UNIT 1

Composition of Milk
Structure
1.1 Definition of milk, PFA designated milks
1.2 Composition of milk of different species
1.3 Factors affecting composition of milk
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
• Define Milk
• PFA standards and milks.
• Composition of Milk and different species.
• Factors affecting the composition of milk.
1.1 Definition of milk,PFA designated milks
Definition
Milk may be defined as the whole, fresh, clean lacteal secretion obtained
by the complete milking of one or more healthy milchy animals, excluding that
obtained within 15 days before or 5 days after calving, or such periods as may
be necessary to render the milk practically colostrum free, and containing the
minimum prescribed percentage of milk fat and milk - solids- not fat. in india,
the term ‘milk’ when unspecified, refers to cows or buffalos milk or a combination
of both.
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The term market milk refers to fluid whole milk that is sold to individuals
usually for direct consumption. It excludes milk consumed on the farm and that
used for the manufacture of dairy products.
PFA Designated milk
According to Prevention of Food Adultration (PFA) rules 1976 the
standards for different classes and designation of milk in India are given in the
table

Class of milk Designation Locally Minimum

% milk %
fat milk
so li d s
not fat

Buffalo milk Raw, Assam, Bihar, (6.0) (9.0)

pasteurized, Chandigarh, Delhi,
boiled, flavoured Gujarat,
sterilized. Maharastra,
Haryana, Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal.
Andaman and (5.0) (9.0)
Nicobar, Andhra
-do-
Pradesh, Dadra
and Nagar -
Haveli; Goa
Daman and Diu,
Kerala, Himachal
Pradesh,
Lakshadeep;
Tamil Nadu,
Madhya Pradesh,
Manipur,
Karnataka,
Nagaland,
Orissa,
Pondichery,
Rajasthan, Tripura,
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 3

.
Cow milk -do- Chandigarh, Haryana, (4.0) (8.5)
Punjab.
-do- Andaman & Nicobar, (3.5) (8.5)
Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, Bihar, Dadra
and Nagar - Haveli,
Delhi, Gujarat, Goa,
Daman and Diu,
Himachal Pradesh,
Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Tamil nadu, Karnataka,
Manipur, Rajasthan,
Nagaland, Pondichery,
Rajasthan, Tripura, Uttar
pradesh, West Bengal,
Lakshadeep.

-do- Orissa (3.0) (9.0)

Goat or Raw, Chandigarh, Haryana, (3.5)
Sheep Kerala, Madhya (9.0)
pasteurized
milk boiled, Pradesh, Maharastra,
flavoured Punjab, Uttar Pradesh.
and
sterilized .
Andaman and Nicobar, (3.0) (9.0)
-do-
Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, Bihar, Dadra
and Nagar - Haveli,
Delhi, Goa, Daman and
Diu, Gujarat, Himachal
Pradesh, Lakshadeep,
Tamil nadu, Karnataka,
Maniput, Nagaland,
Pondichery, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Tripura and
West Bengal.
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Standardized All India (4.5) (8.5)

milk

All India (3.0) (8.5)

Recombined
milk

Toned Milk All India (3.0) (8.5)

Double Toned All India (1.5) (9.0)

milk
Skim milk All India Not more (8.7)
than 0.5

1.2 Composition of milk from different species

Name of the species Percentage Composition
Water fat Protein Lactose Ash
Cow (foreign 86.6 4.6 3.4 4.9 0.7
Buffalo 84.2 6.6 3.9 5.2 0.8
Ewe (sheep) 79.4 8.6 6.7 4.3 1.0
Goat 86.5 4.5 3.5 4.7 0.8
Ass 90.0 1.3 1.7 6.5 0.5
Camel 86.5 3.1 4.0 5.6 0.8
Elephant 67.8 19.6 3.1 8.8 0.7
Mare 89.1 1.6 2.7 6.1 0.5
Sow 89.6 4.8 1.3 3.4 0.9
Whale 70.1 19.6 9.5 - 1.0
Dog 75.4 9.6 11.2 3.1 0.7
Ginne pig 82.2 5.5 8.5 2.9 0.9
Cat 84.6 3.8 9.1 4.9 0.6
Liama 86.5 3.2 3.9 5.6 0.8
Human Milk 87.7 3.6 1.8 6.8 0.1
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 5

Water : Water constitutes the medium in which the other milk

constituents are either dissolved or suspended. Most of it is free and only a very
small portion is in bound form, being firmly bounded by milk proteins
phospholipids etc.
Total solids : Total solids constitutes lipids (Fat) and solid not Fat.
Milk Fat (Lipids) : The bulk of the fat in the milk exists in the form of
small globules, which average approximately 2 to 5 microns in size. This an oil -
in - water type emulsion. The surface of these fat globules is coated with an
adsorbed layer of material commonly known as the fat globule membrane. This
membrane contains phospholipids, and proteins in the form of a complex and
stabilizes the fat emulsion. In other words, the membrane prevents the fat globules
from coalescing and separating from one and another. The emulsion may,
however, be broken by agitation (at low temperature), of heating, freezing etc.
Chemically, milk fat is composed of a number of glycerid - esters of
fatty acids milk fat on hydrolysis gives a mixture of fatty acids and glycerol.(The
milk fat is a mixture of true fats in established from the fact that it has no sharp
melting point). The fatty acids are saturated or unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated
fatty acids are relatively stable.
The fat associated substances are phospholipids, cholesterol, carotene
and fat soluble vitamins ( A, D, E, K).
Phospholipids : Three types of phospholipids, exists ie. Lecithin,
Cephalin and Sphingomylin. Lecithin, which forms an important constituent of
the fat globule membrane, contributes to the richness of flavour of milk and
other dairy products. It is highly sensitive to oxidative changes, giving rise to
oxidized / metallic flavours. Phospholipids are excellent emulsifying agents, and
no doubt serve to stabilize the milk fat emulsion.
Cholesterol : This appears to be present in true solution in the fat, as a
part of fat globule membrane complex and in complex formation with proteins in
the non - fat portion of milk.
Fat Soluble Pigments : Carotene is fat soluble and responsible for the
yellow colour of milk, cream, butter, ghee, and other fat rich products. Carotene
acts as antioxidant and also as a precursor of Vitamin A. One molecule of B -
carotene gives two molecules of Vitamin A, where as carotene give one.
Fat Soluble Vitamins : Milk is rich in fat soluble Vitamin ie. A, D,
Eand K. Solid - not - fat content contains lactose, proteins and mineral contents.
Milk Sugar or Lactose : This exists in milk only. it is in true solution in
milk serum. On crystallization from water, it forms hard gritty crystals. It is one
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- sixth as sweet as sucrose. Lactose, on crustullization is responsible for the

defect known as sandiness in ice - cream or condensed milk. It is fermented by
bacteria to yield lactic acid and other organic acids and is important both in the
production of cultured milk products and in the spoilage of milk and milk products
by souring.
Milk Proteins : The proteins in milk consists mainly of casein,
lactaglobulin, lactalbumin, milk serum albumin, immuno globulins etc. Case in
forms more than 80% of the total proteins of the milk. Casein exists only in milk
and is found in the form of calcium caseinate phosphate complex. It is present in
colloidal state. It may be precipitated by acid,rennet, alcohol, heat and
concentration. Casein compose of a, b and gamma fraction. a - casein micelle
in milk. b and gamma forms constitutes 22 and 3 percent respectively. a - casein
constitute two fractions as is calcium sensitive which is coagulated by calcium
ions and another form is K-casein which is called calcium insensitive casein
fraction, not precipitated by calcium ion. K-casein is the richest repository of
carbohydrates as against other casein fractions. It is the site for rennin action.
Lactalbumin and lactaglobulin are known as ‘whey or serum
proteins’.They are also present in colloidal state and are easily coagulated by
heat. Milk serum albumin is same as blood serum albumin of the blood.
Immunolobulins are present only in colostrum and gives immunity to the calves.
Non protein nitrogenous compounds : Eg : Ammonia, aminiocids,
proteose - peptones, urea, uric acid etc.
Mineral Matter or Ash : The mineral matter or salts of milk although
present in small quantities, exert considerable influence on the physico-chemical
properties and nutritive value of milk. The major salt constituents i.e. those present
in appreciable quantities, includes potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium,
phosphate, citrate, chloride, sulphate and bicarbonate.The trace elements includes
all other minerals and salt compounds. The mineral salts of milk are usually
determained after ashing.
Although milk is acidic, ash is distinctly basic. Part of the mineral salts
occur in true solution, while a part are in colloidal state.
Other Constituents
Pigments : Water soluble pigments are Riboflevin and Xanthophyll.
Riboflavin besides being a vitamin, is a greenish yellow pigment which gives
characteristic colour to whey. Earlier it is Known as lactoflavin or lactochrome.
Dissolved Gase : Milk contains gases like 02, Co2, N2 etc.,
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 7

Vitamins : Water soluble vitamin B complex and vitamin ‘C’.

Enzymes : These are biological catalysts. Milk contains Amylase,
Lipase, Phosphatase, protease, peroxidase and catalase enzymes.
Details Composition of Milk
Constituents or Group of Constituent Approx.

( Wt per Litre of milk)

Water 860-880 g.
Lipids in emulsion phase
Milk fat 30-50 g.
Phospholipids 0.30 g.
Sterols 0.10 g.
Vitamin A.D.E.K
Proteins in Colloidal Dispersion
Casein ( a,b,g) 25 g.
Lactalbumin 3. g.
Lactoglobulin 0.7 g.
Albumin, pseudoglobulin etc
Dissolved Materials
Lactose 45-50 g.
Inorganic and organic ions and salts
Calcium 1.25 g.
Phosphates 2.1 g.
Citrates 2.0 g.
Chlorides 1.0 g.
Trace Minerals
Cu, Fe, I
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1.3 Factors Affecting Composition of Milk

Milk differs widely in composition. All milks contains the same kind of
constituents, but in varying amounts. Milk fat shows greatest daily variation,
then comes proteins, followed by ash and lactose.
The various factors that affect the composition of milk are
1. Species : Each species yield milk of a characteristic composition as
shown in chapter 1.2.
2. Breed : In general, breeds producing the largest amount of milk,
yeild milk of a lower fat percentage vice versa. Holstein - Friesian gives less fat
where as Jersey gives high fat in cow breeds.
3. Individual Variation : Each cow tends to yeild milk of a composition
that is charactaristic of the individual.
4. Season : Both fat and SNF show slight but well defined variation
during the course of year. A variation in fat percent when graphed is of ‘U’
shape with maximum values in January and November and minimum in June.
For non - fat - solids graph will be ‘W’ shaped showing highest values in January
and December. Lower values occurs in April and August but during these two
months little increase .
5. Age : Fat percent increase up to 3rd laction and after wards
decrease. SNF will be high in the first laction and slightly decrease as locations
increased.
6. Milk Interval : When milking is done at longer intervals, the yield is
more with a corresponding decrease in fat and vice versa. It has not much effect
on - solid - not - fat content.
7. Completeness of Milk : Fore milk contains less fat and strippings
(last milk) contains high fat. If the milking is not complete, it tests less fat. Not
much effect on SNF.
8. Irregularity in Milking : Frequent changes in the milking timings
and frequent changes in milking intervals results in less fat and not much effect
on SNF.
9. Yield : With increase in yield per milking the percentage of lactose
increases, while fat and non - fatty solids decrease.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 9

10. Lactation Effect : The first secretion after parturition namely

colostrum high in globules and chlorides and low lactose content. The yield
increase and attains maximum within 2-4 weeks and then slowly decrease. When
the yield is more, fat and SNF decrease and vice versa.
11. Exercise : More exercise increase fat in milk as body fat is
metabolized - no effects on SNF.
12. Excitement : Sexual or freight excitement caused decrease in fat,
and has no - effect in SNF.
13. Hormones : Prolactin and thyroid hormone which are essential for
milk synthesis increase the fat percentage. Oestrogen has stimulating and
depression effect, optimum levels causes increase in fat and higher doses
decreases the fat percent.
14. Udder Diseases : Mastitis and other udder diseases causes low
lactose and casein %, increase in chloride content. Subnormal SNF is the
characteristic of mastitis.
15. Physiological Condition : The condition of cow at the time of
parturition has effect on fat and SNF content. Healthy cows gives high fat and
SNF content.
16. Pasture Feeding : Pasture feeding increase both fat and SNF.
Pasture feeding increases unsaturated fatty acids in milk.
17. Feeding : Feeding oils such as palm oil, coconut oil increase fat
percent where codliver oil decreases the fat percentage. Starvation increases
unsaturated fatty acids in milk.
Summary
The definition of milk and various PFA designated milks discussed. The
composition of various species milk and the detailed composition of milk
explained. The various factors affecting the composition of milk mentioned. The
nutritive and energy value of milk explained.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define milk as per PFA.
2. What are fat and SNF standards for Toned and Double Toned Milks?
3. Mention fat and SNF levels in recombined and standardlized milk.
4. Give the composition of buffalo milk.
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5. What are the various types of proteins present in milk ?

6. What is the effect of mastitis on fat and SNF of milk ?
7. Mention the energy values of cow and buffalo milk.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Breifly write about PFA designated milks.
2. Give the composition of cow, buffalo, sheep, goat and human milks.
3. Draw schematic diagram of detailed composition of milk.
4. Explain in detail the detailed composition of milk.
5. What are the various factors affecting the composition of milk ?
6. Briefly write about nutritive value of milk.

9. Yeild :
UNIT 2
Physico Chemical Properties
of Milk
Structure
2.1 Colour and flavour
2.2 pH and Acidity
2.3 Specific Gravity of Milk
2.4 Off - Flavours
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
• Understand about color and favour of Milk
• pH and acidity
• Specific gravity of Milk and their off Flavours
2.1 Colour and Flavour.
The colour of an opaque object is the colour it reflects. The yellow
object. Yellow light is reflected to the eye. White object reflects the entire colour,
while black absorbs all the colours. The characteristic white opalescent colour
of milk is due to scattering of light by the colloidal particles which it contains.
The yellow colour of carotene is confined to the fat phase and therefore, becomes
prominent in cream layer and more so in butter. The colour of the milks are
Buffalo Milk : Creamy White
Cow’s Milk : Yellowish creamy white
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Skim Milk : Bluish

Whey : Greenish yellow (This is due to pigment Riboflavin)
The intensity of yellow colour of cow milk depends on various factors
such as breed, feeds, size of fat globules, fat percentage of milk. Certain breeds
of cow imparts deeper colour of yellow than other. The greater intake of green
feed, the deeper the colour of cow milk. The larger the fat globules and the
higher the fat percentage, the greater the intensity of yellow colour.
Flavour is a property difficult to define but the help of taste and smell is
taken in its judgment. The sweet taste of lactose is balanced by the salty taste of
minerals, specifically chlorides and both are damped down by proteins. Some
workers attribute the characteristic rich flavour of dairy products to
phospholipids. Hence of flavour of milk, is delicately balanced property. With
advance in lactation, lactose decreases and so milk becomes salty. Similar
dislocation occurs sometimes due to udder disturbances.
The flavour of milk is shifted from normal sometimes due to passage in
to milk the odour of certain plants as mint and garlic. Whether odiferous feed
effect the flavour of milk due to passage through blood to milk or due to the
remarkable absorbing capacity of the milk from atmosphere is not yet definite.
Both the possibilities can be avoided by the feeding such feed immediately after
milking so that if former possibility exists tainting material may be excreted by
the next milking and if the latter possibly exists, all traces of food would have
removed by the next milking time. The freshly drawn milk has certain ‘cowy’
odour which passes off by the time reaches the consumer. With the development
of lactic acid the flavour also changes to ‘sour’. This is due to lactic acid,
butyric acid and diacetyl.
Sulphydryl compounds significantly contribute to the cooked flavour in
heated milks.
2.2 pH and Acidity
The hydrogen ion concentration of milk is about 10-66 gms per litre that
is in terms of pH value it is 6.6. Freshly drawn milk is amphoteric to litmus i.e.
it turns red litmus to blue and blue litmus to red. The pH of cow milk is 6.4 – 6.6
and buffalo milk 6.7 – 6.8. Higher pH values in freshly drawn milk indicates
mastitis.
When the milk is drawn from the udder of the cow, it is acidic in nature,
which is called natural acidity or apparent acidity. This is mainly due to the
presence of casein, acid phosphates and citrates and to a lesser degree to albumin,
globulin and carbondioxide. The acidity is estimated by titrating 10 ml of milk
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 13

against N/9 sodium hydroxide solution in the presence of phenolphthalein

indicator, and expressed as percentage of lactic acid. In titration the standard
alkali required to shift the pH of milk to 8.4 PH, which change in colour of
phenolphthalein becomes perceptible.
Colostrum has high natural acidity due to its high protein content. In
early lactation also the value is above average by the value is above average but
the value falls about normal in second month and then remain fairly steady until
the last month of lactation, when further decline occur. The natural acidity of
individual, stage of lactation, physiological condition of the udder etc. the high
the solid not fat content of the milk, the higher the natural acidity and vice versa.
When the milk is kept for some time, the bacteria will multiply and utilize
lactose and converts in to lactic acid, there by increasing the acidity and decreasing
the pH value. This acidity is known as developed or real acidity, the sum of
natural acidity and developed acidity is known as titratable acidity.
Milk having titratable acidity more than 0.18 % is not suitable to prepare
heat treated products as the milk coagulates on heating.
The dilution of milk will decrease the acidity and increases the pH.
Heating of milk increases acidity due to conversion of colloidal casein in to
soluble casein and formation of acids by degradation of lactose.
2.3 Specific Gravity of Milk
The density of a substance is its mass (weight per unit volume). Specific
gravity is the ratio of density of the substance to the density of standard substance
(water). Since the density of a substance varies with temperature, it is necessary
to specify the temperature when reporting specific gravities or densities. The
gravity of a substance (when referred to water at 4oC) is numerically equal to
the density of that substance in the metric system. The specific gravity of milk is
usually expressed at 60 o F (15.6oC).
The density of specific gravity of milk may be determined by either
determined by either determining the weight of a known volume or the volume
of a known weight. The weight of a known volume may be determined either
with a pydnometer or with hydrostatic balance; while the volume of a known
weight is determined by using lactometer; the scale of which is calibrated not in
terms of volume but as a function of either density or specific gravity. The
Common types of lactometers are zeal, quevenne etc.)
Milk is heavier than water. The average specific gravities are
Cow Milk : 1.028 to 1.030
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Buffalo Milk : 1.030 to 1.032

Skim Milk : 1.035 to 1.037
The specific gravity of milk is influenced by the proportion of its
constituents (eg. Composition), each of which has different specific gravity
approximately as follows.
Water : 1.000
Fat : 0.930
Protein : 1.346
Lactose : 1.666
Salts : 4.12
SNF : 1.616
As the milk fat is lighter constituent, the more there is of it the lower the
specific gravity will be and vice versa. However, although buffalo milk contains
more fat than cow milk. Its specific gravity is higher than the latter, this is because
buffalo milk contains more solids-not-fat as well, which ultimately results in a
higher specific gravity.
The specific gravity of milk is decreased by
• Addition of water
• Addition of cream (fat)
• Increased temperature.
The specific gravity of milk is increased by
• Addition of separated milk
• Removal of fat
• Reduction of temperature.
The specific gravity of milk is calculated by the following formula.
Sp. Gravity of milk is = 1 + CLR/ 1000
When CLR = Corrected Lactometer Reading. As the temperature of
expression is 60o F. if the temperature is more than 60o F, add 0.1 for every 1o
F above 60o F to the lactometer reading or subtract 0.1 for every 1o F below
60o F from the lactometer reading to get corrected lactometer reading Richmond
has given formula for SNF% and total solid % in milk as given below.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 15

