TEMA

2
Teorías generales sobre el
aprendizaje y la adquisición
de una lengua extranjera.
El concepto de interlengua.
El tratamiento del error

José Luis Estefani

Cuerpo de Profesores de Enseñanza Secundaria
Volumen I. Inglés

GUIDE

1. GENERAL PERSPECTIVES ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

A. Linguistics
B. Psycholinguistics
C. Sociolinguistics
– The Labovian paradigm
– Speech accommodation theory
– Attitudes and motivation
D. Neurolinguistics
– Hemisphere dominance
– Age hypothesis
E. Cognitive psychology
– Language as a Complex Cognitive Skills
– Types of knowledge
– Stages of skill acquisition
F. A theory of SLA

2. INTERLANGUAGE
A. Learner variety
B. Language learning process

3. THE TREATMENT OF ERRORS

A. Study of errors
B. Language learning implications

BIBLIOGRAPHY

4 CUERPO DE PROFESORES DE ENSEÑANZA SECUNDARIA

Aprendizaje y adquisición de una lengua extranjera

1. GENERAL PERSPECTIVES ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Initial second language acquisition (SLA) studies were based on a variety of perspectives: linguistic,
sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic, educational, from cognitive psychology... all of them
contending that an adequate model of SLA was impossible without a coherent theory from these sources.
More recently second language research has developed into an independent nonapplied discipline:
focus on learners’ hypotheses, stages in language acquisition, characterization of language proficiency...
(Gass & Schachter 1989)
Contributions from other disciplines:

A. Linguistics
Bloomfield’s work Language (1933) had stated that:
– Language consists of externally conditioned habits, so learning a language consists of the
acquisition of a new set of habits.
– Habits are acquired through a formation paradigm of response conditioned to a particular
stimulus and then generalized to other similar stimuli. (Behaviorism).
– Learning a second language means displacing one set of habits/ linguistic structure and
replacing it with a new one.
Lado’s work Linguistics Across Cultures (1957) introduced a new line of research based on
structural contrast between languages:
– Similar linguistic structures imply learning facility due to transfer from one system to the other,
while differences imply learning difficulty due to contrast between two different habits.
This was the origin of contrastive analysis (CA).
Chomsky’s Syntactic Structures (1957) supported language creativity against behaviourist
positions. He developed a transformational-generative grammar and introduced new concepts in
language structure and language development:
– The distinction between infinite external behavior (performance) and finite internal set of
rules (competence).
– The existence of a specific cognitive mechanism for language acquisition (LAD).
– The presence of capabilities (rules) that are shared by all languages and consist of a set
of limitations or parameters. This set of parameters constitutes a model of Universal
Grammar (UG).

B. Psycholinguistics
Corder’s article «The significance of learners’ errors» (1967) introduced the study of systematic
errors –error analysis (EA)– in order to define the process of language learning. He developed the
concept of transitional competence:
– L2 learners develop a dynamic knowledge system.
– This system is constantly changing as new L2 knowledge is added.
– This addition requires adjustment in the competence already acquired.

TEMARIO DE INGLÉS. PRUEBA A 5

Volumen I. Inglés

Nemser’s article «Approximative systems of foreign language learners» (1971) offered

some insights of this process of acquiring language competence:
– L2 learners progress along a continuum.
– This continuum runs from zero knowledge to a level close to a native speaker’s linguistic
proficiency.
– L2 learners progress in their task by means of «approximative systems».
Selinker’s article «Interlanguage» (1972) attempted to define the notion of stages in language
learning. He introduced the term interlanguage to describe the set of rules that a particular learner
has acquired at a particular stage of learning. His main points are:
– Learners develop an interlanguage (IL) system.
– This IL system is an unique grammar not belonging to either the source language or the
target language, and containing rules found only in systems from second language learning
contexts.
– A particular learner’s IL system is formed by the L2 rules he has already acquired and the
rules he is checking for validation or rejection.
Within the tradition of process analysis (PA), Selinker also identified five central processes that exist
in a latent psychological structure for second language learning. These processes are responsible for the
development of interlanguage systems:
– Language transfer.
– Transfer of training.
nd
– 2 lang. learning strategies.
nd
– 2 lang. communication strategies.
– Generalization.
Finally, the term «fossilization» emerged in order to explain the process of deviation from
native speakers’ proficiency. This term is used to describe the set of linguistic structures that are
deviant from the TL and remain so no matter the length or type of exposure or explicit correction.

