Signals & System

Lecture 1
Introduction to Signals & Variables

Dr. Tahir Zaidi

Books/Resources
Essential
 AV Oppenheim, AS Willsky: Signals and Systems, 2nd Ed
 D Hanselman, B Littlefield “Mastering Matlab 6: A
comprehensive tutorial and reference”

Recommended
 Haykin “Signals and Systems, John Wiley and Sons, 2002
 http://www.mit.edu/~6.003/ - Signals and Systems at MIT
 http://dynamo.ecn.purdue.edu/~bouman/ee301/ - Signals and
Systems at Purdue
 http://www.jhu.edu/~signals/index.html - on-line set of Java
applets demonstrating various signals and system concepts2
Course Syllabus
1. Concepts : Systems, signals, mathematical models.
Continuous-time and discrete-time signals. Energy and
power signals. Linear systems. Examples for use
throughout the course, use of Matlab
2. Linear systems, Convolution : Impulse response, input
signals as continuum of impulses. Convolution, discrete-
time and continuous-time properties
3. Basis functions : Concept of basis function. Fourier series
representation of time functions. Fourier transform and its
properties. Examples, transform of simple time functions.
4. Sampling Discrete-time systems : Sampling theorem,
discrete Fourier transform

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Course Syllabus (2)

5. Laplace transform : Laplace transform and Fourier

transform with convergence factor. Properties of the
Laplace transform
6. Transfer Function of Continuous-Time Systems :
Transfer function, frequency response. Physical
realizability, stability. Poles and zeros.
7. Transfer Function of a Discrete-Time Systems :
Impulse sampler, Laplace transform of impulse
sequence, z transform. Properties of the z transform.
Examples. Difference equations and differential
equations. Digital filters.
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Grading Policy

 Quizzes : 10%
 Assignments : 10%
 Sessionals : 30%
 Final Exam : 50%

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What is a Signal?

• A signal is a pattern of variation of some form

• Signals are variables that carry information

Examples of signal include:

 Electrical signals : Voltages and currents in a circuit
 Acoustic signals: Acoustic pressure (sound) over time
 Mechanical signals: Velocity of a car over time
 Video signals: Intensity level of a pixel (camera, video)
over time

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How is a Signal Represented?
 Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of
one or more independent variables.
 For instance a black & white video signal intensity is
dependent on x, y coordinates and time t f(x,y,t)
 On this course, we shall be exclusively concerned with
signals that are a function of a single variable: time
f(t)

t
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Example: Signals in an Electrical Circuit
R vs (t )  vc (t )
i (t ) 
R
dv (t )
i (t )  C c
vs
+
-
i C vc dt
dvc (t ) 1 1
 vc (t )  vs (t )
dt RC RC
 The signals vc and vs are patterns of variation over time

Step (signal) vs at t=1

vs, vc

RC = 1
First order (exponential)
response for vc
t

 Note, we could also have considered the voltage across the

resistor or the current as signals
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Continuous-time signals
 A value of signal exists at every instant of time

t
Independent
variable

t
Independent
variable
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Discrete-time signals
 The value of signal exists only at equally spaced
discrete points in time

t
Independent
variable

t
Independent
variable
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Discrete-time signals

 Why to discretize
 How to discretize
 How closely spaced are the samples
 Distinction between discrete & digital signals
 How to denote discrete signals
 Is image a discrete or continuous signal
 The image is generally considered to be a
continuous variable
 Sampling can however be used to obtain a discrete,
two dimensional signal (sampled image)
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Notation
 A continuous-time signal has independent variable
(time) in parentheses ()
xt 

 A discrete-time signal is represented by enclosing

the independent variable in square brackets []
xn

n 12
Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals
Continuous-Time Signals
 Most signals in the real world are x(t)
continuous time, as the scale is
infinitesimally fine e.g voltage, velocity,
 Denote by x(t), where the time interval
may be bounded (finite) or infinite t
Discrete-Time Signals
 Some real world and many digital
signals are discrete time, as they are
sampled e.g. pixels, daily stock price x[n]
(anything that a digital computer
processes)
 Denote by x[n], where n is an integer n
value that varies discretely
Sampled continuous signal
 x[n] =x(nk) – k is sample time 13
Signal Properties
Particular interest in signals with certain properties:
 Periodic signals: a signal that repeats itself after a fixed
period T, i.e. x(t) = x(t+T) for all t. e.g. A sin(t).
 Even and odd signals: even if x(-t) = x(t), and odd if
x(-t) = -x(t). Examples are cos(t) and sin(t) signals.
 Exponential and sinusoidal signals: a signal is (real)
exponential if it can be represented as x(t) = Ceat. The same
example is (complex) exponential C and a are complex.
 Step and pulse signals: A pulse signal is one which is
nearly completely zero, apart from a short spike, d(t). A
step signal is zero up to a certain time, and then a constant
value after that time, u(t).
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Signal

 The Speech Signal

 The ECG Signal

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Signal

 The image

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Signal

 The image

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Signal
 It is the variation pattern that conveys the
information, in a signal