% SNF in milk = CLR/4 +0.2F +0.14

% of total solids = CLR /4+1.2f +0.14
Recently Richmond’s formula has been recalculated for the use with
modern improved density hydrormeter.
% SNF = 0.25 D +0.2 F +0.66
% total solids =0.25 D +1.2 F +0.66
D = Density hydrometer reading at20o C
i.e. (1000 x Density – 1)
F = Fat%
The specific gravity of milk should not be determined for atleast one
hour after it has drawn from the udder; else a lower value than normal value will
be obtained. This is due to dissolved gases which will escape after wards.
Another theory is conversion of liquid fat (light) to solid condition (heavy). The
specific gravity of freshly drawn milk tests less.
2.4 Off – Flavours
Among foods, milk is particularly susceptible to off flavours. In this
regard, the animal constitutes the initial problem by acting as a condenser for
odour substances in feeds, weeds, and barn air. In a matter of minutes following
inhalation by the dairy animal, strong odors may be reflected in the flavour of
milk. Off flavours in milk and its products are divided in to three aspects.
Chemical flavour deterioration and absorbed flavour.
1. Chemical Flavour Deterioration : There flavours are produced
by heat, light, air etc. They are oxidized flavour, rancid flavour, sunlight flavour,
heated flavour.
Oxidized Flavour : Phospholipids in the milk serve as the origin of
oxidized flavour in fluid milk. Sweet cream butter which is particularly high in
phospholipids is very susceptible to oxidized flavour development. Phospholipids
oxidation is accompanied by a flavour termed called board or cappy. Numbers
of factors are essential for the development of oxidized flavour in fluid milks.
The first important is atmospheric oxygen. The copper and sun light acts as a
catalysts. The primary substrates from which the flavour compounds are formed
are highly unsaturated fatty acids. Oxygen is known to attack the methylene
group adjacent to the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids resulting in
formation of hydroperoxides. These are unstable leading to secondary oxidation
products like α – β unsaturated aldehydes.
16 Dairying

CH2 - O - R
CH - O -R
CH2 - O -C - (CH2)7 - CH = CH - CH2 - CH = CH - (CH2)4 - CH3
CH2OR
CHOR
CH2O - C - (CH2)7 - CH2 - CHO + OHC - CH = CH - (CH2)4 - CH3
Copper, even when present in milk at levels of ppm is very potent catalyst.
Using of processing temperature will activate Sulphydryl (-SH) groups of
Lactaglobulin and acts as effective in preventing oxidized flavour.
(b) Rancid Flavour (hydrolytic Rancidity)
The lipase enzyme in the presence of water hydrolyses triglycerides
liberating free acids. Butyric acid is the principle acid responsible for rancid
flavour in dairy products.
Pasteurization destroys the lipases in milk. Homogenization increases
the surface area of fat globules, so favour rancid flavour.
(c) Sun Light Flavour : Also known as burnt or cabbage flavour. The
amino acid methionine appears to serve as the specific origin of sun light flavour.
Riboflavin is directly involved in the development of sun light flavour. The principle
off flavour compound is 3-mercapto-methylpropionaldehyde (methionol).
(d) Heated Flavours : When heat treatments in excess of those
employed for pasteurization are used, a distinct cooked flavour develops. This
flavour arise from –SH groups activated by heat denaturation of β- Lactaglobulin.
The flavour is specifically due to volatile sulfids and hydrogen sulfide CH2S in
particular. When heat treatment is prolonged cooked flavour slowly gives way
to caramelized flavour. The lactose is responsible for coconut flavour.
2. Microbiological flavour deterioration : The growth of different
microorganisms in the milk and milk products give rise to different flavours.
Off Flavours Organism Responsible
Malty flavour Streptococcus Lactic var maltigenes
Unclean flavour E-Coli, Aerobacter aerogenes
Potato flavour Pseudomonas graveolens
Medicinal flavour Aerobacter aerogenes
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 17

Off Flavour Organism Responsible

Fishy flavour Pseudomonas Fluorescens
Phenol flavour Bacillus Circulans
Amyl alcohol flavour Micrococcus caseolyticus
Putrid Pseudomonas putrefaciens
Fruity Pseudomonas fragi.

For the development of microbiological off flavours different chemical

reactions will occur. For example malty flavour is produced by s. lactis var.
maltigenes. This is due to action of organism on amino aid leucine to produce is
ovaleraldyde (CH2)2 – CH - CH2 –CH NH2 – COOH —— > (CH3)2
CH-CH2-CH + NH3 + CO2 even 0.5 ppm of isovaleraldehyde gives
characteristic malty flavour.
3. Absorbed Flavours : Flavourful substances may enter milk either
before or after milking. There are two path ways by which flavours and odour
substances may gain entry into milk via cow. One is by nose or mouth to the
lungs, to the blood stream, to the udder cells and into the milk. The other is from
the digestive tract to the blood, to the udder cells and in to the milk. For example,
when a cow either eats or smells onions or garlic, the odour is noted in the blood
within a very few minutes and flavour is detected in the milk within 20-30 minutes.
Off flavours that are absorbed into milk through cow are classified as feed,
weed, cowy, barny and unclean. The most problematic among these are feed
and weed off flavours.
Sources of feed Flavours Sources of Feed with little
Weed Flavours effect
Onions Garlic and chives Sugar beets,
dried beet pulp.
Fermented silage French weed Soya beans
Alfalfa Mustard Carrots
Cabbage Bone set Pumpkins
Turnips Buck horn Soy beans hay
Rape Pepper glass Potatoes
Kale Tar weeds Mangoes
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Sources of feed Flavours Sources of Feed with little

Weed Flavours effect
Beet tops Alanthus shots Oats
Green barley Rag Weed Rye
Clover hay Wild tansy Peas
Distillers grains Dog fennel Corn, Clover & grass
Brewers grains Timothy hay
Musty hay or silage Most concentrates
Citrus pulp Tankage
Milk will never absorb odour or flavour from the barn or stable air
during the course of customary milking. The off flavours are also derived from
cow breathing under improper ventilation. In this connection, it is of interest that
morning milk frequently carries a Bany taint, when cows are stable under
conditions of poor air circulations.
Cowy or Bany flavour is particularly prevalent in raw milk supplies during
the winter months. The sources are (a) tainted stable air (b) abnormal silage
fermentation either due to temperature or age of silage (c) ketosis, a disease in
cattle involving the endogenous energy metabolism. Ketosis in dairy animals is
fairly common especially in the late winter or early spring ad particularly after
calving. The animal blood show high concentration of acetone bodies and milk
from such animals contains some what lower concentration of these substances.
Direct relation occurs between the concentration of acetone in milk and
degree of cowy flavour.
Summary
The various import physicochemical properties of milk, i,e. Colour flavour,
pH acidity, specific gravity, freezing point, viscosity, surface tension, B,R. Reading,
electrical conductivity, oxidation - reduction potential Buffering of milk were
discussed in detail. The various factors that affects the different physico - chemical
properties of milk explained in details.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Mention the colour of cow and buffalo milks.
2. Mention the colour of skim milk and whey.
3. What are Ph and acidity values of cow and buffalo milks ?
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 19

4. What are the specific gravity values of cow, Buffalo and skim milk ?
5. What are the factors that affects the specific gravity of milk ?
6. Mention the richmond’s formulae for SNF and total solids estimation
in milk.
7. How freezing point of milk is helpful to detect adultration of milk with
water.
8. Define viscosity.
9. What are the factors that affects viscosity of milk ?
10. What are the constituents responsible for buffering action in milk ?
11. What are the normal values of viscosity, surface tension and potential
of milk ?
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Briefly write about colour and flavour of milk.
2. Describe in detail about PH and acidity of milk.
3. Explain about specific gravity of milk.
4. Briefly explain about viscosity and surface tension of milk.
5. What is viscosity ? However viscosity of milk is affected.
6. Explain the buffering actin in milk.
20 Dairying

UNIT 3
Adulterants and Preservatives
Structure
3.1 Adulterants in milk – their detection
3.2 Preservatives in Milk – their Detection
3.3 Adulteration of Buffalo Milk with Cow Milk Hamsa Test
3.4 Effects of adulterants and Preservatives on human health
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
• Understand about Adulterants and preservatives in Milk
• Understand about Adulteration of Buffalo Milk and Cow Milk.
• Understand about effects of Adulterants.
3.1 Adulterants in milk – their detection
Adulterants of milk may be defined as addition of any material to the
milk or removal of any constituent of milk. As per PFA adultration of milk is not
allowed and it is punishable with a fine and imprisonment. The common
adulterants in milk are
1. Addition of water
2. Removal of fat
3. Addition of cane sugar
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 21

4. Addition of starch/ cereal flour

5. Addition of skim milk powder
6. Addition of gelatin
7. Addition of urea
8. Addition of Ammonium sulphate
9. Addition of glucose
The common adultration of milk is addition of water. By water adultration
of milk constituents are diluted (Fat and SNF). The water adultrated milk tests
less lactometer readings and less SNF content. To mask this other compounds
listed above are added so that milk shows required lactometer reading. The
water adultrated milk will be thin and nonviscous. To mask this also the various
substances are added, so that the adultrated (water) milk will have normal
consistency.
Detection of Adultrants of milk
1. Added water: Many methods are used for detection of milk adultration
with water.
(a) By estimation of SNF : Estimate the sold not fat content of the
sample of milk and calculate the percent of added water using the following
formulae

% added water = S–s x 100

S

Where S = Standard SNF (9.0 for Buffalo milk, 8.5 for cow milk)
S = SNF of sample milk.
This method is not appropriate, as the people will make up SNF with
addition of other adultration listed from 3 to 9 as given above.
(b) Detection of Nitrate : Natural water supplied usually contain
nitrates, where as milk contains no appreciable traces, therefore the presence of
nitrates in milk may be taken as evidence of watering the milk. The disadvantage
of this method is some public water supplies are free of nitrates.
(c) Freezing point test : Freezing point of milk is its most constant
property. By using hortvet cryoscope freezing point of milk is estimated. Addition
of water will dilute the dissolved constituents so that the freezing point of milk on
adultration with water causes less depression. The normal freezing point
22 Dairying

depression of cow milk is 0.547oC and buffalo milk is 0.549o C. This method
cannot detect addition of fat separated milk, as skim milk has the same freezing
point will be normal, as acid will give soluble ions to depress the freezing point.
(d) Spectrometric method : Recently spectrometer has been suggested
as a means of detecting addition of water to milk. This method will detect 10 %
of adultration of milk with water. This method cannot detect pure water as rain
water or may upland surface water incomplete.
2. Removal of Fat : Fat being the costly ingredient of milk, some
portion of fat is removed. Removal of fat also comes under adultration of milk.
Detect the fat Percentage of the sample of milk and calculate the percent of fat
removed using the formulae
F–f x100
% of fat removed =
F

Where F = Standard fat or fat in pure milk.

f = Fat percent in the sample of milk.
3. Addition of Cane Sugar
• Take 10 ml of milk in a test tube
• Add 1 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid and mix
• Add 0.1 g of resorcinol powder and mix thoroughly.
• Place the test tube in a boiling water bath for 5 minutes and observe
for colour
Red colour obtained with resorcinol indicates adultration of milk with
cane sugar
4. Addition of starch / Cereal flour
• Take 3 ml of well mixed sample of milk in a test tube
• Boil the milk over a Bunsen burner
• Cool and add one drop of 1 percent Iodine solution ad observe for
colour change.
Iodine solution gives intense blue colour with starch due to formation of
an unstable complex starch – iodo compound. So development of blue colour
indicates adultration of milk with starch / cereal flour.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 23

5. Addition of skim milk powder.

• Take 50 ml in each of two centrifuge tubes and balance properly in the
centrifuge.
• Centrifuge at 3000 RPM for 30 mts.
• Decant the supernatant liquid carefully.
• Dissolve the residue in 2.5 ml of concentrated nitric acid.
• Dilute the solution with 5 ml of water
• Add 2.5 ml of liquid ammonia and observe for colour development.
Skim milk powder being highly proteinacious in nature gives orange
colour with nitric acid. While unadulterated milk being low in protein content
gives only a yellow colour.
6. Addition of Gelatin
• Take 10 ml of milk in test tube
• Add an equal amount of mercuric nitrate solution mercury is dissolved
twice of its weight of nitric acid of sp. G. 1.422. Before use this solution is
diluted with distilled water to 25 times of its volume.
• Shake and add 20 ml of distilled water shake again and allow to
stand.
• Filter after 5 minutes.
• Add to a part of the filtrate an equal volume of picric acid reagent
(saturated solution of picric acid solution) and observe.
White cloudiness shows the presence of gelatin in the milk. Yellow
Precipitate indicates a large amount of gelatin added. Transparent yellow solution
indicates absence of gelatin.
7. Addition of Urea
• Take 5 ml of milk sample in 50 ml of conical flask.
• Add 5 ml of sodium acetate buffer or 24% Tricloroacetic acid solution
and heat for 3 min in boiling water bath (no heating if Tricloroacetic acid is
used).
• Filter the precipitates through a what man no 42. Filter paper and
collect 1 ml of filtrate in a test tube.
24 Dairying

• Add one ml of sodium hydroxide solution (2% solution) to the filtrate,

followed by 0.5 ml of sodium hypochloride solution (2% solution), mix thoroughly
and finally add 0.5 ml of 5% (W/V) phenol solution and observe.
A characteristic blue or bluish green colour in the filtrate from the milk
with extraneous urea indicate the presence of urea. Colourless indicate no urea
added. This will detect even 0.1 percent of urea addition.
8. Addition of Ammonium Sulphate.
• Take 1 ml of milk in a test tube.
• Add 0.5 ml of sodium hydroxide (2%) solution and 0.5 ml of sodium
hypochloride solution (2%) and mix thoroughly.
• To the solution add 0.5 ml of phenol solution (5%) and heat for 20
seconds in a boiling water bath, and observe.
A bluish colour immediately forms, which turns deep blue after wards,
in the sample of milk having added ammonium sulphate. In case of pure milk
only a salmon pink colour forms which gradually changes to bluish in course
about 2 hours, even 0.1 % addition of ammonium sulphate can be detected by
this method.
9. Addition of Glucose
• Take 1 ml of milk sample in a test tube.
• Add 1 ml of Bar foed’s reagent.
• Heat the mixture for 3 minutes in boiling water bath and cool for 3 min
under tap water.
• Add one ml of phosphomolybdic acid reagent to the turbid solution
and observe.
Immediate formation of deep blue colour indicates the presence of
extraneous glucose, which is stable for 24 hours. In case of pure milk only faint
bluish colour due to diluted barfoeds reagent appears. But this methods as low
as 0.05% extraneous glucose in milk can be detected.
Note
Barfoeds Reagent : dissolve 24 gms of cupric acetate in 450 ml of
boiled distilled water. (If precipitate forms do not filter) add immediately 25 ml
of 8.5% lactic acid to the hot solution. Shake to dissolved precipitate, cool and
dilute 500 ml and after sedimentation filter the impurities.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 25

Phosphomolybdic acid reagent : To 35 gms of ammonium molybdate

add 5 gms of sodium tungstate. Add 200 ml of 10% (W/V) sodium hydroxide
solution and 200 ml of distilled water. Boil vigorously for 20 – 60 minutes so as
to remove nearly the whole of ammonia. Cool, dilute to about 350 ml and add
125 ml concentrated (85%) phosphoric acid. Dilute to 500 ml.
3.2 Preservatives in Milk – their Detection
Micro organisms are susceptible to the action of chemicals which either
check their growth or destroy the organisms and then keep the milk for a longer
time. There are many substances of this sort and are known as preservatives.
Antiseptics, disinfectants, germicides etc. boric acid, borax, formalin, benzoic
acid, salicylic acid, hydrogen peroxide, β – naphthol potassium nitrate and other
chemicals have been used from time to time for the purpose of prolonging the
keeping quality of milk sold for human consumption. This practice is reprehensible
as well as illegal.
The use of various chlorine preparations for the sterilization of dairy
equipment and milk bottles etc is legitimate application of the principles of chemical
preservation or sterilization as there is no direct addition of chemical to milk.
Moe over chlorine solution will not destroy the micro organisms in milk unless
they are present in enough quantities that the milk itself is changed so much in
favour and appearance that it will be unacceptable as food. Sodium carbonate
or sodium bicarbonate are some times added to milk to reduce the acidity of
milk (lactic acid formed as a result of lactic fermentation).
Addition of chemicals is illegal, therefore, common methods to detect
their addition is important.
1. Boric Acid or Borax
• Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube.
• Add 1ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid and mix well.
• Dip a strip of turmeric paper in the acidified milk.
• Dry the filter paper immediately and note the change in colour.
Turmeric paper turns red if boric acid or its salts are present.
2. Carbonates / Bicarbonates
• Take 10 ml of milk in a test tube.
• Add 10 ml of alcohol and shake well.
• Add 3 drops of aqueous solution of rosalic acid (1%)
26 Dairying

• Mix well and observe the change of colour.

