shutter.
vi. Permits more seams to be welded in one pass.

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In FCAW filler metal is a seam tube and flux is compact inside of tube. There are few
elements in flux core which play very important role.
 Aluminum, which is always in power form and it functions as deoxidiser and dentrifire.
 CaF2 Flouspar responsible for slag.
 Carbon in form of Ferro alloy to increase the hardness.
 Crome in form of ferro alloy or powder. This is anticrosive.
 Ferrous inform of iron powder. This increases weld efficiency.
 Mn, in form of powder. This increases weldability.
Mn + S = MnS. Mn reacts with Sulphur, makes MnS and it comes out of weld pool as
slag and aviod sulphur crack in the weld. FeS has better abrassive strength but poor
strenght and Mns has poor abrassive strength but better strenght.
 Ni, it always used in powder form. It is a corrosion resistance and has better toughness.
It will not change the mechanical property at minus degree temperature.
 K (potassium) and Na. They work as stabilizer.
 Si, it is miniral selicate and forms slag SiO2.
 Ti, Zr,Rb they function as dentifier and stabilizer

 V (vandium), this gives very high tensile value which is unwanted at most of the places.
O2 & N2 are the main constituents of air, which react at high temperature and increase
hardness of the weld. But flux contains very good deoxidiser and dentrifier which remove
N2 & O2 from weld. Flux gives very good ductility and required hardness.Property can be
achieved very close to MMAW. Flux is protected, so baking is not required. System is
concerned with i. Automatic and ii. Semi-automatic.Cable assembly is connected with
nozzle through filler tube passes for welding. Prior to start welding filler tube is pulled out
of nozzle, which is called extension. Extension is permitted as per code 20 to 100 mm.
Current conditions will change when extension is changed. Voltage and current these two
decide arc length. When extension is less, increase current at low voltage will give
increased arc length and when extension is long arc length will be decreased. We can
increase the current high, but there is no limitation. Deposition is slow, so it is used for
thin sheet upto 8mm thick. But in practice this process has been used upto 18mm
thickness. It produces very less slag.
If extension is towards 100mm, it gives less heat. If extension is towards 20mm, it gives
high heat.

3. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

In this process arc is submerged under the flux, so it is called submerged arc welding. In
SMAW the stick electrode length is very limited, so its rate of deposition is not faster.
FCAW, it produces very less slag and thickness for welding is also restricted from 8 to
18mm. In SMAW current is used from 100 ampere to 140 ampere or slightly higher where
as in SAW current requirement is not less than 300 ampere. So in SAW ignition depends
upon current, which is very high. This process is most suitable for flat and horizontal
positions.
Equipment availability
i. Automatic ii. Semi-automatic iii. Machine
(mechanised)

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i. Automatic: In this process nothing has to be done manually. Machine is attached with
computer and once program is fed, it will give final and finished product.
ii. Semi-automatic: This system is operated by welder. Intial current setting to be done
manually. Two no of electrodes can be used at a time adjusting one ahead and one behind.
Baking of flux and keeping in drum is manual operation. So it is called semi-automatic.
iii. Machine: In this process is manual. But it is mechanised. In automatic and semi-
automatic systems root gap is not required. Because high current is used this may cause of
burn through and make hole at root. In machine process joint fit up can be done as per
manual arc welding. Root and hot pass are completed by SMAW process. After that SAW
process is used or root and hot pass can be done by SAW and final by SMAW.
In SAW filler arc is fully covered under the flux blanket and amount of flux deposition at
joint is more. So weld metal is shielded with flux very well. During welding flux fuses and
shields weld metal is called slag and above slag there is a layer of semi fused flux then
another layer of unfused flux. In this process it has been found that rate of cooling is slow
due to which martensite formation is not there. Since martensite increases the hardness of
weld very high,so it is unwanted for weld. Hot weld metal is fully covered by slag and
flux, which do not permit any unwanted constituent of air like O2 & N2 to be in touch of
weld metal. Flux contains deoxidiser which reacts with unwanted elements of parent and it
takes out of the weld inform gas. But in SMAW amount of flux is less weld metal
shielding is poor. So In compare to SMAW, SAW gives better mechanical property. It
gives smooth shape and no ripple is there.