 Signal may exist in many forms like acoustic, image,

video, electrical, heat & light signal
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What is a System?
• Systems process input signals to produce output signals
Examples:
 A circuit involving a capacitor can be viewed as a
system that transforms the source voltage (signal) to
the voltage (signal) across the capacitor
 A CD player takes the signal on the CD and transforms
it into a signal sent to the loud speaker
 A communication system is generally composed of
three sub-systems, the transmitter, the channel and the
receiver. The channel typically attenuates and adds
noise to the transmitted signal which must be processed
by the receiver
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System
 An entity that responds to a signal

input system output

 Examples
 Circuit

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System
 The camera

Image

 The Speech Recognition System

Identified

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System

 The audio CD-player

 Block Diagram representation of a system
 Visual representation of a system

Input Signal Output Signal

system

 Shows inter-relations of many signals involved in

the implementation of a complex system
 Look at everything around and try to identify the
signals and systems !!
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How is a System Represented?
 A system takes a signal as an input and transforms it
into another signal

Input signal Output signal

System
x(t) y(t)

 In a very broad sense, a system can be represented as

the ratio of the output signal over the input signal
 That way, when we “multiply” the system by the
input signal, we get the output signal
 This concept will be firmed up in the coming weeks

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Example: An Electrical Circuit System
R vs (t )  vc (t )
i (t ) 
R
dv (t )
i (t )  C c
vs
+
-
i C vc dt
dvc (t ) 1 1
 vc (t )  vs (t )
dt RC RC
 Simulink representation of the electrical circuit

vs, vc
vs(t) vc(t)

first order t
system
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Continuous & Discrete-Time Models
Continuous-Time Systems
dvc (t ) 1 1
 Most continuous time systems  vc (t )  vs (t )
dt RC RC
represent how continuous
dv(t )
signals are transformed via m  v(t )  f (t )
dt
differential equations. e.g.
First order differential equations
circuit, car velocity
Discrete-Time Systems
 Most discrete time systems
represent how discrete signals y[n]  1.01y[n 1]  x[n]
are transformed via difference
equations e.g. bank account, First order difference equations
discrete car velocity system
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Properties of a System

• Causal: a system is causal if the output at a time, only

depends on input values up to that time.

• Linear: a system is linear if the output of the scaled sum of

two input signals is the equivalent scaled sum of outputs

• Time-invariance: a system is time invariant if the system’s

output is the same, given the same input signal, regardless
of time.

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Introduction to Matlab/Simulink (1)
 Click on the Matlab Variable Command
icon/start menu browser window
initialises the Matlab
environment:

 The main window is

the dynamic command
interpreter which
allows the user to issue
Matlab commands

 The variable browser

shows which variables
currently exist in the
workspace
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Introduction to Matlab/Simulink (2)
 Type the following at the Matlab command prompt
>> simulink
 The following Simulink library should appear

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Introduction to Matlab/Simulink (3)
 Click File-New to create a new workspace, and drag
and drop objects from the library onto the workspace.

 Selecting Simulation-Start from the pull down menu

will run the dynamic simulation. Click on the blocks to
view the data or alter the run-time parameters
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How Are Signal & Systems Related?
 How to design a system to process a signal in particular ways?
 Design a system to restore or enhance a particular signal
– Remove high frequency background communication noise
– Enhance noisy images from spacecraft
 Assume a signal is represented as
 x(t) = d(t) + n(t)
 Design a system to remove the unknown “noise” component n(t),
so that y(t)  d(t)

x(t) = d(t) + n(t) System y(t)  d(t)

?

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How Are Signal & Systems Related?
 How to design a system to extract specific pieces of
information from signals
– Estimate the heart rate from an electrocardiogram
– Estimate economic indicators (bear, bull) from
stock market values
 Assume a signal is represented as: x(t) = g(d(t))
 Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so
that y(t) = d(t)

x(t) = g(d(t)) System y(t) = d(t) = g-1(x(t))

?
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How Are Signal & Systems Related?
 How to design a (dynamic) system to modify or control the
output of another (dynamic) system
– Control an aircraft’s altitude, velocity, heading by
adjusting throttle, rudder, ailerons
– Control the temperature of a building by adjusting the
heating/cooling energy flow.
 Assume a signal is represented as: x(t) = g(d(t))
 Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so that
y(t) = d(t)
x(t) dynamic y(t) = d(t)
system ?
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Lecture 1: Summary
 Signals and systems are important for:
– Electrical circuits
– Physical models and control systems
– Digital media (music, voice, photos, video)
 Study of signals and systems helps in:
– Design systems to remove noise/enhance
measurement from audio and picture/video data
– Investigate stability of physical structures
– Control the performance mechanical and electrical
devices
 This will be the foundation for studying systems and
signals as a generic subject on this course.
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Lecture 1: Exercises

 Read Text Chapter 1. (This contains the material

for lectures 1-3)

 Questions 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6

 In lecture 2, we’ll look at signals in more depth

and look at how they can be represented in
Matlab/Simulink

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