Rose red colour indicates presence of carbonate / bicarbonate in the
milk only brownish colour indicates absence of carbonate / bicarbonate.
3. Formalin
There are two tests
I. Hehnes Test
• Take 10 ml of milk in a test tube.
• Add 0.5. ml of 1% ferric chloride solution.
• Add carefully about 5 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid down the side
of the test tube in such a way that it forms a separate layer at the bottom without
mixing with milk.
• Observe the colour of the ring formed at the junction of the two liquids.
II. Leech Test
• Take 5 ml of milk in a test tube
• Add to it equal volume of concentrate hydrochloric acid containing 1
ml of 10% ferric chloride solution to each 500 ml of the acid.
• Heat over a flame for 5 minutes.
• Rotate the tube to break up the curd and observe the colour.
Violet colour indicate presence of formaldehyde.
4. Hydrogen Peroxide
• Take 10 ml of a sample of milk in a test tube.
• Add 2 drops of paraphenylene diamine hydrochloride solution, mix
thoroughly and observe.
Development of an intense blue colour indicates presence of hydrogen
peroxide.
5. Salicylic Acid
Mercuric nitrate is added to the milk and milk is filtered. If much salicylic
acid is present the filtrate attains a red colour after some time.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 27

6. Benzoic Acid
About 20 gms of milk is treated with equal volume of concentrated
hydrochloric acid until the curd dissolves. It is now allowed to cool. About 25
ml of a mixture of either and petroleum either is added to the mixture of milk and
precipitated with a drop of ammonium hydroxide in the presence of benzoic
acid.
7. β – Naphthol
Milk is extracted with chloroform and heated with potassium hydroxide
for dew min. If a deep blue colour appears it indicates the presence of β –
naphthol.
3.3 Adulteration of Buffalo Milk with Cow Milk Hamsa
Test.
Buffalo milk is richer than cow milk in almost all the constituents. Hence
watered buffalo milk is used as an adultrant of cow milk. Hamsa test is used to
detect this type of adultration.
Materials : Hamsa Test serum
• Clean glass slides
• Ordinary pipettes which delivers about 20 drops to a milli litre.
• Tooth picks or any clean thin sticks.
• A few glass test tubes of 15 – 20 ml capacity.
• Pure cow milk (a few ml)
• Pure buffalo milk (a few ml)
Procedure : In two test tubes place 9 ml each of tap water.
• In one tube, market ‘C’ add one ml of pure cow milk and mix well.
• In another test, mark ‘B’ add one ml of pure buffalo milk and mix
well.
• Place one drop of diluted cow milk from tube ‘C’ and one drop from
tube ‘B’ separately on a glass slide.
• Now place one drop of Hamsa test serum on each of these drops and
mix well with tooth pick.
• Start a stop watch. At the end of 30 seconds, observe big coagulated
and like particles in B while C will remain milky.
28 Dairying

If the unknown sample is tested, if curd particles appear, the sample is

contaminated with buffalo milk. If it is milky and opaque, no buffalo milk is
added.
This test is affected by any preservatives added to the milk in normal
concentrations. The hamsa test serum is effective, if it is stored at 3 – 5o C at all
times.
3.4 Effects of adulterants and Preservatives on human health
The National Survey on Milk Adulteration 2011, a snap shot survey,
was conducted to check the contaminants in milk, especially liquid milk, through-
out the country. The study found that due to lack of hygiene and sanitation in
milk handling and packaging, detergents (used during cleaning operations) are
not washed properly and find their way into the milk. Other contaminants like
urea, starch, glucose, formalin along with detergent are used as adulterants.
These adulterants are used to increase the thickness and viscosity of the milk as
well as to preserve it for a longer period. The study notes that the consumption
of milk with detergents in hazardous to health. About eight per cent samples
were found to have detergents.
Milk is most commonly diluted with water - this not only reduces its
nutritional value, but contaminated water can also cause additional health prob-
lems.
The other adulterants used are mainly starch, sodium hydroxide (caus-
tic soda), sugar, urea, hydrated lime, sodium carbonate, formalin, and ammo-
nium sulfate.
The Indian Council of Medical Research has reported that “milk adul-
terants have hazardous health effects. The detergent in milk can cause food
poisoning and other gastrointestinal complications. Its high alkaline level can
also damage body tissue and destroy proteins. Other synthetic components can
cause impairments, heart problems, cancer or even death. While the immediate
effect of drinking milk adulterated with urea, caustic soda and formalin is gas-
troenteritis, the long-term effects are far more serious.”
Urea can lead to vomiting, nausea and gastritis. Urea is particularly harmful
for the kidneys, and caustic soda can be dangerous for people suffering from
hypertension and heart ailments.
Formalin can cause more severe damage to the body like liver damage.
The health impact of drinking milk adulterated with these chemicals is worse for
children. Caustic soda harms the mucosa of the food pipe, especially in kids.
The chemical which contains sodium, can act as slow poison for those suffering
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 29

from hypertension and heart ailments.

To avoid these dangers, it is best to buy milk from a renowned source.
For those who can, buying milk sold by reputed companies in tetra packs is also
a good option.
Water, most common adulterant
Water turned out to be the most common adulterant in milk. It reduces
the nutritional value of milk. If contaminated (with pesticides, heavy metals),
water poses a health risk to consumers
Of the total non-compliant samples, the highest, nearly 46 per cent,
belonged to the category of low Solid Not Fat (SNF) and this was due to
dilution of milk with water.About eight per cent samples were found to have
detergents
Skimmed milk powder was present in nearly 548 samples, out of which
477 samples contained glucose.
Summary
The methods to detect various adultrants in milk i,e. water removal of
fat cane sugar, starch, skim milk powder, gelatin, urea, glucose and ammonium
sulphate were explained in detail. The various preservatives used in milk and the
technique to detect them were explained. The hansa test used to detect adultration
of buffalo milk with cow milk explained.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Mention the various adultrants used in milk.
2. Give the formulae used to calculate the % of water added in milk.
3. What are the different method, of detection of adultration of milk
with water ?
4. How gelatin in milk is detected ?
5. What is starch test ?
6. How ammonia in milk is detected ?
7. What are the chemicals generally used to preserve the quality of milk
8. Mention the tests used to detect formalin in milk.
9. What is Hansa test ?
30 Dairying

Long Answer Type Questions

1. How water adultration in milk is estimated.
2. Explain the methods used to detect starch, sugar, skim milk powder
in milk.
3. Explain briefly about detection of preservatives in milk.
4. Expalin in details about Hansa test.
UNIT 4
Microbiology of Milk
Structure
4.1 Types of Micro- Organisms present in Milk
4.2 Milk Borne Diseases (Pathogens)

Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
• Types of Micro-Organisms present in Milk
• Understand about Milk Borne Diseases
4.1 Types of Micro- Organisms Present in Milk
Genus streptococcus organisms are Gram positive, spherical or ovoid
and non motile. Carbohydrate fermentation is homofermentative with
dextrorotatory lactic acid as the dominant end product. Carbondioxide is
produced either in very small quantities or not at all from sugar fermentation.
Ethanol, acetic acid and formic acid may be produced in appreciable quantities
from glucose, of allowed to ferment in alkaline media. Many of the streptococci
oxidizes a number of alcohols, glycols and short chain fatty acids.
All streptococcian are fastidious with respect to their nutritional
requirement as they require a number of B vitamins and amino acids for growth.
Sherman (1937) has divided streptococci into four groups viz., pyogenic group,
viridians group, entrococcus group and lactic group. All streptococci except
viridians group possess a serologically active, group specific ‘C’ substance
32 Dairying

(polysaccharide). The following table gives certain characteristics on the basis

of which he streptococci can be placed in to one of the four groups as pyogenic
(A B C D E F C H antigens) viridans (no group specific antigens demonstrated),
enterococcus (D antigens) and lactic group (N antigens)
Test Group of streptococci

Pyogenic Viridan Enterococcu Lactic

s s
Growth at
-100C - - + +

-450C - + + -

Growth in 6.5% - - + -
Nacl both
Growth at pH 9.6 - - -
+
Growth in 0.1% - - + -
methylene blue
Ammonia from arginine + - + +
Reduction of litmus be- - - - +
fore curding
Tyrosine decarboxyla- - - + -
tion
Survival at 600C for 30 - + + +
mt - -
Haemolysis   or or  

Morphological, cultural and biochemical identification of pyogenic

group of streptococci
Test S. Pyogenes S. agalactiae S.dysgalactiae
Gram staining G + ve cocci in G + ve cocci G + ve cocci
pairs or chains
Size 0.6 - 1.0  0.6 - 1.2  <2
Motility - - -
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 33

Agar Colonies Mucoid malt Mucoid malt

Mucoid malt
and glossy vari-
ants.
Acid Acid followed Acid reaction
Litmus milk
by curdling with coagulation
-
Getatin - -
Liquefaction
-
Growth in 10% + -
bile
-
Growth in 40% + -
bile

Optimum temp 370C 370C 370C

Haemolysis   
Polysarcharicu  B C
antigen acid
from
- Glycerol  -
V
- Lactose  V
V
- Maltose 
+ +
- Mannitol 
- -
- Salicin 
+
V
- Sorbital 
-
V
- Sucrose 
+
+
VP reaction 
+
-
Hippurate 
+
V
hydrolysis
camp test 
+
-
Bile solubility 
-
-
+ = Positive reraction - = Negative reaction V = Variable reaction
34 Dairying

Morpholigocal, cultural and biochemical identification of

varidans groups of species.

Test S.bovis S. thermophillu S.uberis

s

Gram Staining Gram +ve Gram + ve cocci G + ve cocci in

cocci in pairs in pairs or long pairs or chains
or chains chains
Size 0.8 - 1.0 0.7 - 0.9 Moderate
Hermolysis  Weak  
Litmus Milk Acid Acid curding No Acid
Gelatin liquefaction - - -
Growth in 10% bill ? - ?
Growth in 40% bill + - -
Optimum temperature 370C 40 - 500C 35 - 370C
Polysaccharide Antigen D - -
Acid from
+ -
- Arabinose V
- Glycerol - - +

- Lactose + + +
- Mannitol V - +
- Salicin + - +
- Sucrose + + +
- Trehalose V - +
- Maltose + - +
Hippurate Hydrolysis - - +
Camp Test - - -
Bile Solubility - - -
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 35

Morphological Cultural and Biochemical Identification of

enterococcus group of streptococci

Test S. Faecalis S. Durans

Gram Staining G + ve cocci, ovoid pairs G + ve cocci,
or chains spherical to avoid,
pairs or chains.
Size 0.5 - 1.0  0.5 - 1.0 
Haemolysis  
Motility V -
Growth in 40% bill + +
Litmus milk Acidified Curdled Acidified, Curdled
Gelatin liquefaction +/-
Starch hydrolysis - -
Growth in 0. 04% tellurite + +
Optimum 370C 370C
Acid from
Glucose + +
Maltose + +
Lactose + +
Trehalose + -
Salicin + -
Sucrose - V
Mannitol V V
Sorbitol + -
Aesculin Hydrolysis + +
Hippurate hydrolysis V V
36 Dairying

Distinctive characters of varieties of S. faccalis

Test S.Faecalis var S. Faecalis var S.Faecalis var
faecalis liquefaciens Zymogenes
Gelatin liquefaction - + -/+
Litmus milk Acidified curdled Acidified curdled Ac id ifie d ,
peptonization curdle no pep-
tonization
Haemolysis  or  

Morphological cultural and biochemical identification of lactic group of

streptococci
Test S. Lactis S. Lactis subsp S. Cremoris
diacetylactis
Gram Staining G + ve cocci G + ve cocci G + ve cocci
ovo id cells in ovoid cells in spheres or
pairs or short pairs or short ovoid in long
chains chains chains
Size 0.5 - 1.0  0.5 - 1.0  0.6 - 1.0 
Harmolysis Weak or  Weak or  or 
Litmus milk Reduced before Reduced before Reduced be-
curdling curding fore curding
Gelatin liquefaction - - -
Starch hydrolysis - - -
0
Optimum tempera 30 C 30 C0
300C
ture
Co2 and diacetyl - + -
from citrate
Acid from
- Glucose + + +
- Maltose + + -
- Lactose + + +
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 37

Test S.Lactis S.Lactis subsp S. Cremoris

diacety lactis
- Glycerol - - -
- Sorbitol - - -
A esculin hy- V V V
drolysis
Hippurate hy- V V -
drolysis
Ammonia from + + -
arginine
Tyrosine decar- - - +
boxylation

4.1.1 Lactobacillus Group

These are gram positive rods typically, non-motile, non sporulating and
non acid fast. Lactobacilli are aerobic and facultatively anaerobic, catalase
negative, and grow best at pH 6.0. The carbohydrates and poly alcohols are
changed by homofermentation to lactic acids or by hetero fermentation to lactic
and acetic acids, alcohols and carbondioxide. Surface growth is enhanced on
enriched media and under anaerobic conditions with added Co2 (5 – 10%).
The genus lactobacillus is subdivided into three groups. I.e. Thermobacterium,
Strep to bacterium and Beta Bacterium.
Differential characters of the three groups of lactobacillus.
Test Thermob Streptob Beta
acterium acterium bacterium
Motility - - -
Growth at 50C - - -
Growth at 150C - + v
Growth at 450C + + ?
Gas from glucose - - +
Acid from - v v
38 Dairying

Test Thermob Streptob Beta

acterium acterium bacterium
- Arabinose - v v
- Maltose + + +
- Melezitose - + -
- Salicin + + -
Voges - proskauer reaction + + -
Nitrate Reduction - - -
Fermentation Homofer Homofer Homofer
mentation mentation mention

Morphological and cultural identification of lacto bacillus subgenus

Thermobacterium
Test L. Lactis L . L . L . L .
Bulgaricus Helviticus Acidophillus Thermophillus

Gram G + ve rods G + ve G + ve sin- G + ve rods G + ve rods

staining long , singly rods slen- gly or singly, pairs
or in pairs der with inpairs short chains
r o u nd ed
ends in
chains

Size 0.5 - 0.8x

2.9 0.5 -0.8x 0.7 - 0.9 x 0.6 -0.9x1.5 0.5x 3.0
2.9 2 - 0 to
- 6.0
6.0

Lactic D (-) D, L D, L
D (-) D, L
acid
form
produced
Acid fo l- Coagulates Acid
Coagula- Acid with
lo wed by from botton
Litmus coagulation tion at coagulation up, Small colo-
milk 370C no may nies
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 39

Test L. Lactis L . L . L . L .
Bulgaricus Helviticus Acidophillus Thermophillus
tion
gas, no becomes slow growth
d e c o m - slimy
position of
casein
Agar colo- Rough, 1-3 Flat, 2-3 Rough to Rough with Small colo-
nies mm in dia mm Rhizo id no pigment nies
meter, non 2-3 mm in
p ig ment , diameter
white to
grey

Growth at - - - - -
150C

Growth at + + + + +
450C

Opt. 40 - 450C 400C 40-420C 35- 380C 50- 62.80C

Temp,
Aetachro
+ + - - -
matic
granulles

Biochemical Identification of Lactobacillus subgenus thermobacterium

species
Test L. Lactis L . L . L. Acido- L .
Bulgaricus Helviticus philus Therphillus
Gas from - - - - -
glucose
Acid from

- A r a b i- - - - - -
nose
40 Dairying

Test L . L . L . L. Acidophi- L .
Lactis Bulgaricus Helviticus lus Therphillus
-Galactose + + + + +
- Lactose + + + + +
- Maltose + v + + +
- Mannitol + - - - -
-Malibiose - - - v -
- Melezitose - - - - -
- Reffinose + - - v +
- Salicin v + - + -
- Sorbitol - - - - -
- Trehalose + - - + ?
Aesculin hy + + + + +
drolysis
Nitrate re - - - - -
duction
Arginine hy - - - - -
drolysis
Morphological and cultural identification of lactobacillus subgenus
streptobacterium species
Test L. Casei L . L .
Plantarum Curvatus

Gram stain- G + ve rods G + ve G +ve rods

ing short or rods, singly single in
long chains or in chains pairs
of short or w i t h
long rods. rounded
ends.
Size 0.7 - 1.1 x 0.7 - 1.0 x 0.7 - 0.9 x
2.0 - 4.0 3.0 - 8.0 1.0 - 2.0 
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 41

Test L. Casei L. Plantarum L. Curvatus

Lactic acid pro L(+), D (-) D, L D, L
duced (from)
Litmus milk Acid coagula- Acid coagu- Acid coagula-
tion in 3-5days, lated tion
may become
slimy.
Agar colonies White to light White to light Smaller but
yellow or dark yellow similar to L-
platarum
Growth at 150C + + -
Growth at 450C v - -
Opt. Temperature 300C 30 - 350C 30 - 370C

Biochemical identification of Lactobacillus subgenus thermobacterium

species
Test L. Casei L. Plantalum L. Curvatus
Gas from - - -
glucose
Acid from
- Arabinose - v v

- Galactose + + +

- Lactose v + +
- Maltose + + +
- Mannitol + + -
- Melezitose + + -
- Melibiose - + +
- Raffinose - + +
- Salicin + + -
- Sorbitol + + -
42 Dairying

Test L. Casei L. Plantalum L. Curvatus

- Trehalose + + -
Aasculin hy- + + +
drolysis
Nitrate Re- - - -
duction
Aar g inin e - - -
hydrolysis

Morphological and cultural identification of lactobacillus subgenus beta

bacterium species

Test L. Brevis L. Fermentum

Gram Staining G +ve rods singly G +ve rods short
and chains pairs or chains
Size 0.7 - 1.0 x 2.0 - 4.0 0.5 - 1.0 x 0.3 -
 15.0 
Lactic acid pro- D, L D, L
duced (from)

Litmus milk Acid but no clot Unchanged

Agar colonies Flat, rough, often Flat, circular or ir-
transtucent regular to rough,
often translucent
Growth at 150C + -
Growth at 450C - +
Optimum tem- 300C 41 - 420C
perature
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 43

Biochemical identification of lactobacillus subgenus beta bacterium

species

Test L. Brevis L. Fermentum

Gas from Glucose + +
Acid from
- Arabinose + v
- Galactose v +
- Lactose v +
- Maltose v +
- Mannitol - -
- Melizitose - -
- Melibiose + +
- Raffinose v +
- Salicin - -
- Sorbitol - -
- Trehalose - -
Aesculin hydrolysis v +
Nitrate Reduction - -
Arginine hydrolysis + +

V = Variable Reaction + = Positive Reaction - = Negative reaction.

