APUSH SHORT ESSAYS – DEAN FOSTER

CHAPTER ONE
1. Understand the diversity of societies in the Americas before the arrival of the
Europeans.
 A great many Native American societies were present all around North and South
America, and there was extreme diversity among them. These included different religious
beliefs, political systems, and languages. Much of these differences not only had to do
with location but climate as well. For example, Native Americans in the Southwest grew
mainly corn and built hundreds of miles of irrigation systems to water their crops,
whereas the Northwest natives made canoes to catch salmon and other sea creatures in
addition to not having to work more than two days a week. These and other factors
allowed Northwest natives to thrive and create art such as totem poles and intricate
religious rituals, while the Southwest natives eventually experienced drought and slowly
disappeared. In addition to these societies, there was the Great Plains tribes, the
Mississippians, the Cahokia, and the South American towns and cities which contained
hundreds of tribes in it of themselves, each with their own unique ideas and societies.
This was of course before the Europeans arrived.
2. Explain how the Columbian Exchange between the “Old” and “New” Worlds
affected both societies.
The Columbian Exchange impacted both the “New” and “Old” worlds by introducing the
mass exchange of disease, new crops, and farm animals. First off, diets in both regions were
wildly transformed. Maize (corn), potatoes, and many kinds of bean were introduced to Europe,
whereas rice, wheat, coffee, and bananas were introduced to the Americas. Along with food, the
diseases brought from Europe was catastrophic to the Native American populations. Many more
natives- tens of millions-died from a disease than from combat. A third of the native population
in central Mexico died within a decade of European arrival, and many tribes were completely
wiped clean. It was clear that the natives stood no chance against this epidemic, let alone the
Europeans or the Spanish.
CHAPTER TWO
1. Identify Britain’s reasons for establishing colonies in North America.
The British had many reasons for establishing colonies in North America, most of which
involved gaining wealth and prosperity, as well as land. Slaves, as well as crops and livestock,
were traded through Africa, Europe, and the Americas in a global network known as the Triangle
Trade, which greatly benefited settlers in need of such an economy. Of course, wealth and
commodities were not all that Britain’s had in mind when colonizing the New World. After the
death of Queen Elizabeth, King James I came into power and governed via “divine right”.
Puritans, who sought to simplify Catholicism, were banished from England by James I. This led
the Puritans to reject the Church of England and create their own congregations, which gave
them the new name, Separatists. These Separatists later became known as the first Pilgrims after
sailing to the new world in search of religious freedom. Clearly, Britain’s established colonies
were led by those seeking freedom from religious persecution, and those wanting land and
wealth.
2. Describe how British colonists and Native Americans adapted to each other’s
presence.
In addition to disease, British colonists had plenty of goods and beliefs to offer to the Native
Americans. The British, however, viewed the Natives as an obstacle standing in the way of their
spiritual path to “righteousness” and economic success. The Natives responded to colonists in
one of three ways: Resisting to comply with, being somewhat accommodating of, and relying
completely on British colonists. When being relied upon by the Natives, the British often sought
to take advantage of the Natives for economic gain. They were often enslaved and worked hard
and long days for mere scraps of food. British colonists also often forced tribes to convert to
Christianity and live in a more “civilized” way. While the British adapted to their lifestyle of
greed and killing in the New World, the Natives were forced to adapt to a change they couldn’t
have possibly have seen coming.

CHAPTER THREE
1. Examine the roles of women in English colonial society.
While there were far more women in English America, they were not treated as equals. No
one was expected to work harder than women, and no one did. “Women’s work” typically
involved house cleaning, garden tending, and children caring, along with many other
responsibilities. Women who failed to perform these responsibilities were punished as if they
were slaves. They also had requirements to take care of their children as well as a farm or field if
there was one. Many stayed at home, but some hired themselves out as apprentices to learn a
skilled trade or craft. As a result, there were many women who were blacksmiths, sailmakers,
and mill owners, among other things. Women also made up an overwhelming majority of the
church members at the time, which led many to believe that a feminized church was one that was
in decline. Clearly, women were not treated fairly, much less like anything other than cleaning
and cooking machines. However, as time progressed, this viewpoint would change for the better.