C. Sociolinguistics
Three approaches to Sociolinguistics must be considered here:

The Labovian paradigm

William Labov (1972) has arguably been more influential than any other researcher in establishing
the notion that language varies systematically in accordance with social characteristics of the speaker.
(Beebe 1987:45)
Labov’s theories are based on five axioms:
– Style shifting: speakers are able to shift their style in order to converge or diverge with their
interlocutors.
– Attention to style shifting is necessary to achieve the goals of convergence or divergence.

6 CUERPO DE PROFESORES DE ENSEÑANZA SECUNDARIA

Aprendizaje y adquisición de una lengua extranjera

– The vernacular (default style) is the style a speaker turns to when he is not paying attention
to style shifting.
– Formality is a determinant factor in style shifting.
– Good amount of data is necessary in order to establish relevant style shifting.

L. Dickerson (1975) extends Labov’s claims for L1 to the L2 situation. She claimed that:

– «There are no single style speakers» (p.201).

– «The dimension of attention operates whether the language is native or non-native.» (P.202).
– «The style where there is the least amount of attention to speech is the vernacular. When
attention is focused on speech, we get the superordinate style. The vernacular is the most
regular and systematic style, the superordinate the least regular and systematic.»
(Beebe 1987:52)

Criticism to Labov’s paradigm:

– E. Tarone (1985) stated that variability in interlanguage is not only related to attention to
the form. She predicted that the type of discourse and the level of cohesiveness required by
that discourse might also affect accuracy.
– Beebe (1980) supported the fact that high attention to speech is not always consistently
correlated with higher accuracy rates.
– E. Gatbonton (1978) proposed a dynamic paradigm, as opposed to Labov’s quantitative
paradigm, where IL variation reflects IL progression according to feelings of ethnic
group affiliation. She identified two phases in SLA: acquisition of language structure and
replacement due to social factors.

Speech accommodation theory

Giles & Smith (1979) attempted to explain the process of SLA on the basis of sociolinguistic
implications. They developed a speech accommodation theory that is based on the following points:

– Speakers adjust their speech to accommodate it to the speech of their interlocutors:

convergence.
– Speakers adjust their speech to become less similar to the speech of their interlocutors:
divergence.

The characteristics of speech shifts are as follows:

a) Speech accommodation can involve shifts in all linguistic levels: phonology, syntax, vocabulary....
b) Both convergence and divergence can be seen as upward or downward.
c) Convergence is related to a similarity attraction theory and need for approval.
d) Convergence and divergence are related to a social exchange theory.
e) Convergence can lead to casual attribution.
f) Convergence and divergence are variants in intergroup distinctiveness.