4.1.2 Leuconostoc Group

The genus consists of gram positive cocci in pairs or short chains which
are micro aerophillic and heterofermentative i.e. glucose is fermented with
production of D (-) lactic acid, ethanol and Co2. Certain types grow with a
characteristic slime production in sucrose media. They generally grow on ordinary
culture media, but growth is enhanced by the addition of yeast. Tomato or other
vegetable extracts. These species are generally found in milk and plants juices.
44 Dairying

Differential Characterization of leuconostoc species

Test Leuco. Leuco. L e u c o . Leuc L eu c o

Dext ra ni mesenteri Paramesen olactis cremoris
cum odes teroides

Dextran + + - - -
production
from su-
crose
Acid from
- Sucrose + + + + -
- Trehalose + + + - -
- Arabinose - + + - -
- Survival at - - - + -
550C30min
Amino acid + + + + +
requirement
Op t imu m 20 - 300C 20 -300C 20 - 300C 25 - 18 -
temp 300C 0
25 C
Growth in
salt
- 3% + (slow) + + (slow) +(slow) -
- 6.5% - + (slow) + (slow) - -

4.1.3 Characteristics of other Bacteria in Milk

(Genus Escherichia)
The presence of this organism in food is of considerable public health
significance, as the occurance indicates faecal contamination. Escherichia coli
are rods occurs singly, in pairs and in short chains. The agar colonies are white,
entire to undulate and moist. Litmus milk gets coagulated with rapid acid
production and gas. Ferments glucose, lactose, manitol and xyloze and do not
ferment sucrose, salicin and glycerol. Citric acid and salts of citric acid are not
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 45

utilized by this organism. The optimum growth is at 30 – 37o C, but also grow at
10o C and 45o C as well. The Imvic test (Indole production, methylred, voges
proskar and citrate utilization) is + ++ - - . The selective media used for
isolation is Eosin-Methylene blue (EMB) agar or violet red Bile agar (VBRA).
Genus Enterobacter
These are non faecal origin. There are two species i.e. Enterbacter
Aerogenes and Enterobacter cloacae. The Imvic test is - - + + . All other
characters are just like escherichia.
Genus Shigella
These are extremely pathogenic type and causes acute food borne illness
like desentry. The organisms are Shigella dysenterae, sh. Flesneri ad sh. +
Sonnei. These are gram negative rods.
Genus Salmonella
These organisms will cause a variety of food- infections and illnesses.
These are gram negative rod, motile by peritrichous flagella, unable to liquify
gelatin and hydrolyse urea, Indole negative, methyl red positive and voges
proskauer negative. The various organisms are Salmonella typhosa, paratyphi,
S.typhimurium, S. Enteridis, S.Schottmuellri, S.Hirschfeidii.
Genus Yersinia
The various organisms are Yersinia enterocolitica, Y. pestis, Y.pseudo
tuberculosis
Genus Klebsiella
Gram negative rods which are plump with rounded ends and are non
motile. These are encapsulated in mucoid stage. The organism is Klebsiella
pneumonia and causes pneumonia. The optimum temperature for growth is
37o C.
Genus Proteus
Straight rods which are motile. The species are proteus mirabilis and P.
Valgaris which produce amoeboid colonies that show a swarming phenomenon
on solid media. /urea is hydrolyzed and glucose and other carbohydrates are
fermented with production of acid and gas.
Genus Pseudomonas
These organisms develop florescent, diffusible pigments of greenish,
bluish, violet, lilac, yellow or other colour. The important pathogenic species is
46 Dairying

pseudomonas aeruginosa which forms greenish blue pigment (pyocyanin). The

other species are ps. Fluorescence, ps. Fragi, ps, putida, ps. Putrefaciens are
associated with certain defects in milk and milk products.
Genus Vibrio
These are curved, comma shaped rods, which do not attack cellulose.
They grow well and rapidly on the surfaces of standard culture media and are
heterotrophic organisms. Vibrio cholera is invariably associated with cholera.
Genus Aeromonas
These are short rod shape of gram negative cells and are heterotrophic.
Carbohydrates are fermented with the production of H2 Co2 and 2,3 butylene
glycol. They grow best at 25 – 30o C.
Genus Chromo Bacterium
These produce violet pigment soluble in alcohol. They grow at 37oC.
Genus Flavobacterium
These are gram negative motile rods. These produce yellow, orange,
red or yellow brown pigmentation due to water soluble carotinoid pigment.
Genus Brucella
The important species are Brucella abortus, B. Melitensis and Brucella
suis. These are aerobic, Gram negative, non motile rods. Gas is not produced
from carbohydrates and gelatin is not liquified. They grow at 37o C. the agar
colonies are small, circular and convex.
Genus Micro Cocci
These cells are in irregular and some are motile. Their growth in agar is
abundant. The species are micro coccus luteus and M. varians. Voges proskeur’s
test is negative. These are Gram positive cocci.
Genus Staphylococci
These are spherical cells occurring singly in pairs, in tetrads and in
irregular clusters. The cocci are rather smaller than the micro cocci. They are
non motile. The species are staphylococcus aureus, staph, Epidermis. These
are Gram positive cocci occurring singe. Pairs or short chain, non motile.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 47

Genus Listeria
These are small rods, motile by peritrichous flagella, Gram positive,
grow freely on ordinary media, and produce acid and no gas from glucose. The
species is Listeria mono cutogenes. It causes food poisoning. Optimum growth
temperature is 37o C. It can survive in 20 % Nacl Solution at 4oC for eight
weeks.
Genus Bacillus
These are saprophytes and found in soil and widely distributed in nature.
The important species are Bacillus cereus and B. anthracis causes milk borne
illness. Other organisms are B, Stearothermophillus. B.Megaterium which causes
spoilage or some changes in milk. These are gram positive rods and spore
formers. Optimum temperature of growth in around 30 – 35o C except B.Stearo
thermophilus which grows between 55 – 65 o C.
Genus Clostridium
These are mostly found in soil and the intestinal tract of man and other
animals. These are anaerobic spore formers and cause problem in canned milk
products. The important organisms are clostridium butycricum and CI.
Tyrobutyricum. These are thermophiles. These two organisms may cause late
blowing in cheese. Other organisms like CI. Botulinum, CI- perfringens are
classical food pathogens causing gastro intestinal disturbances and neurological
disorders. These are gram positive, non, motile and the spores are produced
located centrally or eccentrically giving bulging appearance to the cells. These
are also responsible for butyric and saccharolytic fermentations.
Genus Mycobacterium
These are acid fast, slender rods, straight or slightly curved, classical
test for these organisms is demonstration of acid fastness by carbol fuchsin or
zeil neelsen method. Cells are non motile but aerobic. The organisms are M.
tuberculosis, and M. Bovis, the former is human bacilli and the latter is bovine
bacilli. These are gram positive and optimum growth art 37oC ranging from 20-
40oC. These are pathogenic and cause tuberculosis disease.
Genus Microbacterium
These are small rods with round ends, non-motile, granulour and grow
media supplemented with milk or yeast extract. These are thermoduric
48 Dairying

saprophytes. Optimum temperature for growth is 32oC the important organism

are M. Lacticus.
Genus Brevibacterium
These are gram positive, varying from a quite short coccus to long straight
and unbranched rods. The organism is B. Linens. The optimum temperature is
21oC.
Genus Propionibacteriaceae
These are gram positive, irregularly shaped cells and non motile. These
grow under anaerobic conditions. These are catalese positive. Organisms are
propionibacteria freudenreichii and p. shermanii.
Genus Coxiella
Organism is Coxiella berneti causes ‘Q’ fever. This organism is heat
resistant and now this organism as index organism for pasteurization.
Genus Actinomyces
The organism is Actinomyces bovis, gram positive, non acid fast, non-
proteolytic. Optimum temperature is 37o C. Litmus milk is not coagulated.
4.1.4 Yeasts and Moulds
Yeasts
Yeasts are gram positive, unicellular, non motile, ovoid or elliptical cells,
whose size is bigger than bacteria. The common method of reproduction is
budding although some produce ascospores. The growth temperature ranges
from 25 – 40o C. They can tolerate high acidities(pH 3.5) and are fermentative
or oxidative in their metabolism of carbohydrates. Few species are lipolytic in
nature. The yeasts commonly associated with milk and milk products are given
below.
1. Saccharomyces species / kluyveromyces species
The common species are Saccharomyces cerevisae, S. fragilis, S.Lactis,
S. delbrueckii etc. S.fragilis and L. Lactis are also known as Kluyveromyces
fragilis and kluyveromyces lactis.
S. cerevisae is generally used in brewing and baking industries. Cells
may appear as spherical, ovoid, cylindrical in malt extract broth and occur as
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 49

single or in pairs. Ascospores are formed. It ferments glucose but it is unable to

ferment lactose. Kluyveromyces fragilis is an ovoid to elongated organism and
forms white glistening colonies on malt extract agar. It occurs singly, in pairs, or
in short chains. Lactose is fermented to alcohol and carbondioxide which forms
the bases of its use in the manufacture of kumiss and kefir. It produces acid and
gas in litmus milk but does not peptonize it. The optimum temperature of growth
is 37oC and does not grow at 5o or 43oC. Kluyveromyces lactis forms spherical,
cylindrical cells in single, pairs or clusters. It is capable of fermenting galactose
and lactose. It has been isolated from cheese and milk.
2. Candida Species
Different species of candida have been isolated from butter, margarine,
cheese, kefir and sweetened condensed milk. Some of the species cause yeasty
or gassy cream with a high acidity, foaming and yeasty odour. The important
species are C. pseudotropocalis, c. Lipolytica, C. mycoderma, C.kefir etc.
These are bio chemically oxidative in nature rather than fermentative. The cells
are usually cylindrical and form pellicle on the surface of liquid media as they are
strictly aerobi. C. pseudotropicalis forms ovoid to elongated cells, ferments
lactose with the production of alcohol and carbondioxide and produces gas in
litmus milk. Optimum temperature of growth is 37o C.
C. Lipolytica also forms ovoid to elongated cells. It can hydrolyze fat
and produces lipolytic enzymes but is unstable to ferment sugar. C. kefir is capable
of fermenting glucose and lactose.
3. Torulopsis Species
The various species are T. Holmii, T. Lactis ondensi, T. spherical and t.
gibsos. Cells are ovoid in shape. These species can usually ferment glucose but
not lactose.
Moulds
Commercial application of moulds in food and chemical industry is going
on. However moulds are capable of producing extremely toxic components in
foods including milk and milk products, which can pose serious problems to the
consumer, Moulds are multicelullar, aerobic organism capable of growth over
wide range of pH and temperature. The colonies appear cottony or wooly and
are generally white, creamy, green or black, mold spores are reproductive.
Generally these are found in soil, barn dust, feeds, manure and unclean utensils.
Moulds can grow on malt extract, potato dextiose or Rose Bengal chloram
phenicol agar and can be identified on the basis of morphological characters.
50 Dairying

Conidia
Sterigmate
Metula Secondary
Vesicle Primary

Canidiophore
Hypoe
(septate) Aspergillus
Penicillum

Hyph a Arthrospores
(septate) (oidio)
Canidia

Sterigmata
Geotrichum
Cladosporium

Sporangium
Sporangiospore
Columella
Sporongiophore Hypha
Stalon
(non-septate)

Rhizoids Vesicle
Rhizopus
Fig 4.1 Diagrammatic representation of Morphological characteristics of common
molds associated with dairy product.

The important moulds in dairy industry are.

1. The Penicillium Species
The penicillium species usually form blue-green spreading colonies eg.
P. roqueforte, which is used in the manufacture of Roqueforte cheese and blue
veined cheese. It is mainly responsible for characteristic flavour and appearance
of these cheeses. Another species namely p. camemberti is used in the
manufacture of camembert and bric cheeses. Its colonies are pale grayish-
green in colour Penicillium species bears conidiospores which are globose and
smooth in shape.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 51

2. Rhizophus Species
Rhizophus species are present in food stuffs like bread and dairy
products. The mycelium produces stolons and at points of attachment of stolons,
rhizoids (downward) and sporangiphores (upwards) arise. Sporangia are white
at first which changes to black on ripening. R.stolenifieris one of the common
species.
3. Aspergillus Species
Like penicillium, this mould also forms condidiospores but these are
borne on sterigmata attached to swollen vesicles. Some species (A.Flavus, A.
parasiticus) are able to produce aflotoxins (G1, G2, B1 and B20 in dairy
products. The aflotoxins are elaborated in animal feed as well which consequently
get secreted as M1 and M2 in milk.
4. Geotrichum Candidum
G. Candidum is known to be responsible for yeasty flavour in dairy
products. It is not saccharolytic in nature. Colonies are white in colour and
appear yeast like and butyrous. The organism grows on the surface of sour
cream as a white mass and oxidizes lactic acid to carbondioxide and water.
Arthospores which are cylindrical in shape with rounded ends are formed.
5. Alternaria Species
These species are involved in the discolouration of butter. They bear
conidiospores of dark brown colour.
6. Cladosporium Species
Cladosporium is recognized by deep olive green to black colour. The
spores usually two celled are produced from mycelium. These are also involved
in surface discoloration of butter.
4.2 Milk Borne Diseases (Pathogens)
A variety of micro organisms may gain access into milk and milk products
from different sources and causes different types of food borne illnesses. Milk
and milk products may carry organisms as such as their toxic metabolites
(poisons) called toxins to sensitize consumers. Ingestion of toxins already
synthesized in the food (pre-formed) brings abut poisoning syndrome and called
‘food intoxication’ and the toxins affecting gastrointestinal tract are called
enterotoxins.
On the other hand the ingestion of viable pathogenic bacteria along with
the food leads to their lodgements and are termed as ‘food infections’. The
other organisms infect intestines when ingested along with food and produce
toxins in situ to bring abut symptoms of poisoning and called Toxic-infection.
52 Dairying

Common milk borne infection, intoxications and toxic infections.

S.no Types of milk borne Causative agents Disease/Disorder
disease
A Food infection Salmonella typhi and Typhoid, salmonellosis
related sps. (Food poisoning)
Shigella dysenterae Shigellosis (Dysentery)
Stroptococci sps Septic sore throat, scarlet
(enterocci) fever, food poisoning.
B Food intoxication
(i) Bacterial Staphylococcus aureus, Food poisoning Botulism
clostridium botulinum, (Food poisoning)
Escherichia coli, vibo Summer diarrhoea
cholerae Chloera
(ii) Fungal Aspergellus flavus Aflotoxicosis
other toxigenic molds Mycotoxicosis
C Toxic infection Bacillus cereus Food poisoning
Clostridium perfringens Gas gangrene
D Other milk borne Aeromonas Spp Food poisoning
dissorders ( uncertain proteus Spp Food poisoning
pathogenesis) Klebsiella Spp Food poisoning
Pseudomonas Spp Food poisoning
Citrobacter Spp Food poisoning
E New emerging patho- Listeria monocytogenes Listeriosis
gens Yersinia enterocolitica Diarrhoeal diseases
Campylabacter jejuni Diarrhoeal diseases
Vibrio Diarrhoeal diseases
parahaemolyticus
Mycobacterium tuber- Tuberculosis
F Other milk borne dis- culosis
eases Brucella abortus Brucellosis
(i) Bacterial Corynebacerium Diphtheria
(ii) Rickettsial diphtheriae Anthrax
(iii) Viral Bacillus anthracis
Coxiella bernetti ‘Q’ Fever
Enteroviruses Enteric fever
Infectious hepatitis vi- Infectious hepatitis
rus
Tick borne encephalitis Tick born encephalitis
virus
Foot and mouth Foot and mouth disease
desease virus
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 53

A. Milk Borne Infections

1. Salmonellosis: the caustive organisms are
Salmonella typhi : Typhoid
Salmonella paratyphi : Paratyphoid
Salmonella Enteritidis : Food poisoning
Salmonella weltiverdin : Food poisoning
The sources of salmonella organisms into the milk are water, milk handlers,
and suffering animals. Typhoid and paratyphoid are non pathogenic to animals.
The main symptoms of typhoid are
• Continued fever
• Inflammation of intestine, and formation of intestinal ulcers
• Enlargement of spleen
• Characteristic rose spot eruptions on the abdomen and toxanemia.
Symptoms of paratyphoid are
• Resembles typhoid but it is milder.
Salmonella food poisoning symptoms are
• Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain
• Diarrhoea, chills, head ache,
• Prostration, muscular weakness, drowsiness
• Moderate fever, restlessness
Incubation period varies from 7-14 days for typhoid and 1 – 7 days for
paratyphoid. The specific diagnostic test for Salmonellosis is Widal test for
typhoid fever.
Prevention and Control
• Adequate treatment of water supply
• Infected individual should not be allowed to handle milk.
• Hygienic conditions during production, processing and all stages.
• Pasteurization of milk.
54 Dairying

2. Bacillary dysentery (Shigellosis)

The causative organisms are Shigella dysenteries, Sh. Sonnei, sh. Flexneri.
Sources of organism are through contamination with infected materials
like utensils, water flies and milk handlers.
Important Symptoms are
• Diarrhoea with blood, pus or mucous
• Fever, abdominal cramps and tenesmus.
Incubation period 1-7 days.
Prevention and Control measures
• Rigid sanitary discipline
• Control of flies.
3. Streptococcal infections
Causative agents are
(a) Streptococcus pyogenes- Scarlet fever, septic sore throat, tonsillitis,
septicemia
(b) Str. Agalactiae – Mastitis in animals (non pathogenic to human)
(c) Group D streptococci (enterococci): Food poisoning.
Sources of infection are
• Animals infected with S. Agalactiae
• Persons concerning care and milking of animal
• Milking machines
• Human carriers of S. pyogenes
Symptoms
Septic sore throat – high and irregular fever, and sudden onset of fever
• Inflammation and swelling of lymphnodes of throat and some times
absess around tonsils.
Scarlet fever – Acute febrile disease of throat accompanied by scarlet
rash.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 55

• Scarlet rash is due to release of toxin

Food poisoning: Resembles staphylococcal food poisoning syndrome
which will be milder.
Incubation period is 1 -3 days.
Prevention and Control
• Adequate heat treatment of milk
• Regular health check of dairy worker.
• Avoiding faecal contamination of milk.
B. Milk Borne Milk intoxications
1. Staphylococcal poisoning : Staphylococcus aureus
Elaborates different types of toxins like
• Haemolysin (alpha, beta, gamma and delta)
• Leucocidin
• Necrotizing factor
• Enterotoxin
• Coagulase
Among all the above toxins the important toxin in entero toxin, this is
heat stable and not destroyed even after boiling for 15 minutes. Sources of
organisms are milch animals and human handlers.
Symptoms are
• Nausea, Vomiting, abdominal cramps.
• Diarrhoea, sweating , headache and prostration
Incubation period : varies 1 – 16 hours.
Diagnosis is by biological, serological methods. Coagulase test and
thermonuclease test are also employed.
Prevention and Control
• Adequate heating of milk destroys only organisms but not entertoxin.
So heating immediately after production before toxin production is
necessary.
• Post pasteurization contamination should be avoided.
56 Dairying

• Infected handlers should not be allowed to handle milk

• Mastitis animals should be isolated.
2. Botulism
The botulism poisoning is the severest of all food poisoning as it is affects
the nervous system and is often extremely fatal. The causative organism is
clostridium bitulinum. Several types of toxins are produced i.e. A to G but A, B,
E and F affect the human being.
The sources of organisms is soil and water
Symptoms
• Nausea, Vomiting, fatigue, dizziness
• Head ache, dryness of skin, mouth and throat.
• As it acts on central nervous system, it leads to paralysis of muscles,
double vision and respiratory failure resulting finally into death.
Incubation period is 12-96 hours.
Mortality rate is high.
Prevention and control
• Adequate heating of milk and milk products
• Hygienic milk production
• Chilling of milk immediately after production.
3. E. Coli Poisoning
Escherichia coli is known to be associated with Enteritis in infants and
adults as well as travellers diarrhoea and food poisoning. Produces two types
of toxins i.e. heat labile at and heat stable (ST).
Sources
• Water supplies, contaminated with faecal matter
• Unhygienic practices by the handlers
• Infected animals.
Symptoms
• Symptoms resembles cholera by ingestion of LT toxin. Massive watery
diarrhea.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 57

• In ST type of toxin diarrhoea with and without vomiting which is non

bloody. Fever in children and not in adults.
Prevention and control: Control of Sources
4. Cholera
This is one of the acute diarrhoeal diseases caused by vibrio cholerae.
It occurs as massive epidemics and unhygienic practices appears to be chiefly
responsible for out break. This is mainly water borne illness. Adulteration of
milk with water may be one of the causes for this disease.
Incubation period is few hours to five days.
Symptoms
• Diarrhoea, Vomiting
• Rice water stools, abdominal pain
• Thirst, dehydration symptom
• Death even within 12 hours after the appearance of symptoms
Prevention and Control
• Proper pasteurization of milk
• Sanitary disposal of human excreta
• Isolation of patient and carrier.
5. Fungal Intoxication
I. Aflotoxicosis : Produced by common mould Aspergellus flavus and
A- parasiticus. The toxin is known as Aflotoxin. The toxins B1, B2 and B2a
and G1, G2 and G2a. These toxins are heat stable and also corcinognic.
Symptoms are – Liver hyperplasia, Tissue haemorrhage,
• Anorexia, hepatitis, finally death
II. Other Mycotoxicosis, other moulds produce toxins as follows
Toxin Organisms
Roquefortin Penicillium roqueforti
Camembertin Penicillium camemberti
Citrinin P.Citrinin
58 Dairying