Advantage of Submerged Arc Welding

i. Rate of melting is very fast.
ii. Absence of smoke and arc flash.
iii. Protective clothing like helmet, apron, glass, handgloves etc. not required.
iv. Smooth and uniform weld finish.
v. Extremly high melting rate due to high current 600 amp. Maximum.
vi. Welder manuplating skillness is not required.
vii. The process is used in pressure vessel, line pipe, sphere, railway Wagon coaches
etc.

Process Variation

For high deposition rate two electrodes can be used at a time due to which there may be
two similar or different polarities. For two different polarities, two different power sources
are required.
DCEN (Direct current and electrode negative) gives high deposition rate and minimum
penetration. DCEP gives low deposition rate and maximum penetration. Thus these two
are combined and gives average result.
AC (Alternate Current) gives average. It gives in between high deposition and minimum
penetration. Quality is always better in this process because this is concerned with flux.
Solidification is slow under the blanket of flux. It gives sufficient time to escape the gas.
Due to deoxidiser carbon comes out in the form of CO 2 and CO because of sufficient time
and deoxidiser in flux. So it gives beauty to the weld and better mechanical property. As
we know, weld is combination of complete fusion of filler metal and partial fusion of
parent metal. In SAW process we achieve 30 % weld from wire and 70 % from parent
metal. But this is not always true.

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Types of flux
There are four types of flux.
1. Fused flux
2. Bonded flux
3. Agglomerated flux
4. Mechanically mixed

1. Fused flux: In this some particular constituents are only fused. It does not have
deoxidiser. Flux is heated and it becomes lumps. Lump is crushed and then screening is
done. Due to heating it losses deoxidiser and it does not require rebaking.
2. Bonded one : It contains Na, K and selicate. This is in a small pillate shape. It is baked
and deoxidiser can be added, then it is crushed, screened and packed.
3. Agglomerated : It is a ceramic bond process. It remains as bonded one. Deoxidisers are
not permitted.
4. Mechanically mixed flux : This is nothing but a mixture of all above types.
Chemistry of all above fluxes are i. Basic ii. Acidic iii. Neutral
MgO,CaO are basic
SiO2 is acidic by nature
Ratio of (MgO + CaO) and SiO2 should be > 1 is basic
< 1 is acidic and very close to 1 is neutral.
Fluxes are despatched in form of coarse one and fine one. Coarse one has some grain size,
it passes smoothly but fine one is in powder condition, it has chalking nature. Bonded flux
has to be protected as low hydrogen.
For AC current Na or K are preferred foe reignition. When nothing is required as special,
basic flux to be used. Neutral flux can be used anywhere. SAW, this particular process
very much economical.
There are two main constituents in air O2 & N2 which react at high temperature with weld
metal, increase hardness and tensile value of weld and reduce ductility which not good for
weld. This type of reaction is avoided in SAW process, because molten pool is well
covered under flux blanket for sufficient time.Since the process takes very high current
from 300 amp. minimum to 600 amp. maximum, even then heat input is still lesser than
SMAW due to fast travel speed. In welding distortion is always concerned with heat input.
So heat input is less in SAW due to fast travel speed and as a result distortion is also less.
Advantage:
 DCEN gives high melting rate and less penetration.
 DCEP gives low melting rate and high penetration.
If we need average of this, AC is to be used.
 SAW gives three good common properties: Tensile, Hardness & Ductile
 The system has better control over penetration.
 High and low crown shape as desired. It is concerned with speed and current. Slow
speed and high current produces flat shape and high speed and low current produces
crown shape.
 It gives minimum operation fatigue.
 This particular process is very much economical.

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4. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or (Tig)

Electrode Holder

W/M

Electric
Current
Gas passage
Insulation Sheath
Filler Metal Tungsten electrode
Gas Shield
Arc
Inert gas supply

Workpiece

This process is nomencultured as Tig and GTAW too.