TEMARIO DE INGLÉS. PRUEBA A 7

Volumen I. Inglés

Attitudes and motivation

Attitude is generally linked to motivation because they form a complex of interrelated factors
that jointly operate in second language learning.
Gardner & Lambert identified two types of attitude that corresponded to two types of orientation
towards learning:
– Integrative with respect of the community of second language speakers.
– Oriented to attaining instrumental goals (Gardner & Lambert 1972).
Stern (1983) has identified three types of attitudes related to:
a) The community of L2 speakers.
b) The learning of the L2.
c) The learning of a second language in general.
Lambert & Lambert (1964) described the components of attitude. This factor has:
– A cognitive component referred to one’s belief about the object.
– An affective component referred to the amount of positive and negative feeling towards the
object.
– A conative component referred to one’s behavioural intentions towards the object.
In their study of the good language learner, Naiman et al. (1978) conclude that attitude plays
a more important role in language learning than Gardner & Lambert’s (1972) integrative and
instrumental orientations. They also claim that a positive attitude is a necessary, although not
sufficient, condition for success, being the most important condition at early stages.
Motivation, on the other hand, is accepted as the most powerful predictor of high proficiency
measures in second language learning. Many researchers have offered empirical support for this idea:
Gardner (1980) has reported on the positive correlation between a single index of motivation
derived from measures of affective responses and measures of second language proficiency.
Brown alluded directly to the importance of the context to determine a type of motivation:
... some learners in some contexts are more successful in learning a language if they are
integratively oriented, and others in different contexts benefit from an instrumental
orientation.
(Brown 1987:116)
Gardner (1979), in a revision of the work elaborated with Lambert, developed a «socio-educational
model» of second language acquisition which identified four variables explaining individual differences:
– Intelligence.
– Language aptitude.
– Motivation.
– Situational anxiety.
In this model, motivation has three components:
– Attitude to second language learning.
– Desire to learn the second language.
– Amount of effort put in the task of second language learning.

8 CUERPO DE PROFESORES DE ENSEÑANZA SECUNDARIA

Aprendizaje y adquisición de una lengua extranjera

Spolsky (1989) also agrees that attitude does not lead directly to proficiency, but through its
influence on motivation. He claims that individual’s achievement in learning is determined by the
following factors:

– Motivation.
– General intelligence.
– Language aptitude.
– Situational anxiety.

In the literature on school motivation, different types have been identified:

– Integrative motivation is described as the interest in L2 culture. This is opposed to instrumental

motivation, which reflects an interest in the goals that can be achieved by means of L2.
– Intrinsic motivation reveals an interest for the language itself, while Extrinsic motivation is
very similar to instrumental motivation.
– Need for achievement –also related to hope for success– is a powerful type of motivation in
academic environment. It is balanced by fear of failure –also related to fear of punishment
and critics–, which is rooted in general anxiety.

In the Lancaster Inventory of motivation and study habits, four main types of students were
identified according to the type of motivation they exhibit:

a) Stable and with achievement motivation.

b) Anxious and with fear of failure.

c) Extraverted, syllabus-free, with extrinsic motivation.

d) Idle and unmotivated (Entwistle 1981).

H.D. Brown (1987) distinguished three levels of motivation:

a) Global: towards learning a particular second language.

b) Situational: related to the context of learning.

c) Task-oriented: related to specific learning activities.

He concluded that the three of them must be present for efficient second language learning.
Entwistle (1987) also quotes a research in Hungary by Béla Kozéki (1985) where distinctive
styles of motivation are described according to the type of reward the individual seeks:

– Affective motivation requires an affective reward by relevant ‘others’.

– Cognitive motivation is favoured by academic success.
– Moral motivation requires a balanced personality with clear moral values.

A combination of cognitive motivation with either affective or moral domains is seen as the way to
a balanced academic success. A recommendation is made for parents and educators not to encourage an
exclusive cognitive motivation that might foment cold, aloof and possibly amoral individuals.

TEMARIO DE INGLÉS. PRUEBA A 9

Volumen I. Inglés

Resume:
The role of motivation in second language learning:

1 It is recognised as the most powerful predictor of achievement in learning.

One of its main components is attitude, which is influenced by the social context and
2
determines the type, level and style of motivation.

Types, levels and styles of motivation then are not stable characteristics of learners, but
3
are bounded by a number of individual, educatinal and sociocultural factors.

The influence of motivation on proficiency also flows in the reverse direction, although
4
the first is considered the original orientation.

D. Neurolinguistics
The most interesting lines of research in this field are based on clinical examinations of aphasics.
The most important objectives have been the establishment of hemisphere dominance and finding a
critical age in language learning.