2. Explain how race-based slavery developed during the seventeenth century and the
ways it impacted the social and economic development of colonial America.
During the seventeenth century, many colonists took in slaves as workers. These were often
Native Americans or Africans. In the late seventeenth century, slavery was legalized, and thus
race-based slavery officially began. Most colonists viewed slavery as a normal aspect of
everyday life, and few thought of it as a moral issue. Socially and economically, however,
slavery proved to be a massive market not just in America, but mostly in the Caribbean where
silver was dominating the market. It was a valuable commodity in America, helping to improve
the lives of the colonists. That was until revolts and resistance broke out. Colonial laws allowed
whites to use brutal means to control their slaves. The slaves, who lived in fear and brutality
often sought to fight back, and often they did. The Stono Rebellion being one example that
proved that the whites could be frightened by the slaves’ acts of revolt. This was the seed for
which abolishment would later grow off in the nineteenth century.
CHAPTER FOUR
1. Identify the causes of the French and Indian War and how the English victory
affected the British colonies in North America.
The French and Indian war was ignited by French and British competition over ancestral
Native lands in the vast Ohio Valley. The French, in order to defend the Ohio Country, came
down south from Canada and built forts in the valley. When George Washington was sent to ask
the French to leave, he was rudely confronted and rebuffed by the French. Months later, in 1754,
Washington returned with 150 Virginian soldiers and Indian allies with a plan to build a fort
where the city of Pittsburgh lies today. Unfortunately, after two months of travel, Washington
learned that French soldiers had beaten him to the site and built Fort Duquesne there.
Washington decided to ambush the French scouting party, which ultimately brought defeat to the
Virginians and began a war with the French. When the Treaty of Paris brought the war to an end
in 1763, the British had acquired massive territorial gain in the West Indies, as well as India.
This success did come with massive challenges, however. The national debt doubled during the
war, which would provoke Britain’s “arrogant triumphalism,” and ultimately cost them the
United States.
2. Analyze the underlying factors in the events of the 1770’s that led to American
independence.
As tensions grew between the British and the Americans, many events broke out which
led to America declaring independence. The Boston Massacre in 1770 for instance, further led to
ties being cut between the Colonies and Great Britain. Before long, the point of no returned was
reached. The Boston Tea Party in 1783, which had rebellious colonists dressing up as Native
Americans and dumping nearly 46 tons of East India Company tea into the Boston Harbor,
pushed British officials to the breaking point and gave them a reason to further establish their
authority. In 1774, the Coercive Acts also shocked many colonists with their strict laws and
guidelines, which directly interfered with British and American ties, and gave the colonists more
of a reason to want to rebel. This would occur many more times before 1776 when America
finally declared its independence due to being tired of British rule.
CHAPTER FIVE
1. Identify the challenges faced by the Americans and the British forces in the
Revolutionary War and identify their respective military strategies.
Americans faced many hardships throughout the Revolutionary War. For one, they were
hilariously outmanned when it came to skilled British soldiers. The British also recruited
American Loyalists, Natives, and African Americans to fight on their behalf. The British
attempted to use tactics in order to lure Americans into a trap and destroy the war for good, but
George Washington wouldn’t take the bait. Even though the British had some of the best-trained
soldiers, the Americans were keener than anticipated, as brilliant generals like Washington
would not engage in large battles with Britain, instead opting to choose when they would attack.
This strategy proved to be very effective in bringing the Americans closer to victory. While the
British had a strategy of containing the Americans and seizing the colonies, Guerrilla warfare
was common among American soldiers. Both had a strong commitment to their goals, but
Americans were persistent throughout and refused to give up or be overcome.
2. Understand the Revolutionary War’s major turning points.
The first major turning point was the Battle of Trenton in 1776, an American victory that
came after a crushing series of defeats and a major retreat across New Jersey. The victory
boosted morale and encouraged many of the soldiers to continue to fight. Without the victory
Washington likely would have had no army left to use. Another turning point was the Battle of
Saratoga in 1777, which was the first American victory over a major British force. The British
army of nearly 8,000, commanded by General Burgoyne, was sent south from Canada to the
Hudson River with the goal of cutting off New England from the Americans. A huge victory
ensued, boosting morale among the Patriots even more. Finally, the Siege of Yorktown in 1781
was a decisive victory for the Americans. Many generals worked to bombard the British and
force them to surrender. The war officially continued for another two years, but the Americans
had won and the British compromised. Without these battles, an American victory would have
most likely not been a reality.