Tig = Tungsten inert gas
GTAW = Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
The system has an electric holder in which there is a provision to hold gas passage tube,
electric current supply and tungsten electrode. Electric current is given to welding machine
and gas tube is connected with gas cylinder which contains inert gas.
Any inert gas can be used in gas supply. Inert gases are used because they do not react
with any element. In India He, Ar and mixture of (He+Ar) are used. But there is a
maximum use of Argon due to cheaper in rate and easy availability. Most important reason
is, it is found in highly pure condition upto 99.998 % even.
In MMAW and SAW we have seen that weld metal is protected with flux which shields the
molten metal and protects from atmosphere. But in Tig process, since flux is not used, So
there is a problem that how to protect the weld metal from the attack of O 2 & N2 which
are ready to react at high temperature and increase the hardness of weld metal. Therefore

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in Gas Metal Arc Welding process inert gas is used which shields the molten pool and it
does not permit any gas to come in touch of molten metal.
This process is suitable for all ferrous and non- ferrous alloys welding. But for aluminium
and magnesium welding , this process is very critical. During welding of Al & Mg, it
forms a fine layer on the sheet which is called tenacious oxide. It does not melt even at
7000C and does allow to melt the metal. But in case of tenacious oxide formation DC has
to be used which produces high temperature and breaks tenacious oxide formation.
High Frequency Unit (HF unit) :When DC is used, HF just ignites the arc and gets cut
off. When AC is used, HF is required to be kept constant. So in case of Al and Mg welding
where tenacious oxide layer forms, AC can be used keeping HF constant by which heat
action is changed.
For Al welding Ar is the best. Ionisation will be better, if Ar is used.
Tungsten : It has very high melting point. It helps to generate arc and arc supplies heat
which melts filler metal in form of weld metal. Tungsten electrode is called non
consumable electrode. Some times during arc strike inert gas supply gets delay till then O 2
& N2 combine with tungsten electrode. During welding it also has opportunity to pick up
bits of base metal and filler metal. So welder has to grind the point of tungsten electrode
and then use.
Tungsten electrodes are of many types
AWS (Spec.) Tw % Thoria % Zr % Others %
1. EWP 99.5 - - 0.5
2. EWTH1 98.5 0.8 - 1.2 - 0.5
3. EWTH2 97.5 1.7 - 2.2 - 0.5
4. EWTH3 98.95 0.35 - 0.55 - 0.5
5. EWZr 99.2 - 0.15 - 0.4 0.5
 EWP can be used anywhere.
 When it is 100 % tungsten, the same out put of heat will be supplied at the tip.
 Throe melts at 60000C. It is not going to combine with Zr.
 For ferrous EWTH2 is required
 EWP and EWZr are required for aluminium welding.

5. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Mig = Metal inert gas

Mag = Metal active gas or Metal arc gas
GMAW is a common name of Mig and Mag.

In the year 1910 welding process was started with electrode without flux known as bare
electrode. After research in 1920 electrode was being coated with flux which was SMAW
process. SMAW does not give good progress and almost there is loss of 40 % weld metal
due to back chipping of the root. In every one minute due to limited length of electrode,
there is a change of electrode and frequent start and stop. So this process is not continuos
due to which it takes time and it also affect the welding quality due to on and off. Then
SAW was adopted which gives high rate of deposition with very good quality. In SAW
two electrode can be used at a time setting one opposite and keeping one ahead. So back
chipping is not required which avoids loss of weld metal. Since 70 % weld metal is
recovered from parent metal and 30 % metal is only recovered from filler metal, So the

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rate of deposition is very high and it is continuos process. But still it is not suitable for all
the positions except flat and horizontal. Because in this process flux is used separately in
loose condition. It is very difficult to hold the flux in vertical and overhead positions. Then
to avoid this problem FCAW process was brought which can be used for all the positions.
Because flux is compact inside of filler tube having sufficient length in coil shape. But still
problem was found that the amount of flux is very less. So weld metal shielding is very
poor. Then the next alternate was found Tig or GTAW. In this process shielding is taken
place by inert gas and filler wire is fed manually even by naked hand. There is no
protection of the surface of filler metal due to which weld quality gets affected. So to
avoid this in the year 1946 wire feeding was mechanised and for shielding inert gas or
some active gases were used which has given the name Mig or Mag. In 1946 CO2 or O2
with argon were used. Afterwards in the year 1950 Ar gas was removed and purely CO 2
gas was used. The process was found applicable for all types of metals such as Al, SS, Mg,
Al & Mg alloys etceteras. In the year 1955 the process was completed and accepted by
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers) ASME.