Hemisphere dominance
Early research currents attempted to offer support for hemisphere dominance:

– Dax was the first who established the left-hemisphere dominance for language.
– Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area were identified.
– Vildomec (1963) defended that the left hemisphere is specialised for FLA, whereas the
right hemisphere is specialised for SLA.
More current thinking focuses on differences in modes of processing, not in types of stimuli, e.g.
analytic vs. holistic. Research supports that:

– Some language components are processed by the left hemisphere, while other components
are processed by the right hemisphere.
– Language learning strategies determine right or left hemisphere processing.
Research on bilingualism has offered interesting results. Two types of bilinguals have been
identified:

– Compound bilingualism: left hemisphere dominance.

– Co-ordinate bilingualism: left and right hemisphere are balanced.
In Second language learning, during the first phases of the process, children have shown right
hemisphere dominance, while adults have shown more left hemisphere activity.
According to the manner of SLA, informal learning is related to right hemisphere activity, while
the left hemisphere is more active in formal learning, e.g. school learning.

10 CUERPO DE PROFESORES DE ENSEÑANZA SECUNDARIA

Aprendizaje y adquisición de una lengua extranjera

Age hypothesis
Neuropsychologists Penfield and Roberts (1959) related FLA to the development of the brain in
childhood. They suggested that there is a critical period, which terminates around 9 to 12 years of
age, and it is characterised by neural plasticity. After this neural plasticity is lost, the functions of the
different parts of the brain cannot be rearranged.
Lennenberg’ s work Biological Foundations of Language (1967) set the critical period for language
learning from 2 years of age to puberty. He hypothesised the hemispheric specialisation of functions in the
brain, maintaining that lateralization of language functions in the left hemisphere was completed before
puberty. Language learning was very difficult after this age.
Krashen (1974) evidenced that left-hemispheric specialisation for language is present by 5 years
of age.
Walsh & Diller (1981) distinguished two types of neurones as responsible for different learning
functions:
– Macroneurons are fully mature and functional early in development. They allow for lower
order language processes.
– Local-circuit neurons connect to macroneurons and slowly develop into adulthood. They
keep neural plasticity and allow higher order language processes.
Empirical evidence also supports that:
– Older learners achieve higher levels of language proficiency than younger learners (Genesee
1981) in both naturalistic and school setting and during the initial stages of learning.
– Phonology is acquired by adults to a nativelike proficiency (Neufeld & Schneiderman 1980).
– Time –and the variables associated to it– seems to be the only factor that favours an early
start in language learning.

E. Cognitive psychology
Language as a Complex Cognitive Skills
The mechanisms for language comprehension and production are governed by the same rules
controlling other cognitive skills, such as storing knowledge, coding for retrieval, or logical reasoning.
Research on this field is based on information processing aspects of computer sciences.
Anderson’s (1983; 1985) representation of the competence underlying performance of a
complex cognitive skill by means of production systems has proved to be very useful to provide a
detailed view of the process in S.L.A.
The distinction between static and dynamic information in memory -the things and the things we
know how to do- constitutes the basis of a theory that attempts to explain different types of knowled-
ge as well as the stages of skill acquisition.

Types of knowledge
a) Declarative knowledge. It comprises all we are able to talk about, analyse, transfer, explain ... It
is stored in LTM in terms of images, temporal strings and propositional representation.
Each proposition is denoted by a relation followed by an ordered list of arguments. Relations
correspond to verbs, adjectives, or other relational terms, while the arguments correspond to the
nouns.

TEMARIO DE INGLÉS. PRUEBA A 11

Volumen I. Inglés

b) Procedural knowledge. It comprises what we are able to perform even though we are not able
to explain how we do it. It is represented in memory by production systems.
All complex cognitive skills can be represented as production systems. Production systems have
been identified from studies on artificial intelligence. In its most basic form a production system
is formed by a condition and an action. The condition contains a set of clauses preceded by IF,
and the action preceded by THEN.