Penicillic Acid P. Martensii

Rubratoxin P. Rubrum
C. Milk Borne Toxic Infections
1. Clostridium perfringens (welchii) poisoning
It causes gas gangrene. It is anaerobic organism. Sources are soil,
faeces and water supplies.
Symptoms are Diarrhoea, nausea, abdominal pain
Incubation period is 8- 22 hours
2. Bacillus cereus poisoning
Bacillus cereus is sporulating aerobic organism. Toxins produced are
Haemolysin, lecithinase and enterotoxin. Only enterotoxin causes food poisoning.
Symptoms are : Nausea, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, incubation period
is 6 – 12 hours.
D. Other Milk Borne Disorders
1. Proteus infection: caused by Proteus vulgaris causes summer diarrhoea.
It is easily destroyed by pasteurization.
2. Acromonas Infection: Acromonas hydrophilia causes food poisoning
through contaminated water supplies.
3. Citrobacter infection: Produces entertoxins.
4. Klebsiella infection: Causes gastro intestinal illness. Caused by K.
pneumoniae which produce heat stable and heat labile toxins which are
comparable to E.coli.
5. Pseudomonas infection: Organisms are Ps. Putrefaciens, Ps. Fragi,
Ps. Viscose and Ps. Aeruginosa. Of these Ps. Aeruginosa causes food poisoning
and also causes urinary tract infection, eye infection, ear infections, abscess
meningitis and enteritis in human beings.
E. New Emerging Pathogens
1. Listeriosis: Listeria monocytogenes is G +ve non sporulating, rods,
capable of growing at a wide range of temperature (1 – 45oC). The heat resistance
is more and sometimes it survives pasteurization, as these organisms are ingested
by leucocytes and gives protection.
Symptoms : Acute meningitis, with or without septicaemia.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 59

• Fever, nausea, head ache, vomiting, followed by delirium, coma,

collapse and shock resulting in death.
Prevention : Avoid human carriers in handling of milk
• Culling of infected animal
• Proper storage condition
• Proper heat treatment in milk.
2. Campylobacter jejuni poisoning (Campylobacteriosis)
Sources : infected water and infected animals and persons.
Symptoms : severe abdominal pain and diarrhoea.
3. Yersiniosis
Organism is Yesinia entercolotica
Symptoms : Abdominal pain, fever, vomiting and diarrhoea.
4. Vibrio para haemolyticus poisoning.
Source is contaminated water supply.
Symptoms : Gastroenteritis, Abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting,
headache, chills and fever.
Incubation period 12 – 24 hours.
F. Other Milk Borne Diseases
1. Bacterial diseases.
(a) Tuberculosis
Organism is Mycobacterium tuberculosis, human type produces
pulmonary type of tuberculosis. Bovine type produces non pulmonary typeof
tuberculosis.
Sources
• Milch animals
• Milk handlers
• Wash water
• Environment
60 Dairying

Symptoms : Parenchymal pulmonary infiltration

• Cough, fever, fatigue, loss of weight.
Prevention and Control
• Handlers and animals infected should be screened.
• Proper heat treatment of milk
• Avoid over crowding of animals
• Avoid infected persons in handling of milk.
(b) Brucellosis
Organisms are Br.melitensis (goats) br. Abortus (Cattle) br. Suis (pigs).
All these species can infect human beings.
Sources : Diseased animals, secrete organism in milk. Persons handling
the milk.
It causes undulant fever in humans.
(c) Diphtheria
Causative organism is Crynebacterium diphtheriae.
Sources of infections are milk handlers and infected animals.
Symptoms : Febrile infection of nose, throat and tonsils followed by
inflammation of throat.
• Diphtheria toxin affects kidney, heart muscles resulting death.
(d) Anthrax
Organism is Bacillus antharacis which is spore forming organism.
Sources of infection are infected animal and environment. Causes two type i.e.
Contaneous and pulmonary types. It causes carbuncle disease in human
(contaneous type). Pulmonary type causes pneumonia which may be fatal.
2. Ricketsial disease
(Q) Fever : Organism is Coxiella berneti which is more heat resistant
organism. It survives some times pasteurization temperature also.
Symptoms : High fever, head ache, weakness, malaise, severe, sweating
and pneumonia.
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3. Viral Diseases
(a) Enteroviruses
Causative viruses are a group of viruses causing severe epidemic summer
diarrhoea in infants and children.
Symptoms : Gastroenteritis
• Headache, fever, muscle stiffness and paralysis.
(b) Infectious hepatitis
Causes jaundice, which is one of the serious diseases in human beings
through contaminated water. Sources are contaminated water, milk handlers
and environment.
Symptoms : Nausea, vomiting, lethargy, abdominal pain, diarrhoea fever
anorexia, sore throat, bile in urine and jaundice.
(c) Tick borne encephalitis
Caused by arbo virus. Caused through bite of ticks and mites.
Symptoms : Biphasic meningio encephalitis
(d) Foot and Mouth disease.
Causes fever and difficulty in swallowing in human beings.
Microbial Standards of Raw and Pasteurized Milk
The different national and international organizations have given various
standards to milk and milk products.
1. Raw Milk
I.S.I. (BIS) Standards
(a) Direct Microscopic Count (DMC)
Count per ml Bacteriological quality
grade
< 5, 00,000 Good
5 Lakhs – 4 millions Fair
4 – 20 millions Poor
>20 millions Very poor
62 Dairying

(b) Standard Plate Count (SPC)

Count per ml Quality / Grade
<2, 00,000 Very Good
2 Lakhs – 1 million Good
1 – 5 millions Fair
>5 millions Poor
(c) Methylene blue Reduction time (MBRT)
MBRT hours Quality / Grade
5 and Above Very Good
3 to 4 Good
1 or 2 Poor
½ and below Very poor
(d) One hour Resazurin Test (RRT)
Disc No. Quality / grade
4 and above Good
3½ - 1 Fair
½ and 0 Poor
(e) 10 mts Resazurin rest (RRT)
Disc No. Quality/grade
4-5 Satisfactory
3 ½ -1 Doubtful
½ and 0 Unsatisfactory
(f) Thermoduric Count
Count /ml Quality /grade
<10,000 Good
10,000 – 30,000 Fair
>30,000 Poor
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(g) Coliforms
Absent in 0.001 ml – Satisfactory
(h) Leucocyte Count
Count per ml Quality / grade
<5,00,000 Normal Milk
>5,00,000 Mastitis or early or late lactation milk.
USDA/FDA Standards
(SPC) (max) ml) (Coliform (max) ml)
Raw Milk (pick up) 1,00,000 -
Raw milk (Co- mingled) 3,00,000 -
Military Federal Purchases Standards
Raw Milk DMC : 5,00,000 to 30,00,000/ ml
Fresh milk SPC: 20,000/ ml and Coliform 10 ml
Suggested Standards
Total Bacterial count <2,50,000 /ml
Coliform <100 /ml
E.coli (Faecal type) Absent 1 in 0.01 ml
Thermoduric < 1000 / ml
Spores < 10 / ml
B. Cereus spores < 1 / ml
Staphylococcus aueus < 100 / ml
MBRT (at 37oC) Not < 5 hours
RRT Not < 3 hours
Somatic Cell count < 7,50,000 / ml
2. Pasteurized Milk
(a) SPC count / ml Quality /grade
< 30,000 Satisfactory
64 Dairying

Coliforms. Absent in 1 : 10 Dilution satisfactory

USPHS Standards (United State Public Health Society)
(a) SPC – Grade ‘A’ milk not more than 20,000/ ml
Certified milk not more than 500 /ml
(b) Coliform Grade A > 10 /ml
Certified milk > 1 / ml
Suggested Standards
Total bacterial count < 50,000 / ml
3. Sterilized milk
BIS Standards
Spore count max 5 /ml
Turbidity test negative
Summary
The characteristic of various important dairy microbes i,e,
streptococci,lactobacillus and others were discussed in detail. The important
dairy yeasts and moulds were described. The various milk borne diseases
including food poisoning containing the causative organisms, symptoms and
prevention were explained in details.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Name various important groups of organisms under streptococcus
group.
2. Mention the various organisms that comes under pyogenic group of
streptococci.
3. What are the organisms that comes under viridans group of
streptococci ?
4. Give the varieties of organisms under Str - faecalis.
5. Mention various organisms under Leuconostoc group.
6. What are the morphological characteristics of Escherichia ?
7. Mention the names of various important dairy moulds.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 65

8. Define food intoxication.

9. Name the organisms that causes food infection.
10. Mention salmonella food poisoning symptoms.
11. Give some examples for milk borne toxic infections.
12. Name the various toxins from staphylococcus organism.
13. What are the different new emerging milk pathogens ?
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Write about morphological cultural and biochemical characteristics
of pyogenic group of streptococci.
2. Discuss in details the various characteristics of lactic group of
streptococci.
3. What are the differential characters of three groups of lactobacillus
group ?
4. Mention the various differential characters of Leuconostoc species.
5. Briefly write about important characters of genus Escherichia.
6. Explain briefly important yeast of dairy industry.
7. Discuss in details about dairy moulds.
8. Classify milk borne diseases with suitable examples.
9. Briefly write about symptoms, prevention and control of salmonellosis
food poisoning.
10. Explain in details about botulism food borne intoxication.
11. Write about fungal milk intoxication.
UNIT 5
Estimation of Microbes in Milk
Structure
5.1 MBRT Test
5.2 Direct Microscopic Count (DMC Test)
5.3 Standard Plate Count
5.4 Coliform Count.
5.5 Yeasts and Mould Count
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to understand
• Methylene Blue Reduction test
• Resazurin Reduction test
• Direct microscopic count test and Standard Plate count test
5.1 MBRT Test
Dye reduction tests are indirect methods of estimation of total bacterial
content of milk. Instead of counting bacteria directly, a correlation is made
between the time required to reduce dyes to colourless in milk. Generally the
time required for reduction of dye is inversely proportional to the number of
bacteria present in the milk. The milk will have dissolved oxygen content and so
initially it is oxidation side and when the bacteria multiply utilizes the oxygen and
after some time total oxygen content in milk is exhausted and the milk is reduced
stage. The dyes used will have colour in oxidized stage and become colourless
in reduction stage.
Methylene Blue Reduction Time (MBRT)
The Methylene blue concentration used is 1 part of dye in 3,00,000
parts of milk. Presently tablet forms are available. One tablet dissolved in 200
ml of hot, distilled water produces the stock dye solution for addition to the
milk. Although this solution is stable when it is refrigerated and protected from
light, it is safer to prepare the solution weekly.
Essentially the procedure is, add 10 ml of milk sample to 1 ml of
Methylene blue dye solution in test tube. The tube is incubated at 37oC in a
constant temperature bath. After the tempering period, the tubes are inverted
gently 3 times to redistribute the cream, and this point is used as the starting time
of the test. The initial observations for reduction are made after 30 minutss and
hourly intervals after wards. At each observation those tubes which show
reduction are removed and recorded and the remaining ones are inverted 1 time
and reincubated. Those reduced at the initial 30 minutes observation are recorded
as reduced in 30 minutes, those reduced between 0.5 and 1.5 hours time,
recorded as 1 hour those between 1.5 and 2.5 hours recorded as 2 hours and
so on.
The inversion of the tubes at the specified intervals has aided materially
in over coming the earlier objectional features of creaming. Bacteria normally
are carried to the top as the cream rises, making the reduction of the irregular
throughout the tube. These defects are minimized by the present technique.
The inversion of the tubes must be gentle, otherwise the incorporation of oxygen
in the milk will cause oxidation of the dye. Since the change from blue (oxidized
form of the dye to the colourless (reduced) form is reversible, unnecessary agitation
of the sample will cause an extended reduction time and will give results indicative
of a higher quality than actually exists. The exposure of the surface of the milk to
the oxygen in the air above it will cause that part of the milk to remain blue for
some time after the reminder is reduced. For this reason the reduction time is
taken to be the time required to reduce the colour in four fifth of the milk.
Milk as it exists in the udder has a sufficiently low oxidation-reduction
potential to reduce Methylene blue immediately. The incorporation of oxygen in
to the milk during milking, cooling, dumping raises the potential to above + 0.3
volts. At this potential, methylene blue will exist in the oxidized form, i.e. have a
blue colour. As the bacteria in the milk grow during progress of the test, the
O.R. potential is lowered and the methylene blue is reduced to the colourless
form when the oxidation reduction potential reaches approximately + 0.06 to –
68 Dairying

0.01 volt. Oxygen is removed from the milk by the respiratory process of the
bacteria.
This results in a shift of the oxidation – reduction potential, since the
oxygen ordinarily maintains a positive potential. As the potential falls hydrogen
presumably is transferred from milk constituents and bacterial metabolites to
methylene blue, causing its reduction. Bacteria such as streptococcus lactis and
Escherichia coli lower the potential rapidily, others lower it much more slowly.
Although the dye is reduced at a high oxidation – reduction potential at lower
pH values, the ability of organism to produce acid and to reduce methylene blue
are not necessarily correlated.
Methylene blue test has found many uses in grading of raw milk for
pasteurization and of milk to be used as evaporated milk. Its simplicity and the
rapidity with which data are obtained are definitely in its favour. There are
however definite limitations, such as --
1. The 37oC temperature of incubation is not favourable for the
metabolism of all the bacteria contained in milk.
2. The different bacteria have varying abilities with regard to lowering
the oxidation – reduction potential of milk.
Thermoduric bacteria frequently are relatively inactive in the test for the
above two reasons. This is probably the most important objection to the method,
for the thermoduric bacteria constitute a very important problem for the process.
Psychrophillic and thermophillic bacteria would show little or no activity in this
test. Inhibitory materials in milk also prevent the growth of many bacteria and
will cause the test to give an indication of higher quality than may actually exist.
For these reasons, counting methods will reveal certain bacteria, which would
not be detected by MBRT.
On the other hand there may be circumstances where in the dye reduction
technique would be more indicative of the quality than actual counts by the plate
method.
Involved here would be the ability of certain bacteria to grow in millions,
but their mobility to form visible colonies on the standard plating medium. Further
more, the individual cells of a clump, which would form just one colony by the
plate count, would be more evident by the dye reduction test, since each cell
would be metabolizing and the cumulative effect of all the cells would be noted.
The milk is graded as given below using methylene blue reduction test
(MBRT).
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 69

Time required for reduction (hrs) Grade/Quality of milk

5 and above Very Good
3 and 4 hrs Good
1and 2 Fair
0.5 and below Poor
Resazurin Reduction Test (RRT)
This test is similar to the methylene blue test, but it uses the indicator
Resazurin to measure the bacteriological quality of milk. Resazurin has certain
characteristics that make its use as an indicator very useful. The colour Resazurin
at the normal pH of milk is blue. This compound is reduced to resorufin, which
is pink, the colour changes gradually during the reduction process. From initial
blue through shades of purple and lavender to the full pink colour. This phase of
reduction is not reversible and the change to the resorufin occurs at an oxidation.
Reduction potential between + 0.2 and 0.05 volts. The resorufin is then reduced
to hydroresorufin, which is white. This reaction is reversible, the change occurring
between +0.15 and 0 volt. In conducting the test, however the first reaction is of
chief concern.
In performing the test milk is added to a screw capped vial plus resazurin
to give a concentration of about 1 part of dye in 1,80,000 parts of milk . Standard
tablets of resazurin are available, one tablet dissolved in 50 ml of boiled, cooled
distilled water make 0.005% solution which can be directly used in the test. The
tubes are then incubated in a water bath at 37o C. after the samples reach this
temperature, they are gently inverted three times and returned to the bath, then
the time of incubation begins.
This test is used in three types.
• 1 hr RRT
• 10 minutes RRT
In the 3 hour RRT comparisions of the tubes at intervals of one hour are
made with a standard lavender colour (munsell colour standard p 7/4) and grading
is done on the basis of time required to each this colour. Munsell colour standards
are.
Grade 1-Colours from initial to PBP 7 /5.5 (Purple shade)
Grade 2- Colours from PBP 7/ 5.5 to PRP 7/8 (Lavender shade)
Grade 3- Samples showing pink colour
70 Dairying

Grade 4-Samples decolorizing dye completely.