GMAW or Mig or Mag

CO2 to Solenoid
DC Constant VoltmeterVoltage Control Valve
Voltage Power Source Ammeter Wire Feeder Current
Control
Contactor Control

115 Volt Supply

Wire Feeder

Electric Power CO2

Cable
Shielding Wire Drive Motor
Gas Source

CO2 to
Welding Guide Head

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Work
Cable Work

In GMAW process the wire size available are 0.8, 1.2, and 1.6 mm which is very thin and
current range is 100 to 600 amp.depending upon wire size. High current fuses the wire
very soon. So it gives dip transfer mode. Here the process is concerned with current
density and wire which is 0.8 mm to 1.6 mm. So it requires DC constant equipment. It
requires air or water for cooling.
Shielding gas : Ar, He, O2, CO2
He (Helium) is the best for shielding. Because Ar is heavier than He and He allows good
arcing, but it is not economical. Consumption rate of He is higher than Ar.
O2 is also used as shielding gas. As previous it has been studied that O 2 reacts at high
temperature and increases hardness of weld. But added one O 2 is still lesser than what it
picks up from air. O2 Can not be used any where, because it may change the property of
weld metal. Hence CO2 is used as shielding gas. But it also contains O 2. So some where it
is to be compromised and mixture of all above gases is to be used which gives average
property. CO2 is used at low temperature in minus degree which affects mechanical
property too. So preheater is used for CO2.
Models of the equipment are called A, B, C, D.
MODELS
A B C D
Power Source Type CPR CPR CPR CPR
 Current amps. 150 250 400 600
 Maximum DC Voltage V 26 35 49 56
 Welding Current 115 250 400 600
60 % duty cycle amps.
 100 % duty cycle amps. 90 195 310 500
 Rating Continuous KVA 2.4 8 17 31
 60 % duty cycle KVA 3.0 10 22.5 36.5
 Maximum KVA 4.0 - - -
 Insulation Class F B B B
 Cooling Power NaturalForced Forced Forced
Source type air
 In Put Supply 230V/IP/50 450V/IP/50
 Wire Feeder Model E E F G
 Cooling Gun Gas Gas Gas Water

MODE OF TRANSFER
Mode of transfer of weld metal from electrode tip to weld pool.
During welding filler metal melts and molten metal is transported from the tip of electrode
to the joint. Transportation of molten metal to the joint is called mode transfer. Arcing
starts when there is the shortest distance between electron and proton, which are electrode
and workpiece. Arc column melts the filler metal and transfer it to weld pool under the
combined action of gravity, electromagnetic and mechanical forces.There are three main
mode of transfer.

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1) Spray Transfer
2) Globular Transfer and 3) Dip Transfer
All above mode of transfer depends upon i. Electrode size
ii. Constant voltage
iii. Electrode expansion
iv. Arc voltage
v. Travel speed
vi. Welding position
1) Spray Transfer : After arcing consumable electrode fuses at the tip and detached due
to gravitational force and droplet goes on weld pool.
After droping the droplet the cross
section of electrode at the tip gets
reduced and there is a magnetic
pinching effect which breaks the
metal into fine particles. Particles
are deposited on weld pool.

2) Globular Transfer : It is in the form of blow drop. When electrode comes in contact of
workpiece, current gets high resistance and it fuses the tip of electrode where arcing
starts. Due to gravity molten metal droplet is detached from the tip of electrode and
deposited at the joint.

3) Dip Transfer : Dip transfer is nothing but fusion. When electrode touches the job
resistance is increased and it is fused into weld pool such that it could dip into the pool
before droplet is detached.

SELECTION OF WELDING MACINE

There are three types of welding machine

1) Dropping and constant current (cc) type of power sources suitable for MMAW and Tig
process.
2) Flat or constant voltage (cv) type of power sources are conventionally used for semi or
fully automatic system when feeding is possible continuous at constant rate like
GMAW, SAW, FCAW.
3) Both constant current and voltage type.