CHAPTER SIX
1. Identify the achievements and shortcomings of the Confederate government and
how they contributed to the creation of the Constitution.
The Confederate government had obtained many achievements which helped them in their
contribution to the Constitution. They signed a treaty of alliance with France in 1778, and
successfully waged a war against the British in protest of independence. They also negotiated an
end to the American Revolution with the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Yet these achievements didn’t
come without shortcomings, such as the Governments little power to coin money, resulting in
each state having to develop its own currency. There was also no national court system or
executive branch to enforce laws. However, these were addressed within the Constitution as the
“Founding Fathers” were practical and wise enough to create a government which they saw fit to
exist independently from Great Britain and advance their nation into one of freedom and
providence.
2. Identify the ways that the Federalists and Republicans differed in their visions for
the United States in the 1790’s.
Federalists, fronted by Alexander Hamilton, were centered in New York and New England.
They feared the excess of democracy and wanted a strong central government led by wise
leaders who would commit to economic growth, social stability, and national defense. With a
“loose” interpretation of the Constitution, they favored close ties with Britain. In contrast, the
Democratic Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison was more concerned with
threats to individual freedom and states’ rights. They also opposed a national bank, as they
believed it would cater directly to the rich which didn’t support the “common man”. They also
supported the French Revolution in opposition to the British. Clearly, America could go in two
completely different directions, but after the election of 1800, The Democratic Republicans won
along with Thomas Jefferson, which proved to not only change the course of America’s political
history but to completely outline the future of America as a country, with Jefferson later
employing the Lewis and Clark expeditions after the Louisiana Purchase to greatly expand
America.

CHAPTER SEVEN

1. Identify the major domestic political developments that took place during Thomas
Jefferson’s administration.
When Jefferson became president, America stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Mississippi River, and the nation was primarily rural and agricultural. Nine out of ten Americans
lived or worked on farms, with most of them barely growing enough to feed their families, much
less their community. During the nineteenth century, however, this changed. With more farmers
now settling down and producing surpluses of crops and livestock, commercial agriculture took
the stage. This was especially evident in the South, where cotton prices soared. As president,
Jefferson would exercise great authority in this matter, as well as the Louisiana Purchase, and the
Lewis and Clark expeditions, but it didn’t stop there. In 1802, Jefferson had his Congress repeal
the Judiciary act of 1801, which sparked the case of Marbury v. Madison in 1803. This case and
its ruling were very important to our Government, specifically the Supreme Court. By giving the
Court the ability to interpret the Constitution beyond Congress, this case has allowed the Court
an overruling on laws that cover everything. This has made the Supreme Court an important
player in our history.
2. Examine the primary causes of the American decision to declare war on Great
Britain in 1812.
In 1803, when Napoléon Bonaparte declared on Great Britain, most Americans wanted to
remain neutral and trade with both sides of the war. However, the British and French were
determined to prevent that from happening. Many American naval and merchant ships were
prevented from docking in France and Great Britain, with the two nations threatening the United
States if they chose the wrong side. Many ships were stopped, and soldiers captured. Great
Britain also used the practice of impressment, whereby British warships stopped American
vessels and kidnapped the sailors they claimed were British citizens. Battles arose, and the war
raged on. After the Chesapeake Incident and the Embargo act in 1807, an economically setback
America declared war on Great Britain in the summer of 1812.
CHAPTER EIGHT
1. Understand how the explosive growth of industry, agriculture, and transportation
transformed America in the mid-nineteenth century.
In the South, the explosive growth of the cotton market increased the demand for slaves.
Commercial agriculture thrived in the west and was aided by the high demand for corn, wheat,
and cattle. Many inventions such as the cotton gin and the steel plow helped farmers to greatly
expand their market to industrial proportions. This booming economy helped America to
transform from a rural region into what would become a worldwide marketplace, as well as link
the two together. There was much growth in cities near water such as New York for the Atlantic
and Chicago for the Erie Canal. America was growing with the rest of the world and changing on
its own as well, with new inventions popping up, and new minds beginning to alter the world
around us. The nineteenth century is when America began to truly transform into America.