The three hour triple reading test is more commonly used earlier. After
the first hour of incubation, those tubes having a colour of 7/4 (munsel colour
standard) are removed and recorded. The remainder of the tubes are inverted
once again and reincubated. At the end of second, third hour of incubation the
comparision to the colour standard of 7/4 and so on. The time taken for resazurin
reduced to colour of 7/4 will be taken for judging the quality. This test is more
indicative than 1 hour test. Since some bacteria may not be so rapid in initiating
growth. Grade 1 (munsell Standard) would correspond with MBRT not less
than 5.5 hours.
For 1 hour and 10 mts RRT, test samples are compared with control
tubes (milk without dye and incubated at 37o C) is a levibond comparator with
resazurin disc. The disc will have 6 discs (Starting 0-6 with colours ranging from
blue and shades of purple, lavender and pink). The disc number matching is
recorded and the quality of milk is graded as follows.
1 Hour RRT test
Disc no Quality
4.5 or 6 Good
3 ½ -1 Fair
0.5 and 0 Poor
10 minutes RRT Test
Disc No Quality
4.5 or 6 Satisfactory
3 ½ -1 Doubtful, requires further examination
0.5 and 0 Unsatisfactory
Since, the colour changes that are used as end products of the test
occurs at higher oxidation – reduction potentials than those for the methylene
blue test, the resazurin test can be done in a shorter period of time. Further
more, colostrum and milk from cows that have diseased udders or from cows
that are being fried up reduce the resazurin very quickly. In such milk the oxidation
reduction zone of dye reduction is shifted more to the positive side than is required
for normal milk. It is generally assumed that leucocytes or substances associated
with leucocytes are responsible for this shift. Reduction in such instances is not
always associated with high bacterial count but ability of the test to detect such
milk is certainly a point in its favour.
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Even though the milk of this nature may be unsafe its flavour but is
undersirable and the quality of normal milk should be maintained by excluding
abnormal milk from it. Knowledge of the effect of milk from diseased udders on
resazurin has been employed to advantage in locating mastitis cow, the RRT
being used as a screening test for mastitis milk from individual quarters.
Advantages of Dye reduction tests
1. Dye reduction tests are useful for estimating the suitability of milk
for liquid consumption.
2. These tests are cheaper and also the time required is less.
3. In case of standard plate count, clumps of organisms are regarded as
one colony; where as the rate of decolourization of dyes is due to the combined
effect of each bacterium in the clump.
4. With the help of these tests, the activity is measured rather than the
numbers of bacteria. Hence, it is a better estimate of the rapidity with which
milk will sour as bacteria which sour milk quality, will reduce dye rapidly.
5. Unlike the artificial media used in SPC, here milk is used which is the
natural environment for microbes.
6. In case of the dye reduction tests, particularly RRT, the stage of
reduction can be measured in shorter and result expressed.
7. Colostrum and milk from diseased udders reduce resazurin quickly
and thus RRT is also used as a screening test for mastitis.
Disadvantages
1. The rate of reduction of dye varies considerably and is related to
species and the rate at which different organisms grow at a particular temperature.
Most of the thermodurics are less active in reducing the dyes than many other
common contaminants and these are less readily detected by the dye reduction
test. The same is true of psychrotrophs. However, leucocytes reduce such dyes
at a faster rate. Coliforms are the most rapid reducers followed by S. Lactis,
faecal streptococci, staphylococci, micrococci and aerobic spore formers.
2. Somatic cells at levels of about 1 x 106 / ml reduce resazurion at rate
not dissimilar to that resulting from the same number of bacteria.
3. Inhibitory substances like penicillin and other antibiotics prevent the
growth of bacteria and this increase the reduction time.
4. Dye reduction tests are not suitable for classifying milk with low
bacteria counts of less than 105 /ml.
72 Dairying

5. Some of the bacteria capable of reducing dye may not develop

colonies on the medium used in SPC.
6. Reduction capability may vary because of the variation in proportion
of bacteria carried in to cream layer by the rising fat globules.
7. These tests do not give indication for the type of organisms present
8. Temperature of incubation used during these tests is not the optimum
for majority of the organisms present in milk.
9. The dye reduction tests are not suitable for pasteurized milk because
of the low number of organisms.
10. These tests require attention until reduction takes place.
5.2 Direct Microscopic Count (DMC Test)
Direct microscopic count (DMC) is one of the several methods used in
quality control laboratories for direct enumeration of micro organisms in milk
sample. It consists of examining fixed and stained smears of a known volume of
milk and milk products under a compound micro scope. This method provides
a rapid indication of quality of milk or liquid milk products. It also helps us in
keeing a permanent record of the quality of the product. However accuracy
and reproducibility of the results achieved by this method depends largely on
the expertise and training of the personal in the quality control laboratory.
A small quantity (0.01 ml) of the sample is spread over the outlines area
of one square (100 mm2 on a greese proof microscope slide with the help f a
breed’s pipette.) After making a uniform smear, it is air dried, fixed, stained with
new-man’s stain and then examined under the microscope. The number of
organisms per field is counted and average number per field is determined after
examining at least 10- 20 fields. Total number of organisms (viable as well as
non viable) per ml are then calculated by multiplying the average number of
organisms per field by the microscopic factor.
For determining the microscopic factor (MF) of a given compound
microscope, the following formula is used.
MF = 100 x 100 / r2
Where ‘r’ is equal to radius of the microscopic field  (pi) is a constant
having a value of 3.14. In this formula in order to convert area of one field from
Sq. mm to sq.cm field area in Sq mm has been divided by hundred. Similarly, to
determine the number of such fields in one cm square, one cm square is divided
by the area of one field in mm followed by multiplication with hundred to
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 73

determine the number of organisms per ml sample. The number of such fields to
be counted depends upon the average number of organisms per field as given
below.
No of Organism per Field No of Fields to be counted
0 -3 64
4–6 32
7 – 12 16
13 – 25 08
The average number of organism per field multiplied by the MF – yields
the number of organisms per ml of milk product. It is better to count clumps
instead of individual cells because clump count agrees most with SPC.
Advantages
1. This is rapid method as the results are obtained on the spot.
2. The stained smears of the sample can help in the identification of
different sizes, shapes and arrangement of bacteria and somatic cells.
3. Actual counts of clumps of bacteria and individual somatic cells are
obtainable.
4. It is less expensive.
5. Microscopic preparations gives a permanent record.
6. Preservatives can be used with samples intended for microscopic
examination because the individual cells will also be included in the count.
7. It helps to locate the source of contamination depending on the
predominance of organisms.
Results Interpretation
Count / MI Quality
Less than 5,00,000 Good
5,00,000 – 40,00,000 Fair
4,000,0000 – 20,000000 Poor
Over 20,000,000 Very poor
74 Dairying

Disadvantages
1. There will be tremendous strain on the eye of the operator.
2. Both the viable and non viable are counted, hence not very reliable.
3. The method is not suitable for low count raw milk samples and the
pasteurized milk.
4. Great amount of skill and expertise is needed for getting consistent
results.
5. Results are not reproducible because organisms are unevenly
distributed in the smear.
The observations of bacteria shapes and arrangements will give type of
contamination.
1. Presence of cocci particularly when in clumps of varying sizes indicates
that the sample under observation has been handled improperly cleaned utensils.
2. Rod forms of bacteria indicate dusty or dirty environment.
3. Bacteria in pairs or short chains (usually streptococcus lactis or
streptococcus cremoris) indicate improper cooling of milk.
4. Presence of leucocytes indicate mastitis or udder disease.
5.3 Standard Plate Count.
The standard plate count or pour plate method is used for estimating the
viable micro organisms in milk and milk products. In view of a wide range of
bacterial population in dairy products, their number can be counted only by
making appropriate dilutions. An aliquot of 0.1 ml or 1 ml of he diluted sample
is poured in sterilized plates and mixed with liquefied sterilized agar medium.
After solidification of agar, the plates are incubated at a specific temperature
and for suitable period of time depending on the type of bacteria being suspected
in the food sample.
After incubation, bacterial cells grows in to distinct and isolated colonies.
Eeach colony develops from a single bacterial cells) which an be counted with
the help of a colony counter. The plates with 30 – 300 colonies are selected for
counting to obtain plate counts or colony forming units (cfu) per ml or g of the
product. In order to calculate the total number of viable bacteria/ g or ml of the
sample, the number of the colonies developed on each plate are multiplied by
the dilution factor. The dilutions will be 1 : 10, 1 : 1000, 1: 10000, 1 : 100000,
1 : 10,00000 etc. This is carried out as shown in the figure.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 75

1 ml 1 ml 1 ml

Sample 1 : 100 1:10,000 1:1,000,000

0.1 ml 1 ml 0.1 ml 1 ml 0.1 ml 1 ml 0.1 ml

1 : 10 1 : 100 1 : 1000 1:100,000 1:1,000,00 1:1,000,000 1:10,000,000

Fig 5.1 Protocol for preparing dilutions of a milk sample, indicating volumes to be
added to dilution blanks and petri dishes

The type of medium and incubation temperature and period should be

indicated while expressing the results.
Introduction of automation in counting the number of colonies in SPC
has considerably improved the efficiency of this method. Most of the colony
counters consists of a television camera or screen to detect the colonies on the
illuminated petri dish and a small electronic computer. One such counting device
is electronic micro- colony counter using particle counts. The various factors
which affect SPC include temperature of incubation period of incubation,
composition of plating medium, existence of bacterial clumps etc.
Advantages
1. Enumeration of viable micro organisms is possible.
2. Differential counts can also be determined
3. The cultural and morphological differentiation based on colony
characteristics is possible.
4. This method is suitable for determination of quality of milk. Samples
with low bacterial numbers, pasteurized milk and high grade raw milk.
Disadvantages
1. The method gives only a rough estimate of microbial population in the
given sample, hence is not very accurate.
2. It requires complex standardization conditions for specific counts.
76 Dairying

3. It is a time consuming, laborious and cumbersome method.

4. It requires huge quantities of reagents, chemicals and glassware at a
time.
5. It is not a rapid method as at least 24 hours are required to get the
result.
6. This method does not give accurate counts as
(a) The SPC medium is not suitable for the growth of all the species of
bacteria present in milk.
(b) Temperature of incubation may not be the optimum for the growth
of all types of bacteria.
(c) The amount of sample may not be representative of the whole lot.
7. Pathogenic organisms are not detected because certain organisms
like M. tuberculosis cannot grow under the conditions of the test.
8. Specific information regarding the type of micro flora is not obtained.
Inspite of all the limitations, SPC method is still being routinely used in
most of the quality control laboratories for assessing the micro biological quality
of milk and milk Products.
Intrepretation of Results
Count / ml Quality / Grade
Less than 200,000 Very good
2,00,000 – 1 million Good
1 – 5 million Fair
Over 5 million Poor
5.4 Coliform Count.
The members of the Coliform group of bacteria eg. Escherichia and
Aerobacter aerogenes are commonly found in dairy products, produced and
handled under insanitary conditions. Their presence in milk and milk products is
indicative of possible faecal contamination although some species (Aerobacter
aerogenes) may be derived from feeding materials and soil. As these organisms
are capable of growing rapidly at room temperature (30 - 45oC) and produce
acid, gas and objectionable taints in the products they are considered to be very
undesirable contaminants.
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The estimation of Coliform bacteria in milk is, therefore, very important

in quality control work. Since these organisms are generally destroyed during
pasteurization treatment their presence in pasteurized milk is considered to
indicate post pasteurization contaminaton. The test for Coliform organisms is
based on the principle that the members of this group are capable of producing
aid and gas from lactose in the presence of bile salt: A small amount of milk (1.0,
0.1 or 0.01 ml) is added to liquid or solid media containing lactose and bile salt
with a suitable indicator.
Production of acid and gas in liquid media and appearance of typical
colonies of Coliform on the plates is taken as evidence of Coliform on the plates
is taken as evidence of Coliform contamination. A few other bacteria such as
those belonging to the genus clostridium and genius bacillus and certain yeasts
also produce acid and gas under these conditions giving rise to false positives.
However even these orgainisms are desirable in milk and their interference
with the test therefore is not considered to be of much significance. Hence the
test commonly employed to detect the presence of Coliform bacteria in milk is
called presumptive test and in cases of doubt the completed test is considered
to confirm the presence of coliform.
Liquid Media test
Transfer 1 ml portion of milk and its dilutions (1/ 10 and 1 / 100) into
macconkey’s broth tubes in triplicate. Incubate the tubes for 24 hours at 37oC
and observe for acid and gas production. The production of acid is indicated
by change of colour of medium from purple to yellow in case of bromocresol
purple and orange to pink in case of andrade’s indicator. Production of gas is
observed in the Durham’s tubes which may be particularly or completely filled
with gas. If no change is observed incubate for another period of 24 hours and
record the observation.
Solid Media Test
Incubate 1 ml portion of the required dilutions into sterile petridishes (in
duplicate). Add to each plate 10-15 ml of macconkey’s agar previously melted
and cooled to 45o C, Mix the content thoroughly by tilting and rotating the plates.
Allow the agar to solidify. Pour additional layer (3- 4 ml) of the medium
completely over the surface of the solidified medium invert and incubate the
plates at 37oC for24 ours. After incubation examine for typical colonies of
coliform bacteria. Presence of dark red colonies measuring at least 0.5 mm in
diameter constitute a positive test count such colonies only and express the
results as coliform per ml of milk.
78 Dairying

Confirmation Test for Coliforms

Select positive acid and gas tube for the above experiments and subject
them to confirm the above tests. Two solids media are generally used in the test,
namely eosine methylene blue (EMB) agar medium and Endoagar medium.
Typical colonies of coliform organisms will appear pink with dark centre and
metallic sheen on EMB agar. Endo agar produce coliform colonies which appear
red in colour and the growth will darken the medium to deep red.
Pour 10 – 15 ml of melted EMB or end agar in to petridish and allow
the media to set. Make three sectors on lower dish by marking with glass marking
pencil by inverting the petridish. Move the inoculating needle slightly curved so
that to streaking should ensure the presence of well isolated colonies. Introduce
the needle to the depth of ½ m below the surface of positive presumptive tubes.
Place the curved section of the needles on the agar surface in one segment and
streak gently to avoid tearing of the medium. Similarly streak a loopful of the
culture of E-Coli in second sector. Streak the third sector with the culture of
aerogenes. Invert the plates and incubate at 37oC for 4 hours and record the
result. ( Standard is absent in 0.001 ml is satisfactory).

5.5 Yeasts and Mould Count

For certain dairy products the yeasts and moulds count is used as an
index of proper plant sanitation and high quality raw products.
Yeasts and moulds counts can be made by using potatodextrose agar
or malt agar with a pH adjusted to 3.5 + 0.1. At this pH bacterial growth is
inhabited although most yeasts and moulds are uninhabited of owing their
preference of an acid reaction. The pH is adjusted with a predetermined amount
of sterile 10 % tartaric acid after the medium is melted and tempered and then
plates are poured in the usual manner explained under SPC method. The medium
should not be acidified before sterilization or melting for the acid will hydrolyse
the agar and destroy its ability to solidify. Extended holding of the acidified
melted agar will prove undesirable for the same reason. The plates are incubated
at 21oC or 25oC. For 5 days and the count is reported as yeasts and moulds
plate count per ml of milk or butter.
When examining butter, one should place a quantity of the product in a
sterile jar and should warm this in a bath at 40oC until the butter melts. Then 1 :
10 dilution is prepared by adding 11 ml of the melted to 99 ml of water blank
from which after dilutions can be made. It is well to have all glassware and
dilution blank tempered to 45oC, until just before use to facilitate the handling of
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 79

the sample and to prevent any solidification. The pipeting of diluted sample
should be done immediately subsequent to shaking while the fat droplets are
evenly distributed. This will aid in preventing errors caused by the coalescing of
the fat and by uneven distribution of organisms adhering to the fat droplets.
Summary
The indirect methods of microbial estimation i,e. Methylene blue reduction
test and resazurin reduction test were explained in detail. The direct enumeration
methods like DMC, standard plate count, coliform test were exlained . The
estimation fo various pathogens in milk explained in detail. The enuumeration of
yeast and mould explained.
Short Answer Type Question
1. What is the principle involved in dye reduction tests ?
2. Mention the quality standards of milk as per MBRT test.
3. What are Munsell colour standards ?
4. Mention the quality standards as per 10 minutes RRT.
5. What is the microscopic factor for DMC method ?
6. How you will interpret the SPC results?
7. What is confirmation test for coliforms ?
8. Give the isolation process for staphylococcus aureus.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of dye reduction tests.
2. Explain in details MBRT test.
3. Briefly write about Direct microscopic count method.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SPC method ?
5. Discuss in detail SPC method.
6. Briefly write about coliform test.
UNIT 6
Milk Reception
Structure
6.1 Milk Collection and Transportation
6.2 Methods of milk Preservation
6.3 Milk reception at Dock – Unloading, Weighing Sampling –
Grading – Dumping.
6.4 Milk Chilling Methods and Storage.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
• Understand about Milk collection and their transportation.
• Understand about Milk preservation.
• Different types of reception, Chilling methods and storage.
6.1Milk Collection and Transportation
Milk collection
In almost all developed dairying countries, production of milk is confined
to rural area, while demand is mostly urban in nature. Hence the milk has top be
collected and transported from the production points in the milk shed areas to
processing and distribution points in cities.
(a) The common system of collection (assembling) of milk areas follows.
1. By cooperative organizations : formed by individuals or collective
milking societies. Suites procedures best as no profit making middle men are
involved.
2. By contractors : Less returns to producers.
3. By individual producers : Practical for those situated nearer
processing dairies.
Note
Milk shed is the geographical area from which a city dairy receives its
fluid supply. The allocation of definite milk shed to individuals dairies for the
purpose of developing the same is now being considered in India.
(b) Milk Collection - - chilling centres / dipos: Normally attached to city
diaries.
Objectives
1. To preserve the quality of raw milk supply.
2. To provide easy transport to the processing dairy.
Location
This is guided by
1. Adequate milk production
2. Adequate (portable) Water supply.
3. Proximity to a good road or railway station.
4. Electric supply.
5. Sewage disposable facilitation
Major items of the equipment : 1. Milk Weigh Tank/ Pan and weighing
scale 2. Dump tank with cover. 3. Can Wash 4. Milk Pump (Sanitary) 5. Surface
/ Plate cooler. 6. Refrigeration unit 7. Cold room 8.Milk testing unit.
Operational Procedures : Essentially this is the same as in a small
dairy .on arrival the milk is graded for acceptance/ rejection, weighed, sampled
for testing, cooled and stored at a low temperature until dispatched to the
processing dairy.
Transportation
Under Indian conditions, milk has to be regularly collected and
transported twice a day (Morning and Evening).
82 Dairying

Methods of transport : These depends upon the carrying load, the

distance of collection and local conditions.

Mode Optimum load Optimum dis- Remarks

(K G) tance (KMS)

1. Head load 15 - 25 3-4 Generally employed

for small loads and dis-
tances - important in
hilly areas.

2. Shoulder Upto 40 3-6 Means of heavier

sling loads but for shorter
distance than head
load.

3. Pack animal Upto 80 6 - 10 Ponies, horses and

donkeys usually em-
ployed.
4. Bullock cart 300-400 10 - 12 Rather slow
5. Tongos 250 - 300 12 or more Larger quantities
transported, faster
than head load, should
sling and pack animal.
6. Bicycle 40 or more 15 or more Quick and handy, eas-
ily accessible to milk
producers.
7. Cycle rick 150-200 10 or more More carrying capac-
shaw ity than bicycle.

40 - 200 2-8 Only means of trans-

8. Boat
port when rivers, etc
have to be crossed.
9. Auto Rick 250-500 15 or more Greater carrying ca-
shaw pacity and faster than
cycle rickshaw.
1
10. Motor /2 -3 tons 15 or more Increasingly in use with
truck more road building and
improvement.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 83

Mode Optimum load Optimum Remarks

(K G) distance
(KMS)

11. Rail wagon 11 tons or more 80 or more Great scope in future.

12. Tankers 5 tons or more 80 or more Great scope in future.
(Road Rail)

Road Vs Railways transport (Advantages)

Road
1. Loading and unloading possible directly at godown of seller and buyer.
2. Cheaper than rail over short distances.
3. Less time consuming.
Railway
1. Cheaper than road over long distances.
2. Larger quantity of milk can be handled at a time.

Fig 6.1 Milk tranport in Railway

Can Vs Tanker Transport. (Advantages).