Minimum information required for selecting welding machine

 Static characteristic curve, voltage ampere curve
 Open current voltage

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 Static and dynamic characteristic
 Current rating and duty cycle specification
 Classes of insulation
 Power factor
 Method of classification :
i. Basic design----- ` a) Rotary b) Static type
a) Rotary---- Transformer & Rectifier
b) Static----- Generator----- Engine driven & Motor driven
ii. Method of current control : Field control variable reaction, variable coupling, Top
changer switch.

iii. Type of out put current : DC, AC & both.

iv. Static characteristic : cc, cv & constant voltage / current.
v. Rated current and duty cycle.
vi. Suitability for the process and capability of power sources used for MMAW, GTAW,
SAW.
vii. Suitability for Nos of operations.
viii. Type of cooling method------ Natural or oil cooling.
ix. Type of insulation------- A, B, E, F, G.

WELDING DEFECTS
1) Dimensional defect : This is concerned with distortion.
2) Crack : Crack, lack of fusion and lack of penetration, these are such defects which are
not acceptable any where. Reason for crack.

Heat transfer Heat transfer

 At the root weld is deposited, there, there are two type of situations one is root gap
and another is parent metal. The amount of weld metal which in contact of parent metal,
transfer of heat begins very soon towards parents metal. Similarly solidification starts at
contact areas very soon. But at the root heat transfer is not rapid. So at the root
solidification will take place latter than contact areas. Due to this definitely there will be
shrinkage due to temperature difference and weld metal may appear as crack.
 More deposition in single pass.
 Chemical composition : If sulphur content is very high, during solidification sulfur will
solidify at last at lower temperature and it will not take any shrinkage /stress. So there will
be crack in the weld.
Remedy : Add slightly more Mn. Save the weld metal from sudden cooling.
3) Lack of Fusion : Filler metal fuses and murged with parent metal. If there is a line
between fused filler metal and parent metal is called lack of fusion. To avoid this welder
has to keep arc at the centre of the joint. If joint thickness is dissimilar, dissimilar metal,
heat transfer much faster cause lack of fusion.
4) Lack of Penetration : This defect is very much common in piping joint. Penetration
should not be more or less than 1.5 mm. If penetration is less and piping diameter is
also less where inside attempt is not possible. It creats a serious problem. During
process liquid is transported through pipe with speed. If diameter is further reduced

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then pressure will be same but velocity will be increased which stress at joint and after
shut down liquid will stay in LP. This liquid in LP will cause corrosion much faster.
5) Slag : Flux contains iron powder and after melting iron powder flux becomes free.
Since flux demsity is lesser than iron, so it comes out of weld. If there is no proper
arcing and less current is used, iron particles in flux will not fuse and it will be
deposited inside of weld.
6) Porosity : It is produced by gas, moisture and wrong polarity. So surface should be free
from dust, rust, moisture and scale.
7) Undercut : High arcing produces undercut. Less root face also causes undercut.
8) Excess penetration : Penetration more than 1.5 mm is not acceptable. To avoide it keep
more root gap than electrode size and use slow speed.
9) Excess Reinforcement : Reinforcement should not be more than limit as per thickness.
It causes stress concentration.
10) Born Through : When root run is started, at starting point there will be hole, that
is called key hole and it is acceptable also. But similar more spots which due to less
root face will be considered as defect.
11) Concavity : If penetration is less, is called root concavity and it is not acceptable.
There are some more defects such as arc strike, create, wagon track, blow hole, excess
weaving and oxidation

PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

i. Mechanical ii. Physical iii. Chemical

Mechanical Property Physical Property Chemical Property

1. Tensile Strength Density Chemistry of Metal

2. Yield Strength Electrical Conductivity Corrosive
3. Elongation Thermal Conductivity Anti Crossive
4. Modulus of Elastcity Melting Temperature
5. Compressive Strength Thermal Expansion
6. Shear Strength
7. Fatigue Strength
8. Impact Strength
9. Creep
10. Hardness

BY: RNP YADAV

DY. MANAGER

 QA/QC ( MECHANICAL )
ESSAR PROJECTS LTD.

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