Lecture (4)

Bones and cartilage

Bones and cartilage
By

Pr Dr. Sayed Anwar Sayed

Hasan
Professor of Anatomy & Embryology
Faculty of Medicine
(Assiut University)
Learning objectives
1-know the structure of bones.
2-know the growth and ossification of bones.
3-describe the different types of bones.
4-know the division of human skeleton.
5- Identify the different types of bones of axial
skeleton.
6- Identify the different types of bones of
appendicular skeleton.
7- Identify the different types of cartilage in the
body.
8- understand the role of bones in support and
locomotion.
9- Identify the types of bone fracture.
• The example (s) for long bones is (are)
• A. Humerus.
• B. Femur.
• C. Clavicle.
• D. A &B.
• E. A, B & C.
FUNCTIONS OF BONES
The human skeleton serves the following functions:
(a) Bodily Support: The skeletal system provides a
framework for the human body.
(b) Protection: The skeleton protects certain soft structures
within the human body. An example is the skull, which
surrounds the bra n and the thoracic cage which protect
the heart and lungs.
(c) Motion: Muscles are attached to and move the bones.
Bones provide leverage for motion.
d) Formation of Blood Cells (Hematopoiesis): Blood cells are
manufactured in the red bone marrow, mainly found in flat
bones.
(e) Storage for salts (e.g., calcium).
TYPES OF BONES
Bones of the skeleton can be
grouped according to its
shape into the following
types:
a. Long Bones: Each bone
has two ends and a shaft.
Example: femur, clavicle
and humerus.
TYPES OF BONES
b. Short Bones: The
short bones, such as
those of the wrist and
feet, have a thin layer of
compact bone
surrounding an inner
mass of spongy bone.
Example: carpal and
tarsal bones.
c. Flat Bones: The flat bones
are constructed with two
plates of compact bone
which enclose between them
a layer of spongy bone. The
spongy bone is richly
supplied with blood vessels
and red marrow. Example:
the scapula and the cranial
bones.
d. Irregular Bones: The
irregular bones are
those that do not fit into
the three categories
above. Example: a
vertebra.
e. Pneumatic Bones: it
has multiple air filled
spaces Example: para
nasal sinuses.
f. Small
long Bones: it has single .epiphyses Example:
metacarpal and metatarsal bones.
g. Sesamoid Bones: Sesamoid
bones are small masses of
bone that develop in tendons
at points where great forces
are applied to the tendons.
The most obvious and largest
sesamoid bone is the patella,
or kneecap.
Long bone short bone flat bone irregular bone pneumatic bone
(femur) (tarsal bones) (scapula) ( hip bone) (paranasal sinuses)
Another classification of bones based on the
structure of the bones:

(a) Compact bone is dense, forms the

tubular bodies of long bones and

filled with yellow bone marrow;
(b) Cancellous (spongy) bone is
lattice of bone spicules. It occurs in
the ends of long bones and fills the
flat and irregular bones .The spaces
between the spicules are filled with
red bone marrow.
Basic STRUCTURE
OF AN INDIVIDUAL
BONE
(1) Cortex: The cortex
is the outer layer of the
individua1 bone. It
compact (dense) bony
tissue.
(2) Medulla: The medulla is the
central portion of the individual
bone. It generally consists of
cancellous (spongy) bone tissue.
In some bones, particularly
long bones, the medulla may
include a space without any
bony tissue. This space is called
the medullary or marrow
cavity.
(3) Marrow: Marrow serves as
a filler of the inside of bones.
There are two types of bone
marrow--yellow bone marrow
and red bone marrow: Yellow
bone marrow is mostly yellow
fat tissue. Red bone marrow is
the only site in adults for the
formation of red blood cells
(hematopoiesis).
(4) Periosteum: The
periosteum is a covering of
the bone surface area not
covered by articular
cartilage. The periosteum is
well supplied with blood
vessels and sensory-type
nervous tissue.
Named Parts of an

Individual Long Bone

Shaft (diaphysis): The
shaft is the central
portion of a long bone.
Here, the cortex is
thickened as required
by applied physical
stresses.
Ends (epiphyses):The ends of
long bones are made up
mainly of cancellous (spongy)
bone tissue. An articular
cartilage covers each area
where a bone contacts
another bone(s). This articular
cartilage is made up of hyaline
cartilage tissue and provides a
smooth surface for motions.
Blood Supply of an Individual Bone

A system of blood vessels enters

and spreads out through the

periosteum. Additional blood vessels,

called "nutrient vessels," penetrate the

cortex' of the bone and spread out

through the marrow. The passageways

for penetration of these vessels are

called the nutrient canals.

DEVELOPMENT OF AN IN DIVIDUAL BONE

The human skeleton is "preformed" early in the fetus, but the

early form is not of bony material. There are two types of bones

according to their preformed basis: membranous bones and

cartilage bones.
(1) Membranous bones: The outer skull bones are an example of

membranous bones. Osteoblasts invade a membrane to form a

center of ossification (formation of bone). Bone-forming activity

spreads out from this center until a full bone plate is formed.
(2) Cartilage bones: In the fetus, many bones, for
example, long bones exist first as models formed of
cartilage. Cartilage models of the bones form from
mesenchyme during the fetal period, and bone
subsequently replaces most of the cartilage.
A brief description of endochondral

ossification helps plain how long bones grow:

The mesenchymal cells condense and differentiate into
chondroblasts, (dividing cells in growing cartilage tissue)
thereby forming a cartilage bone model. In the midregion of
the model, the cartilage calcifies with calcium salts),
and periosteal capillaries (capillaries form the fibrous sheath
surrounding the model) grow into the calcified cartilage
of the bone model and supply its interior. These blood
vessels, together with associated osteogenic (bone-forming)
cells, form a periosteal bud.
The capillaries initiate the primary ossification centre, so
named because the bone tissue it forms replaces most of
the cartilage in the main body of the bone model.
The shaft of a bone ossified from the primary ossification
center grows as the bone develops.
Most secondary
ossification centers appear
in other parts of the
developing bone after
birth; the parts of a bone
ossified from these centers
are epiphyses.
The chondrocytes in the
middle of the epiphysis
hypertrophy, and the bone
matrix (extracellular
substance) between them
calcifies. Epiphysial
arteries grow into the
developing cavities with
associated osteogenic cells.
The flared part of the diaphysis nearest the epiphysis is the
metaphysis. For growth to continue, the bone formed from
the primary center in the diaphysis does not fuse with that
formed from the secondary centers in the epiphyses until
the bone reaches its adult size.
Thus, during growth of a long bone, cartilaginous
epiphysial plates intervene between the diaphysis and
epiphyses. These growth plates are eventually replaced by
bone at each of its two sides, diaphysial and epiphysial.
When this occurs, bone growth ceases, and the diaphysis
fuses with the epiphyses.
• Longitudinal growth in a growing long bone is
liable to be interrupted prematurely, if a
fracture passes through which of the
following?
1-Metaphysis
2-Diaphysis
3-Epiphyseal plate
4-Epiphyseal line
The human skeleton
consists of a series of
bones articulated
together to form joints.
The human skeleton is
divided into:
1. Axial skeleton
2. Appendicular
skeleton
The axial skeleton:

It includes:
1. skull,
2. vertebral column
(spine),
3. Ribs and sternum.
NB: The thoracic cage
includes
ribs, sternum and
thoracic vertebrae.
Vertebral Column

Vetebral column
consists of series of
vertebrae articulating
together by means of
the intervertebral
discs between the
bodies and synovial
joints between the
articular processes.
These vertebrae are:
8 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumber vertebrae
5 sacral vertebrae which are
fused to form a single
triangular bone called
sacrum
2-3 rudimentary vertebrae
fused together to form a
small triangular bone called
the coccyx.
General features of the vertebra

A typical vertebra is constructed of two major parts:

a) The vertebral body is a drum –shaped cylindrical mass.
b) The neural arch extends posteriorly arching over and
protecting the spinal cord .From the neural arch seven
processes arise, these are:
Two transverse processes, two superior articular processes,
two inferior articular processes and spine.
Each half of the neural arch is divided by the transverse
process into two parts:
a)Pedicle extending between the body and the transverse
process.
b)Lamina extends between the transverse process and the
spine
The Thoracic (Rib) Cage

The skeleton of the thoracic cage is formed of the

thoracic vertebrae with sternum, ribs and costal
cartilages.
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton
includes the bones of
the upper and lower
limbs.
THE APPENDICULAR
SKELETON:
• The upper limb
includes the following
regions:
1- Shoulder girdle :has 2
bones ; clavicle anteriorly
and scapula posteriorly.
2- Arm : has single bone
:the humerus.
3- Forearm : has 2 bones
the radius laterally and
the ulna medially.
4- Hand : includes 3
regions:
a. Carpus : 8 carpal bones
arranged into 2 rows :
Proximal row 4 bones
arranged from lateral
to medial as follows:
scaphoid , lunate ,
triquetral and pisiform.
Distal row has 4 bones
arranged from lateral
to medial as follows:
trapezium , trapeziod ,
capitate and hamate.
b. Metacarpus : 5
metacarpal bones
named first to fifth
from lateral to medial.
c. Phalanges : three
phalanges for each
finger arranged in
three rows ,proximal,
middle and distal
except the thumb
which contain two
phalanges proximal
phalanx and distal
phalanx.
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON:

The lower limb includes the

following regions:
1.Pelvic girdle :consists of
the two hip bones and the
sacrum.
2.Thigh : has single bone
:the femur.
3.Leg : has 2 bones the
tibia medially and the
fibula laterally.
4 .Foot : includes 3 regions:
a) Tarsus : 7 bones
arranged into 3 rows :
proximal row ; consists of
talus above and calcaneus
below.
Intermediate row contain
the navicular bone
Distal row consists of 4
bones arranged from
medial to lateral as follow:
medial cuniform,
intermediate
cuniform,lateral cuneiform
and cuboid.
b) Metatrsus : includes
5 metatarsal bones
named first to fifth
from medial to lateral .
c) Phalanges : three
phalanges for each toe
arranged in three rows
,proximal, middle and
distal except the big toe
which contain two
phalanges proximal
phalanx and distal
phalanx.
• The number of carpal bones are
1-Two
2-Four
3-Seven
4-Eight
• Which of the following is not axial skeleton
1-Vertebra
2-Skull
3-sternum
4-humerus
Cartilage
A type of connective tissue in which
the cells and fibers are embedded in
gel like matrix, covered by fiberous
membrane called perichondrium.
There are three types of cartilage:
•-Hyaline cartilage: in
epiphyseal plate,
articular cartilage,
foetal bones, costal
cartilage.
•-White fibrocartilage: in
intra-articular disc,
intervertebral disc,
symphysis pubis.
• -Yellow elastic
cartilage: in ear
auricle, auditory
tube, epiglottis,
external auditory
meatus.
Thank you