Can
Handling of small quantities possible.
84 Dairying

Tankers
1. Quicker mode of transport
2. Lower Costs
3. Better temperature control
4. Less Risk of contamination.
5. More time and labour Saving.
6. Over all savings in detergents etc.,
Types of Containers Used.
1. Baked Earth
2. Wood or Bamboo
3. Metal (Generally Brass)
4. Galvanized Iron (GI)
5. Second hand tins(mainly vegetable oil or ghee)
6. Tinned iron and aluminum alloy (used by organized dairies.)
7. Polypropylene cans.
The problems in relation to milk collection and transportation are
1. Milk is liquid, perishable & bulky.
2. Small and scattered production of milk.
3. Tropical climate
4. Lack of transport facilities.
5. Lack of countrywide organization for milk collection and transport.
6. Vested interests among milk merchants.
6.2 Methods of milk Preservation
Milk is highly perishable item. The keeping quality of fresh milk is only
5-6 hours unless proper steps are taken to preserve the quality. The major
cause for spoilage of milk is due to the action of micro organisms on lactose
yielding lactic and other acids, causing increased acidityof milk. The milk with
high acidity can’t tolerate heat and so coagulates on heating .when the milk
acidity reaches 0.6 % acidity, milk coagulates at room temperature with out
heating.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 85

The principle involved in the preservation of milk is only to destroy the

micro organisms or obstructing the microbial growth, so that acidity development
is stopped or slowed down, the various methods are.
1. By Cooling the Milk : The Most of the micro organisms present in
milk are mesophillic i.e. they grow well at 20 – 40oC. By cooling the milk to
refrigeration temperature i.e. 5- 10 oC, the multiplication of micro organisms can
be restricted. Only psychrophils will grow. So the acidity development is at
slower rate. This table shows that the bacterial growth factor in the milk at
different temperature.
Temp oC Bacterial Growth Factor
0 1.00
5 1.05
10 1.80
15 10.00
20 200.00
25 1,20,000.00
Multiply initial count with the above factor to get final microbial count.
That is why milk should be cooled to 5 oC to maintaining quality.
2. By heating : By heating the milk, the micro organisms will be killed.
The various micro organisms are destroyed at different temperatures.
Pasteurization temperatures kill cent percent pathogenic micro organisms and
98 – 99% of spoilage micro organisms. Boiling milk will kill all the micro
organisms, except spores. The effect of heat is discussed well in chapter 3.
3. By addition of Chemicals : Preservatives are the chemicals, which
when added to milk at small concentrations will inhibit the microbial multiplication
by interfering the metabolism path way of micro organisms or by neutralizing the
acids produced.
The various preservatives are sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate
formaline /formaldehyde. Boric / benzoic acids, salicylic acids etc.
Antibiotics will also inhibit microbial growth. Microbial antibiotics like
nisin, acidophillin etc will also inhibit microbial growth.
Lactoperoxidase System: it is also known as cold sterilization. This system
contains three components i.e. thiocyanate, Hydrogen peroxide-
Lactoperoxidase. Milk contains natural Lactoperoxidase enzyme. Thiocyanate
86 Dairying

and hydrogenperoxides are added at 30 : 70 ppm level to activate the

Lactoperoxidase system.

Fig 6.2 Road Milk Tanker

Fig 6.3 Milk can

6.3 Milk reception at Dock – Unloading, Weighing Sampling

– Grading – Dumping.
Most of the dairy plants receive milk in cans. The equipment used at
reception sections are chain conveyer, weighing balance can washers. Milk
reception should be so planned and the equipment so chosen that intake operations
are expedited. This is especially important where larger volumes of milk are
received.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 87

Delays permit deterioration of milk awaiting dumping, increases labour

costs and may increase the operating cost of the can washer. The deliveries of
milk should follow a schedule. If the milk is received continuously during the
schedule period, operations in the plant will not be interrupted and employees in
the various sections will be fully occupied. The aim should be to complete milk
reception within 3-4 hours, especially in tropical countries.
Unloading : The motor truck carrying the filled milk cans is backed up
(or brought aside) to the unloading platform. These milk cans are unloaded
manually. If the level of the truck surface is in line with the platform, the unloading
requires the lease effort (No lifting up or down but only pulling a level surface).
Then the milk cans are assembled for grading in a definite order, according to
each supplier viz, the contractor or patron.
The reception of milk from large rail or road tankers is primarily a matter
of providing a covered area under which emptying and subsequently cleaning
can take place. Road/ Rail milk tankers are mainly used for receiving milk in
feeder, feeder balancing dairies, Mother dairies and city milk plants. As the
tanker arrives to the dairy the milk is tested for smell, taste and appearance.
thoroughly mixed manually using a plunger or by mechanical or air agitation.
The temperature of milk is measured and composite sample is taken for chemical
and microbiological tests.
After getting the report from the laboratory, the reception of milk is to
be started. The tanker outlet must be connected to sanitary piping. The milk
may be removed by the milk pump, suited at a lower level than the tanker, or a
compressed air line may be connected to the top of the tanker and milk forced
out by air pressure. Washing and sanitization of the tanker should follow
immediately, after emptying is completed. The measurement of milk delivered
by tankers may be done either by using a weigh bridge or flow meter.
Weighing
This is an essential step in accounting for milk receipts and disposal,
making payment for milk etc. the milk in cans is dumped into the weight tank,
either manually or mechanically. The tank is mounted on scales and the scale
dial set at zero when the empty tank is on the scale, thus enabling the operator to
make a direct reading of the weight of the milk. Automatic printing of the weight
is also now becoming common. (Weighing is facilitated by the use of dial reading
or some other indicating scale, rather than a beam scale.
There are two ways of measuring the quantity of milk received at the
dock.1.By weighing 2. By volumetric measurement. The weighing system is as
follows. The gross weight of the tankers on Weigh Bridge is recorded then the
88 Dairying

milk is emptied and weight of the empty taker is taken. The difference between
the two readings gives the net weight of milk received y the dairy. The volumetric
measurement is by taking the level of the milk in the tanker and translating into
unit of volume. Other method is to pass the milk through a flow meter and
record its reading, which is multiplied by density of milk to get weight of the milk
received.
Weight Vs Volume
By Weight
1. Gives Accurate reading, regardless of foam or temperature.
2. Involves considerable initial expenses for both apparatus and its
installation.
3. Involves problems with maintenance.
By Volume
1. Not so accurate, as affected by foam and temperature, both influencing
density.
2. Lower initial expenses.
3. Presents maintenance problems.
4. Definitely a factor to be considered in the overall picture of sanitation.
Sampling
The importance of securing an accurate and representative sample of
milk for subsequent chemical and bacteriological examination cannot be over
emphasized, while strict precautions regarding sterility of the stirrer, sampler,
container etc are required for obtaining a bacteriological sample. Dryness and
cleanliness of the above equipment should suffice for a chemical sample.
The first prerequisite of sample is thorough mixing of the sample. This
can be done with a plunger or stirrer (agitator), operated manually or mechanically
in the milk –in cans or tankers, as the case may be. With the former, a
representative sample may also be taken after quick dumping of the milk into
the weigh tank, where by it gets mixed thoroughly that a representative sample
may be taken without further mixing.
Samples may be individual, composite, (mixture of two or more individual
lots of milk), drip (representing the entire days supply) etc. Samplers may be
dipper, proportionate (also known as milk thief), automatic vaccum, drips etc.,
whose characteristics are given below.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 89

Type Priciple Advantages Disadvan- Remark

tages
1. Dipper Secures 1. Fairly fast Inaccurate Most com
10 - 15 ml and easy to when wide monly used.
milk. work with. variation ex- most useful
ist in milk for cream.
lots, both in
quality and
quality.

2. Quite ac-
curate when
milk is mixed
adequat ely
before sam-
pling
2. Proportionate Secures Most Accu- 1. Cumber Not so com-
aliquof of rate some to use. monly used
proportion (not so useful
2. Larger
of milk. for cream)
sample
bottle
needed.
3. Aut omat ic Secures 1. Very fast Expensive Increasingly
Vacuum. aliquot in operation. used in large
portion by market milk
2. Very ac
vacuum plants and
curate
automati- product fac-
cally. tories.

Milk col Helpful in fat Not useful Useful in

4. Drip for individual
lects in and SNF ac- large product
drops in counting of sampling. factories.
the sample the total in-
bottles take.
(which is
kept under
refrigera-
tion)
90 Dairying

If the composite sample is to be successful, the milk must be kept sweet

while the sample is being assembled. This is accomplished by use of a
preservative. It is a good plan to place the preservative in the empty bottle milk
is added. A wide mouthed glass bottle with a rubber stopper has been found to
be the most reliable and practical container for keeping composite samples of
milk or cream. The common preservatives used are:
1. Mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate : This is very poisonous.
It may be added in the form of tablets, which are coloured to prevent the milk
being mistaken for food.
2. Formalin : This is a 40 % solution of formaldehyde. Being liquid
form, it is very convenient to handle; however it interferes with fat test.
3. Potassium dichromate : This is not effective as the above two, but
it is easy to handle in dairy plants because, it is available in tablet form. The
composite samples should be stored in a cool place away from direct sunlight.
Each bottle should be properly labeled.
Grading
This refers to the classification of milk on the basis of quality, for price
fixing purpose. It is well known that the quality of the finished product depends
on that of the raw material user. The milk grader is the key man for the proper
selection of milk. The principle of grading is based on organoleptic (sensory)
tests, such as those for smell (odour), taste, appearance and touch, sediment
etc. These are included under plat form tests. The term ‘platform tests’ includes
all those tests which are performed to check the quality of incoming milk on the
receiving platform, so as to make a quick decision regarding its acceptance/
rejection. They are performed on each can/ tanker of milk with the object of
detecting the milk of inferior or doubtful quality. So as to prevent it being mixed
with high-grade milk. Some times the term “Rapid platform” is used to refer
mainly to the organoleptic or sensory tests, which take very little time to perform.
The technique of grading milk may be described as under.
(a) Milk tanker (Road/ Rail) : Actually the grading should have been
done at the milk collection – cum- chilling centre. As the milk should be cold (5
o
C or below), it is not possible to detect off – odours. Only the appearance can
be noted, as testing of raw milk is usually avoided. After thoroughly mixing it for
5 -10 minutes., a sample is taken for laboratory testing.
(b) Milk cans : The main tests applied to each can of milk consists of
smell, appearance and temperature (touch ), other tests such as taste (seldom
carried out with raw milk) and sediment might be used to substantiate the initial
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 91

findings. Tests involving time, laboratory facilities and special techniques are
best done by the quality control technician. For which a sufficiently large sample
is properly taken as the milk is being received (even if cans of milk have been
dispatched from chilling centre, it is wise to inspect each can separately).
The various Platform tests are discussed as below
1. Smell (odour) : This furnishes an excellent indication of the organloptic
quality of milk. It can be ascertained very quickly (in just few seconds). In
making the test, the cover of each can be removed, inverted and raise to the
nose. The odour / smell will be representative of that in the can. The top of the
milk in the can may simultaneously be noted for smell. By replacing the lid and
shaking the can vigorously, the rest may be repeated. An experienced milk
grader with a trained nose usually relies to a great extent in the acceptance /
rejection of the intake milk on the odour test alone. The milk should be free from
any off flavour.
2. Appearance : By regularly observing the milk, each can after the
odour test has been made, any floating extraneous matter, off-colour or partially
churned milk may be noted. The milk should be normal in colour, free from
churned fat globules and reasonably free from any floating extraneous material.
3. Temperature : The temperature at which milk is delivered is often
an indication of its quality; a daily check on the temperature of milk is helpful in
grading the milk on the receiving platform. With practice, the grader can tell
with a high degree of accuracy whether or not the milk is sufficiently cold by
touching the side of the can. A temperature of 5 oC or below is satisfactory.
4. Sediment : This test shows the visible foreign matter contained in
the milk. It need not be made daily, but should be made sufficiently often to
ensure a clean milk supply, for this purpose a reliable sediment test (such as an
off- the bottom sediment tester), by which the work may be expedited, should
be selected, for intensity of discolouration and sediment on the pad will depend
to some extent upon the manner in which the test is taken. A low sediment is
desirable.
5. Acidity : The natural or apparent acidity of milk does not make the
milk to taste sour, nor does it affect the normal properties of milk or jeopardize
its quality or its behavior towards processing heat. However developed or real
acidity does adversely affect the quality of milk. It is always well to have a
certain acidity above which milk should not be accepted. Milk suppliers are
freely adding neutralizers to milk to reduce its acidity, which is highly objectionable.
6. Lactometer Reading : The addition of water to milk results in the
lowering of its lactometer reading. Hence this test is applied for detection of
92 Dairying

adulteration of milk with water. As it does not take much time, it is often used as
a platform test in the milk collection / chilling centres. However, this test has its
own drawbacks.
7. Dumping : After the weighing of milk, it is operated manually to
release each batch of milk in the dump tank immediately below. The milk is then
pumped to a chiller and then to storage tank.
6.4 Milk Chilling Methods and Storage.
Milk Cooling: Immediately after receiving the milk in cooled to 4 or 5 oC
and stored cool till used. The various methods of milk cooling are.
1. Surface Coolers : In surface cooler, a series of small diameter
horizontal tubes are welded one above another terminating in a header at each
end. The header connects the tubes together for series of parallel flow. The
cooling operation may be completed in two or more stages by mounting one
unit above another. Milk is distributed over the coil by means of distribution
pipe or trough and the milk drops the lower coil into the collection trough, from
which it is removed by gravity or pump. The cooling medium flows through the
coil. There are units available, called cabinet or fan type coders in which two or
more surface type coils are used served by common distributor and collecting
troughs, and one mounted within a cabinet having hinged doors.

Fig 6.4 Surface Pipe cooler

2. Plate coolers : For continuous cooling, commonly used in the dairy

industry, especially for large scale handling. It consists of a number of thin, flat,
grooved, stainless steel plates, sealed at the edges with a gasket and clamped
tightly within a press. The spaces between the plates are occupied alternatively
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 93

by the milk and the cooling medium (chill water/ brine), thus one side of each
plate is exposed to milk and the other side to the cooling medium.

Fig 6.5 Plate cooler

Plates may be added to provide increased capacity at nominal cost.

Advantages
(a) Cooling (heat exchanges) is quick and efficient.
(b) Not exposed to airborne contamination.
(c) No evaporation losses.
(d) Cleaning and sanitization are easy.
3. Internal Tubular Cooler : For continuous cooling. It consists of a
stainless steel tube about 2.5 to 5.0 cm in diameter surrounded by a similar
tube, forming a concentric cylinder. Several such tubes may then be connected
in series to obtain sufficient cooling. The cooling medium flows counter to the
milk flow.
Advantages
(a) Cooling is quite, efficient
(b) Not exposed to airborne contamination.
(c) No evaporation losses.
94 Dairying

Fig 6.6 Internal Tubular cooler

Disadvantages
(a) Cooling efficiency is lower then the plate cooler.
(b) Larger floor space is required.
4. Jacketed Vat/ Tank : For batch cooling especially of small quantities.
It consists of a tank within a tank, with the space between the two being used
for circulation of the cooling medium, by either pump or main pressure. An
agitator is provided to move the milk (which is in the upper tank) for rapid
cooling.
Disadvantages
(a) Cooling efficiency is rather low.
(b) Too much agitation is required. Which causes churning and impairs
the creaming property of milk.
Milk Storage
Raw cooled milk is stored in storage tanks until required for further
processing. Modern milk plants hold raw and pasteurized milk, which is equal
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 95

to one day intake. This allows a more nearly uniform work day for processing
and packing. Storage tanks are used for the storage of raw, pasteurized or
processed products. The storage tanks must be designed for ease in sanitation,
preferably by the circulation-cleaning method. In addition, the tanks should be
insulated or refrigerated, so that they can maintain the required temperature
throughout the holding period Agitation should be adequate for homogenous
mixing, but gentle enough to prevent churning and incorporation of air.
Objects
1. To maintain the milk at a low temperature so as to prevent any
deterioration in quality prior to processing /product manufacture.
2. To facilitate bulking of raw milk supply, which will ensure uniform
composition.
3. To allow for uninterrupted operation during processing and packing.
4. To facilitate standardization of milk.
Types
1. Insulated /Refrigerated : In the former there are 5 to 7.7 cm of
insulating material between the inner and outer lining in the latter, the space
between two linings is used for circulation of the cooling medium.
2. Horizontal or Vertical : While the former requires more floor space
and less head space, the latter requires less floor space and more head space.
3. Rectangular or cylindrical or Oval : of these, the first suffers from
the disadvantages of having dead corners during agitation while the other two
do not.
4. Built for gravity flow, air pressure or vaccum operation : The
first is the most common. However air pressure is sometimes used to evacuate
the products. This requires special construction of the storage tank for greater
strength than necessary for normal operations under gravity flow.
A relatively recent innovation in the storage of milk is the silo storage
tank. It is vertical, cylindrical tank. Which is insulated outside the building due to
its appreciable height. They have the capacity upto around 1,00,000 litres. The
silo tanks in general, requires the same operational fittings and controls as in the
other types.
Normally storage tanks are located on an upper floor. The milk is pumped
from the receiving room to the floor above. It then flows by gravity.
96 Dairying

Parts of Storage Tank

1. Sight Glass 2. Light glass and lamp 3. Ladder 4. Manhole 5. Agitator
6. Outlet Valve. 7. Inlet 8. Air Vent 9. Safety valve 10. Legs 11. Indicating
Thermometer 12.volume meter.
Summary
Milk collection systems and various types of transportation of milk from
production site to chilling / processing centres discussed. The various methods
of milk preservation discussed. The various operations at reception of milk
i,e.unloading, weighhing, sampling, grading, dumping etc, explained in detail.
The different methods of milk chilling and storage of milk described in scientific
way.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. What are common systems of collection of milk ?
2. Name different modes of milk transport.
3. What are the problems involved in milk collection ?
4. What is sampling of milk ?
5. What are the different preservatives used in milk samples ?
6. What do you mean by plat form tests ?
7. What is advantage of lactometer reading ?
8. Define dumping of milk.
9. What is the principle used in surface cooler ?
10. Name the different parts of storage tank.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Explain different modes of milk transport.
2. Briefly write about weighing of milk.
3. Describe in detail about various milk samples.
4. Discuss in detail about platform tests.
5. Explain different methods of milk cooling / chilling.
6. What are the objectives of milk storage and briefly write about type
of milk storage tanks ?
UNIT 7
Filtration and Cream
Separation
Structure
7.1 Milk Filtration
7.2 Milk Clarification
7.3 Cream Separation – Methods
7.4 Cream Separator – Parts and Arrangement of Parts
7.5 Factors Affecting Effeciency of Cream Separator
7.6 Milk Standardization for FAT and SNF Procedure
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
• Understand about Milk filtration and clarification.
• Methods used in Cream Seperation.
• Factors affecting efficiency of Cream Separator and Milk standarization.
7.1 Milk Filtration.
Objective : To improve the aesthetic quality of milk by removing visible
foreign matter which is unsightly and may therefore least cause consumer
complaints.
Principle : Filtration removes suspected, foreign particles by the straining
process.
98 Dairying