2. Identify several inventions of the mid-nineteenth century that improved America
economically and socially.
As mentioned before, the cotton gin and steel plow played major roles in the production of
goods, but the transportation and communication of these good were just as if not more
important than the production. Inventions such as the steam engine were imperative to the
moving of crops in the nineteenth century, as well as the light bulb, the telegraph, and the
telephone. While not only improving the economy, these inventions proved to be a helping hand
towards American society, with many people being able to use the light bulb to illuminate their
houses, and the telegraph to communicate with someone over long distances instead of having to
wait to directly meet with them. These inventions were meant to enhance everyday life, and
provide people with a living, whether they made shoes or took photographs. Of course, it wasn’t
all goodness and glory for people, as working conditions were very harsh in many places. These
inventions would also, unbeknownst to the World, be the start of pollution in the global
environment with the rise of CO2 in our atmosphere.
CHAPTER NINE
1. Examine how American economic policies developed after the War of 1812 reflected
the nationalism of the era.
The success experienced by America in the War of 1812 gave people a feeling of great
national pride. One of the results of the war was that America no longer had access to goods
manufactured in Britain, and thus no longer relied on them. The national pride felt from the war
was great enough for America to produce those goods on its own and grow its economy to global
proportions. Americans who identified as nationalists promoted the interests of the country as a
whole. This meant that no region of the country should get all that it wanted without threatening
the entire nation. Nationalism did provide great optimism to Americans about what their nation
was to become, yet there was still a long way to come until the country was completely whole.
2. Distinguish among various issues that contributed to sectionalism.
Competition among sections of the United States, especially the North and South, were
rising, and it was clear as to the differences between these regions. While the North was more
industrial and fast-paced, the South was agricultural and leisurely, especially with slaves doing
much of the labor. Conflicts arose between the two regions regarding slavery, taxes on goods, as
well as state rights. Many southerners relied on slavery for their economy, and the families who
did own slaves had domination over Southern society and politics. Both the North and South also
wanted power and representation when voting in order to benefit their region. This became an
issue for the south as America expanded westwards and added states were not becoming part of
the South. Many Southerners also didn’t support high tariffs, which the North used to protect
their industries. The South despised these tariffs due to how they hurt their economy, mainly
because they imported everything and exported to other nations, which cost a fortune to do with
the tariffs in place. Southerners also believed in states’ rights and nullification. This meant that a
state could declare any federal law illegal that they believed to be unconstitutional. These issues
within America further developed into hatred between the North and South.
CHAPTER TEN
1. Analyze the extent to which Andrew Jackson’s election initiated a new era in
American politics.
Andrew Jackson was a polarizing emblem of a new democratic era and a good one at that.
For Jackson’s election, “The principle of universal suffrage” was taking hold, meaning that
politics and voting were no longer just for the most prominent and wealthy Americans. With this,
Jackson was elected. Jackson transformed the government. As a man of the people, he believed
that certain rights and privileges should not belong to individuals, but rather citizens at large.
Jackson’s economic policies, such as his use of “pet banks,” veto of the National Bank, and
issuing of the Specie Circular created a limited government, while also creating economic
instability. Along with this, Jackson helped to grow nationalism and improve relation with Great
Britain. The Indian Removal Act in 1830 also proved to show Jacksons dominate power in
office. Overall, Jacksons’ extensive and strict political attitude made him not only a unique
president but a very memorable and important one too.
2. Describe what happened to the Native Americans living east of the Mississippi River
by 1840.