Propositional representations can be gradually compiled, through practice, into a production

system and then fine-tuned for automatic execution.

Stages of skill acquisition

a) Cognitive Stage:
This is the first stage. It involves conscious activity to acquire the skill. The acquired knowledge
is typically declarative. Basic connections among the elements of the skill are established.

b) Associative Stage:
During this stage connections among the various components of the skill are strengthened.
Declarative knowledge is turned into its procedural form. Basic routines are established here.

c) Autonomous Stage:
Performance becomes increasingly fine-tuned. Automatic execution of subskills is possible.
The skill can be executed effortlessly and there is much less demand on working memory or
consciousness. It makes use entirely of procedural knowledge.

From a linguistic point of view:

Declarative knowledge consists of internalised L2 rules and memorised chunks of language,
while procedural knowledge consists of the strategies and other procedures employed by learners to
process L2 data.
Faerch & Kasper (1985) indicate that declarative knowledge is formed by different types of
rules:

a) «Interlanguage» rule knowledge, such as rules for phonology, graphology, morphology and
syntax.

b) Rules for pragmatics and discourse knowledge.

c) Rules for social interaction.

This knowledge tends to be static and is increased through learning. Procedural knowledge
activates and transforms this declarative information into automatic processing.
McLaughlin (1987) also views second language learning as the acquisition of a complex cognitive
skill, i.e. an integration of subskills, some of them requiring a gradual and controlled processing capacity,
is necessary for both language production and comprehension. Once a subskill can be performed without
a conscious effort, attention can be dedicated to other aspects of the process.
Language is learned by making use of automatic processing, while dedicating conscious
attention to create new associations and formulate, and check new hypotheses, which once validated
and practised, will form part of a new subskill operating automatically.

12 CUERPO DE PROFESORES DE ENSEÑANZA SECUNDARIA

Aprendizaje y adquisición de una lengua extranjera

F. A theory of SLA
Stephen D. Krashen (1982) presented a series of hypothesis that make up a coherent theory of
SLA The five hypothesis that constitute the pillars of his theory are next:
1. The acquisition/learning hypothesis (Krashen 1981).
Krashen claims that there are two ways for adult learners to gain proficiency in a second
language: subconscious acquisition and conscious learning. He considers acquisition by far
the more important of the two.
He defines acquisition as the process children use when developing skills in their mother tongue.
It is based on meaningful and purposeful communication with speakers of the TL in which the
learner is concerned not with the form of the language but with the message he is conveying
through language, remaining unaware of the linguistic rules and structures used in the process.
Error correction and explicit teaching of grammar are not relevant to language acquisition.
Learning consists of the internalisation of explicit rules under conscious control. It is the result
of formal instruction about language and is based on conscious knowledge of L2:
– Knowing the rules.
– Being aware of their use.
– and being able to talk about them.
Learning does not turn into acquisition.
2. The monitor hypothesis (Krashen 1978).
Conscious learning that results from formal instruction is available to the learner only as a monitor.
This is a language device that controls the output -and the input- for self-correction.
Learning acts upon the monitor by planning, checking and correcting the acquired system. It is
used to improve accuracy, but it becomes effective only if all three conditions are fulfilled.
These conditions are:
a) The learner knows the rule.
b) The learner is concerned with correction.
c) There is enough time to operate it.
3. The natural order hypothesis.
Studies on morpheme acquisition have proved that there is a natural order of acquisition, which
is independent of:
– Learners’ age.
– Learners’ L1.
– Or subskills being acquired (Ellis 1986:57).
The average acquisition order for nine morphemes was calculated by Krashen (1982). The
morphemes were not always acquired in the same order, but Krashen found that if they were put
in four groups the acquisition order of the groups was the same for all the subjects.
Group 1:
– Present progressive (-ing).
– Plural form (-s).
– Copula (be).