The Indian Removal Act in 1830 involved all Native Americans east of the Mississippi River
to be relocated to reservations against their will. These reservations were usually in the South of
the United States, in what is now Oklahoma. Jackson believed that moving the Natives would
serve their best interest as well as the nations’. Many Native Americans resisted, especially the
Cherokees, who testified in court. They won the case; however, Jackson overruled their treaty
with new state laws. 17,000 Cherokees were evicted and forced to move on the Trail of Tears, an
800-mile journey which was grueling and unbearable for the Natives as well as the soldiers
guarding them. Around 4,000 refuges died along the way. A grand total of around 100,000
Eastern Native Americans were moved to the West, and much of the land was sold to grow
cotton, thus furthering America’s agenda.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
1. Describe the diversity of the Old South’s economy and identify its unifying feature.
The Old South grew increasingly defensive about slavery and its decisions to grow its
economy. Its climate, geography, human decisions, and actions set the South apart from the rest
of America. The South had an ideal climate for cultivating profitable crops such as tobacco,
cotton, rice, sugarcane, and indigo, which led to large commercial agriculture as well as its
dependence upon enslaved labor. Unlike the North, the South had few large cities, few banks,
few railroads, few schools, and few factories. Most southern commerce revolved around cotton
and its booming economy all around the globe. While this was very similar throughout the
South, its true unifying feature was the institution of slavery.
2. Recognize the events that led to the anti-slavery movement and examine how white
southerners responded to it.
The white abolitionist movement in the North was led by many social reformers, including
William Lloyd Garrison, who was the founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society. As the
North became more tired of the South, Abolitionist movements became more and more common.
The recurring themes of abuse and segregation were freighting to the North, and they had the
skills to abolish it, or at least reform it. The Southerners responded mainly with fear as well, as
this sort of movement gaining traction would completely destroy the Southerner’s economy and
the livelihoods of many families and individuals. Much of the South was entirely slave driven,
and without them, there would be no Southern economy. This intense worrying would eventually
result in the Civil War, and ultimately abolish slavery for all of America.

CHAPTER TWELVE
1. Identify the goals of the social-reform movement.
Reformists wanted to create a more perfect society through enhancement and commitment to
themselves and their society. They fanned out across the United States and practiced often
intense activism. For example, Horace Mann was a man who campaigned for better school
houses, longer school terms, higher pay for teachers, and an expanded curriculum in schools.
Reforms like these were very beneficial to America as a unified society, one with a stance on
things that were not often viewed as important or relevant issues. Many of these reforms helped
to open the eyes of Americans and see what they could do to benefit their society. These goals
ended up making America a place with constant improvement, as well as a drive toward
perfection.
2. Characterize the political and social status of women during the early nineteenth
century.
As reforms were being brought about in the nineteenth century, women had something to
say. This mainly involved woman’s suffrage, as well as equal rights entirely. Early Feminism
was tough for most women, and the fact that men and women lived in separate spheres of society
was not a helping factor, but if today’s voting laws are any indication, it worked out, but there’s
still more work to be done. Women began to take on serious roles in the nineteenth century, and
their traditional roles started to dissipate. Women, due to social reforms, we're starting to take
shape in society, with many people realizing that there were many bright and creative women out
there with valid opinions that could serve America. These and other ideas were defining events
in American history.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
1. Recognize the chief issues in national politics in the 1840’s.
Nationalism and westward expansion were the dominant issues in the 1840s. The highly
aggressive expansion was brought on by the idea of “manifest destiny” which was presumed to
be America’s calling and its legacy. It proved to be a morale booster and an excuse for the
conquest of Native Americans and slaves, which was a “self-evident” destiny. Many raids
ensued upon western Natives as America moved West and South into Mexico, which culminated
into the Mexican War. Along with this, greedy Americans believed that the land on the West was
theirs for the taking, as they were able to farm cheap, and had chances to find gold. Overall,
America's insistence on their destiny was misplaced, and while it resulted in what we call
America today, it spurred grudges with our neighbors and created false ideas about our destiny as
a country, and as a society.
2. Examine why Texas declared independence from Mexico in 1836 and why many
Americans were reluctant to accept it as a new state in the Union.
When Mexicans immigrated to Texas after gaining their independence, they met with
Americans who following their “destiny”. Between the Cultural differences between the
Mexicans and the Americans, Americans unwilling to speak Spanish, and Americans unwilling
to accept Roman Catholicism like the Mexicans, the Texas Revolution began. Because of this,
Americans were reluctant to accept it as a new state in the Union, as they feared it would start a
war with Mexico. Texas colonists still fought a war with the government of Mexico, however,
and many Mexicans were killed but cut a deal with America as to where their territory would lie.
Clearly, this had a lasting impact on our Country and the culture surrounding Mexico, as well as
Texas in America.