TEMARIO DE INGLÉS. PRUEBA A 13

Volumen I. Inglés

Group 2:
– Auxiliary (be).
– Articles (the/a).
Group 3:
– Past forms (irregular).
Group 4:
– Past forms (-ed).
– 3rd person singular S. Present (-s).
– Possessives (-s).
4. The input hypothesis.
Acquisition is the consequence of receiving comprehensible input. This is defined as input that
is one step beyond our current knowledge.
Learners acquire a second language by understanding messages containing forms that could not
be understood in isolation. This is done with the help of context or extralinguistic information.
This process is related to acquisition, not to learning. It is effective when some conditions are
given. These conditions are:
– Communication is successful.
– Input is understood.
– There is enough of it.
5. The affective filter hypothesis.
This is the part of the internal processing system that subconsciously screens incoming language
based on the learner’s motives, attitudes and emotional states.
Krashen differentiates low affective filter, which allows in a great deal of the input, and strong
affective filter, which filters out input language.
Adults acquire the second language in the same way that children acquire their first language. If
they do not become so competent as children, it is because they have some kind of affective
difficulty. Affective barriers prevent effective language acquisition.

2. INTERLANGUAGE
The concept of interlanguage is related to the theories of learner variety and hypothesis testing.

A. Theory of learner variety

The group of rules that the learner has acquired plus the critical rules constitute the learner’s
current repertoire and as such form a learner variety of the target language.
The main features are:
– Its systematicity and coherence.
Any language variety, no matter how rudimentary, has, apart from some variable compo-
nents, a certain intrinsic systematicity. Thus the function of any one word or construction wit-
hin the given variety cannot be derived solely from the function of the corresponding word or
construction in the target language. (Klein 1986:29).

14 CUERPO DE PROFESORES DE ENSEÑANZA SECUNDARIA

Aprendizaje y adquisición de una lengua extranjera

– It is related to the learning process.

The process of language acquisition can be constructed as a series of transitions from
one variety to the next, and these transitions again reveal an inherent systematicity.
(Klein 1986:29).

B. Language learning process

It is generally agreed that the central learning process for acquiring a language is hypothesis
testing. This process follows some steps:

– Identifying a particular characteristic of TL, i.e., by transfer or generalisation.

– Forming a hypothesis based on that identification.
– Testing the hypothesis by means of the receptive skills.
– Receiving feedback by means of the productive skills.
– Delaying decision until more feedback is provided, or either accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis.

Acquiring a TL linguistic rule is then only possible when that rule is critical (in conditions to be
tested) for the learner. Linguistic instruction is dependent upon learners sensibility to explicit
correction according to their stage of interlanguage. Rules become critical according to some logical
sequencing (natural order of acquisition) which is not derived from L1 knowledge, but it is part of a
creative construction of TL knowledge that seems to be controlled by universal cognitive principles,
e.g. meaningful learning (Klein 1986).

3. THE TREATMENT OF ERRORS

Errors must be differentiated from mistakes. An error is described as the misuse of a language rule
due to lack of knowledge –either declarative or procedural– about that rule. A mistake is a misuse of a
language rule when it is due to reasons other than lack of knowledge, i.e. a lapse, a slip of the tongue...
According to Behaviourist theories, language learning was a process of habit formation and,
consequently, was based on repetition. Incorrect forms of the language should be avoided. Errors
should be corrected as soon and efficiently as possible.
Under the Communicative approach, language learning efficiency is related to language use
in communicative situations. The learning emphasis is placed on fluency not on accuracy. As a
learner-centred methodology is proposed, learners must be involved in self-correction. Students
learn more effectively if they can correct themselves rather than if they are given the correct
version straight away.
Results from SLA research reveal that errors are:

– Inevitable as part of the learning process.

– Signal of progression.
– Importance of affective variables. Positive feedback.

TEMARIO DE INGLÉS. PRUEBA A 15