Types of Filters : Two types

(a) Those that operate with cold milk and
(b) Those operating with warm milk – most widely used world wide.
The advantages of cold filters are
(a) No need for pre heating
(b) Less likelihood of soluble dirt going into the solution.
Disadvantages of Cold filters
(a) The flow of milk is low.
Advantages of warm filters
(a) The flow of milk is fast
Disadvantages of Warm Filters
(a) The milk should be preheated
(b) Possibility of soluble dirt going into the solution.
General Construction of Filter
The important features are
(a) A filter cloth or pad of desired pore size, which canretain the smallest
particle.
(b) A frame or support to compress and hold the margins of the cloth or
pad so that milk can pass through the pores.
(c) A metal or other support with perforations for supporting the cloth
or pad which will not tear or break under pressure of the milk.
(d) An enclosure to confine both the unfiltered and filtered milk in a
closed system fitted suitably with inlet and outlet connections for sanitary piping.
(e) A means of distributing the incoming steam of milk so that it does not
damage or tear any part of the cloth or pad by vigorous washing.
(f) A design so planned that filter cloths or pads can be changed quickly
and all parts are easily accessible for washing.
Where continuous operation is essential or where large volumes of milk
are processed, two or more filters are used so that operations need not be
interrupted when it becomes necessary to change the filter cloth. The frequency
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 99

with which the cloth is changed will depend upon the temperature of the milk,
the amount of foreign matter in it etc. it is the best to use filter cloths only once;
a washed cloth, besides being a source of contamination results in inefficient
filtration.
Filtration tends to decrease the depth of the cream layer that will form
on the milk and this effect becomes more pronounced as the processing
temperature increases. Filteration will not improve the keeping quality of milk.
Milk should not be filtered after pasteurization.
The location of filters in the processing line may be in the raw milk line
before milk enters pasteurization or in the regeneration section.
7.2 Milk Clarification.
A high speed centrifuge known as clarifier is used to remove the insoluble
soluble solids from a liquid from a liquid by centrifugal means. It is just like
filtration process, but using centrifugal force instead of filters.
Just like filters two types of clarifiers are available i.e. Those working
with warm milk and those working with cold milk. The insoluble solids may be
larger bacteria, body cells and contaminants, which may get into the milk during
or after milking. The density of these materials is greater than the liquid.
If a liquid containing solids with a grater density is fed into a rotating
bowl, the solids will move towards the bowl. If any outlet is provided for the
liquid near the centre of rotation, then those particles of solids, which reach the
bowl wall, remain in the bowl. Those particles which do not reach the bowl wall
be carried out in the liquid. The fractions remaining in the bowl and the faction
passing out in the liquid will be controlled by the feed rate i.e. the dwell time in
the bowl. When the outer space is filled with sludge the operation has to be
interrupted, the bowl opened and sludge removed. Disc bowl centrifuges have
larger movement of inertia than tubular bowl centrifuges and they therefore take
longer shut down times. Disc bowl machines have solid capacities in the range
of 20-30 kg and are only suited to clarify feeds with less than a few percent by
weigh of solids.
If a larger amount of sludge is to be discharged, a conical shaped unit,
having holes or nozzles in the outer periphery, from which the sludge is discharged
continuously. Is used. The separated sludge slides down the incline formed by
the conical upper and lower bowl and collects at the corner.
A nozzle discharged (self cleaning) centrifuge is shown in figure 7.1
100 Dairying

feed inlet
Discs Milk
stationary discharge cover
Clarifixated
milk

paring disc

liquid out

Rotating
bowl
Rationary casing drive shift
solids out
Fig 7.1 Schematic Drawing of a Fig 7.2 Schematic Drawing of a
Nozzle discharge centrifuge

This type of centrifuge is of disc- bowl type but the bowl is biconical in
shape. A number of holes of the order of 3-4 mm diameter are spaced around
the bowl at its larger diameter. The solids removed from the liquid are
continuously discharged, in the form of thick slurry, into an outer casing. Feeds
containing up to 25% solids can be handled in this type of clarifier.
In general the appearance and construction, clarifiers are quite similar
to centrifugal cream separator. However the major differences are. a. In
clarifiers, there is only one outlet, while in separator there are two (one of cream
and another for skim milk) b. the discs in the clarifier bowl are smaller in a
diameter (so as to provide a large space for the accumulation of slime) than
separators c)the milk distribution holes are at the outer edge of the discs in
clarifiers, but near the centre in the separators.
The clarifier may be located in one of the following places in the
processing line.
Location Type of Clarification
Between reception and storage tanks Cold
Between storage tank and Pasteuizer Cold
Between Pre-heater and Pasteuizer Warm
Between regeneration and heating section of HTST Warm
Between heating section and holding tube of HTST Warm
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 101

Clarification removes sediment much more efficiently than filtration.

Clarifier remove still finer particles that escape filters. The slime that accumulates
in the clarifier bowl consist of foreign matter, milk proteins, leucocytes, fragments
of the secreting cells from the udder, fat, calcium phosphate and other ash,
bacteria and occasionally red blood corpuscles. The amount of clarifier slime is
influenced by the amount of foreign matter, the condition of udder, the stage of
lactation, the bacterial count and acidity of milk, run through the bowl (or the
length of time the bowl is run). The average composition of clarifier slime is
water.6.3% total solids 32,7% fat 1.1%, protein 25.9% ash 3.6% and lactose
2.1%.
The clarification tends to decrease the depth of cream layer that will
form on the milk and this effect becomes more pronounced as the processing
temperature increases. Clarification will not improve the quality of milk, the
milk should not be clarified after pasteurization.
7.3 Cream Separation – Methods
Principle : The basic principle of cream separation, whether by gravity
or centrifugal methods, is based on the fact that milk fat is lighter than the skim
milk portion. At 16oC (60oF), the average density of milk fat is 0.93 and skim
milk 1.036. Hence, when milk, which may be considered to be a mixture of fat
(as cream) and skim milk, is subjected to either gravity or a centrifugal force, the
two components, viz, cream and skim milk by virtue of atheir differing densities,
stratify or separate from one another.
Methods : Principally there are two methods
(a) Gravity Method and
(b) Centrifugal method.

Fig 7.3 Effect of forces acting on a fat globule

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(a) Gravity Method : In a gravitational field or earth, a fat globule in

milk, is subjected to gravitational force. Since the density of the globules is
lower than the surrounding of the medium, it rises to surface.
The fat globule will remain in suspension if the densities are equal; i.e. its
speed is zero in the medium. The rate in rising of fat particles is given by stroke’s
law.
2 G (ds – df) r2
V=
9 n

Where V- velocity of rate at which fat globule rises

G = Acceleration due to the gravity
df = Density of skim milk
ds = Density of fat Globule
r = radius of fat globule
n = Viscosity of skim milk
from the strokes law, it will be observed that theoretically, velocity is
increased by
(i) Increase in radius of the globule
(ii) Increase in difference in densities of skim milk and fat
(iii) Decrease in viscosity of skim milk
However, in practice the important factors affecting the rate of the rise
of cream by gravity are
1. Size of fat Globule : As the size of fat globules increases, the rate at
which cream rises increases (Thus in buffalo milk. gravity creaming
occurs faster due to the larger size of fat globules than those in cow
milk.)
2. Temperature : As temperature increases, Viscosity decreases, and
hence velocity increases.
3. Clumping : A clump or cluster acts like a single globule in so far as
movement through skim milk is concerned. There by the effective
“r” is increased, which in turn increases velocity.
4. Addition of Adhesive : Ultimately helps in increasing the rate at
which fat globules rises.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 103

(b) Centrifugal Method

Principle : When milk enters the rapidly revolving bowl of he cream
separator, it is immediately subjected to a tremendous centrifugal force. which is
3000 – 6000 times grater than gravitational force. While both the fat and skim
milk is subjected to the centrifugal force. The difference in the density affects the
heavier portion (i.e. skim milk) more intensely than the lighter portion (i.e. cream).
There by skim milk is forced to the periphery, while the fat portion moves towards
the centre. The skim milk and cream both from vertical walls within the bowl
and are separated by being led through separate outlets. The cream outlet is at
higher level than skim milk outlets, both being near the axis of rotation.
The strokes law applied to separation is

r2 ds- df
V= N2 R K
n

Where V= velocity of movement of fat globule

r = radius of the globule
ds = Density of skim milk
df = Density of fat
N = Speed of bowl
R = Distance of fat Globule from the axis of rotation
K = constant
n = viscosity of skim milk
It is seen from the above that, rate of cream separation is increased by
(i) Greater radius of fat globule
(ii) Greater difference in densities between skim milk and fat
(iii) Greater speed of the bowl
(iv) Greater size of the bowl
(v) Lower viscosity of skim milk
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Difference between Gravity and Centrifugal methods

S.no Particulars Gravity Centri fug al
methods method
1. Nat ure of Gravitational. Centrifugal
force causing
separation.
2. Speed of sepa- E xt r e me ly Practically in-
ration. slow. stantaneous.
3. Direction of Vertical Horizontal
movement of
fat and skim
milk particles.
4. Bacteriological Low High
quality of skim
milk and
cream.
5. Fat % of cream 10 - 25 18 - 85 (can
be controlled)

6. Skim milk fat 0.2 or above 0.1 or below

%
7. Scale of op- Small Large
eration

8. Fat % recov- No t mo re 99 - 99.5

ered in cream than 90

7.4 Cream Separator – Parts and Arrangement of Parts

Parts
1. Supply can
2. Fallcet or milk regulator
3. Regulator chamber
4. Milk float
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 105

5. Cream Outlet(sprout)
6. Skim milk outlet (sprout)
7. Bowl Shaft
8. Rubber ring
9. Milk distributor
10. Bottom disc
11. Intermediary discs
12. Top disc with cream or skim milk screw
13. Bowl nut
14. Spindle
15. Set of gear
16. Crank handle

Fig 7.4 Centrifugal Milk Separator

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7.5 Factors Affecting Effeciency of Cream Separator

The various factors influencing the efficiency of cream separator are
1. Position of the cream screw (or skim milk screw) : Cream screw
in or skim milk screw out, higher fat percentage in cream and vice- versa. The
cream screw/ outlet consist of a small, threaded hollow screw pierced by a
circular orifice through which cream emerges. This screw can be driven IN or
OUT, thus bringing it nearer to or away from the centre of rotation. Similarly the
skim milk screw/ outlet is for the removal of skim milk. Once the skim milk or
cream is adjusted, the cream separator delivers under normal conditions. A
definite ratio of skim milk and cream, which is usually 90:10 (or 85 : 15) by
volume.
By altering the position of the screws, the ratio of skim milk to cream
changes. Thus when the cream screw is moved IN towards the axis of rotation,
a higher fat percentage of cream is obtained and vice versa. This is because the
force tending to discharge the cream through the orifice is deceased. A similar
proportion of cream is therefore discharged. Which containing the same quantity
of fat, shows a higher fat percentage. Screwing OUT the cream screw produces
thinner cream. Upto 50%fat in cream, there is greater loss of fat in skim milk.
Above 60 % fat in cream, still higher fat losses in skim milk at low temperature.
2. Fat % in milk : The higher the fat percentage in milk, the higher the
fat percent in cream and vice – versa, since particularly all the fat in the milk is
contained in the cream, the cream from the separation of high fat milk has a
higher fat content than that from low fat milk.
3. Speed of the bowl : The higher the speed of the bowl, the higher the
fat percentage in cream and the lower the speed the higher fat loss in skim milk.
The higher the speed, the greater will be the centrifugal force, and the more
rapidly will the skim milk leave the bowl. An increase in the bowl speed therefore
increases the capacity of skim milk discharge. This means less cream is
discharged with the same fat amount, a higher fat % in the cream. The below
rated speed there will be more fat loss in the skim milk because insufficient
centrifugal force is generated and above rated speeds. Skimming efficiency will
not increase greatly, therefore optimum speed is good.
4. Rate of Milk flow : The higher the rate of milk flow, the lower the
fat percentage in cream and the higher fat loss in skim milk vice-versa. When
the rate of inflow increases, the discharge from the cream outlet increases, as
the skim milk discharge remains constant, more cream containing the same amount
of fat results in a lower fat % in cream, when the flow of milk is high through the
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 107

bowl too rapidly to allow for complete separation, thereby results a higher fat
loss in skim milk.
5. Temperature of the Milk : The lower the temperature of the milk
the higher the fat% in the cream and vice-versa. Lowering of temperature
increase viscosity of both cream and skim milk, but that of cream increase
(proportionately) more than skim milk, hence the quantity of cream discharge is
decreased(due to clogging of the bowl) there by resulting a higher fat % in
cream. The lower the temperature. The higher the fat loss in skim milk and vice
– versa. This is due to clogging of the bowl due to higher viscosity of cream
results in greater fat loss in skim milk. As the temperature is increased, efficiency
increases. But after 40oC, no increase in efficient, so the optimum temperature
of milk is efficient separation is 40 oC.
6. Mechanical Condition of Separator : Unsatisfactory mechanical
condition of the separator causes greater fat loss in skim milk. These include.
(a) Vibration of the Separator : This reduces the efficiency of
separation by disturbing the counter currents of cream and skim milk (vibration
is caused by installation on an insufficiency firm foundation, the bowl being out
of balance, bearing being worn out, the axis of rotation not exactly vertical.
(b) Condition of Discs : Discs in an unsatisfactory condition suffer a
loss of skimming efficiency due to the uneven flow of the counter current stems
of cream and skim milk between them. (An unsatisfactory disc is one which is
out of shape, dirty scratched of rough).
(c) Amount of Separator slime in bowl : If too much slime
accumulates, the fat loss in skim milk increases, this not only by a disturbance in
the even flow of the currents of cream and skim milk, but by reduction in the
centrifugal force beacuse of decrease in effective diameter of the bowl).
Separator slime consists of slimy mass which accumulates inside the
bowl shell and it is made of foreign matter, milk proteins, lucocytes, and fragments
of secreting cells from the udder, fat, calcium phosphate and other minerals,
bacteria and occasionally red blood corpuscles.
7. Amount of Water or skim milk added to flush the bowl : The
greater the quality of water or skim milk added to flush the bowl, the lower the
fat % in cream and vice- versa. The addition of more water or skim milk will
cause an increase in the amount of the cream, with the same amount of fat and
will show a lower fat content.
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8. Other Miscellaneous Factors

(a) Size of fat Globules : The greater the number of fat globules of
less than 2 microns size, the greater fat loss in skim milk and vice- versa, Fat
globules less than 2 microns are not subjected to sufficient centrifugal force and
so enters in to skim milk.
(b) Presence of Air in the milk : The greater the amount of air, the
higher the fat loss in skim milk. This is due to disturbance of counter-current
streams of cream and skim and milk and lowers the efficiency.
(c) Acidity of the milk : The higher the acidity, the lower the efficiency
of separation. The higher the acidity, the lower the stability of casein particles,
which in turn get precipitated and clog the bowl, there by lowering the efficiency.
(d) Degree and Temperature at which milk is agitated before
separation : The higher the degree and temperature of agitation, the greater
the fat loss in skim milk and vice- versa. Agitation of hot milk causes the
disintegration of fat globules into smaller ones which escape the effect of centrifugal
force, there by leading to more fat loss in skim milk.
7.6 Milk Standardization for FAT and SNF Procedure
Definition : Standardization of milk refers to the adjustment i.e. either
raising or lowering of fat and / or solids – not- fat percentages of milk to a
desired value, so as to confirm to the legal or other requirements prescribed.
Procedure : Milk is standardized by the addition of milk or cream with
a higher or lower fat percentage than that of the material to be standardized,.
Some times the addition of skim milk will do. To solve the problem, it is necessary
to find the relative amounts of the original material and the standardizing material
to be mixed together to five a product with the desired fat content. Once these
relative amounts / proportions have been determined, it is easy to calculate the
exact number of each which must be mixed together to give a certain weight of
the finished product or the exact amount of standardizing material needed to use
up a given weight of milk or cream. A simple scheme, the Pearson’s square, can
be used to calculate the relative quantities of the materials involved in a
standardization problem. It should be remembered that all measurement based
on these calculations are by weight and not by volume.
The pearson’s square method is as follows. Draw a square and place in
the centre of it the fat percentage desired. Place at the left-hand corners of the
square, the fat percentage of the materials to be mixed . Next subtract the
number in the centre from the larger number at the left- hand side of the square
and place the remainder at the diagonally opposite right-hand corner. Subtract
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 109

the smaller number on the left- hand side from the number in the centre and
place the remainder at the diagonally opposite right hand corner. The numbers
on the right hand side now represent the number of the parts of each of the
original materials that must be blended to make a product with a fat test given by
the number in the middle of the square. The number at the upper right hand
corners, and the number at the lower right corner refers to the parts of the
material, whose fat test was placed at the lower left represents the parts of the
finished products, with the fat test given by the number obtained in the middle of
the square.
Problem 1: How many parts by weight of 35 %fat cream and 4% fat
milk must be added to make milk testing 5% fat milk?

35 1. 0

4 30.0
31.0

Hence 1 part of 35 % fat cream when mixed with 30 parts of4% fat
milk will give 31parts of 5 % milk.
Problem II
How many kgs each of 28% cream and 3% mill be required
tomake500kgof a mixture testing 4% fat.

28 1.0

3 24.0
25.0

To make 25 parts of mixture testing 4% fat it requires 1part of28 % fat

cream.
To make 500 kgs of mixture how much 28 % fat cream is required.
110 Dairying

C = 500 x 1/25 =20 kgs

Milk 3% fat required is = 500 – 20 = 480 kgs.
Proof
500 kg of4% standard milk contains 500 x 4/100 = 20 kg fat
20 kg of 28% fat cream contains 20 x 28/100 = 5.6 kg fat
480 kg 3% fat milk contains 480 x 3/100 = 14.4 kg fat
So5.6 +14.4 = 20 kg fat which is equivalent to fat present in 500 kgs of
4 % milk.
7.6.1Standardization of cream
Definition : This refers to the adjustment of he fat level in cream to the
desired percentage, confirming to standard requirements.
Procedure : The fat percentage in the cream is usually adjusted to the
prescribed level by the addition of calculated amount of skim milk. For this
Pearson’s square method described in chapter 2.6 is followed.
Problem : Given 1000 kg of cream testing of 50 % fat. How much
skim milk testing 0.1 % fat must be added to obtain 40 % fat in the standardized
cream ?
50.0 39.1

40

0.1 10.0
49.1

It is seen that 39.1 parts of 50 % fat cream when mixed with 10 parts of
0.1 % fat skim milk will give 49.1 parts of standardized cream testing 40 % fat.
To prepare 49.9 kgs of standardized cream. Skim milk required is 10
kgs. To prepare 1000 kgs of standardized cream how much skim milk is
required?
i.e. 1000 x 10/49.9 = 200.4 kgs.
For 1000 kgs of cream with 50 % fat 200.4 kgs of skim milk with 0.10,
fat should be added to prepare 1200.4 kgs of standardized cream with 40%
fat.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 111

Summary
Filtration of milk is done to improve aesthetic quality of milk, and types
of filters explained. The principle and operation of clarification process narrated.
Gravity and centrifugal methods of cream separation described and mentioned
the difference between these methods. The cream separator parts are shown
with the help of sketch diagram. Various factors affecting the efficiency of cream
separation are fully explained. The fat percentage adjustment in milk and cream
is explained by solving the problems which helps in commercial formulations.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. What is the objectives of filtration of milk ?
2. Give the principle of clarification.
3. Mention the different location points for cold and warm clarifiers.
4. Give the strokes law formulae of gravity and centrifugal cream
separation.
5. What is the principle in centrifugal cream separation ?
6. Name the two outlets in a cream separation.
7. How the position of cream screw will change the fat % in cream.
8. Define standardization of milk.
9. What is the effect of temperature of milk in cream separation ?
10. What are the factors that will increase cream separation rate in
gravity method ?
Long Answer Type Questions
1. What are ther advantages and disadvantages of cold and warm filters
2. Briefly write about construction details of a filter.
3. Explain about clarification process of milk.
4. Briefly write about gravity methods of cream separation,
5. What are the major differences between gravity and centrifugal
methods ?
6. Draw a sketch diagram of cream separator and label the parts.
7. Explain the various factors affecting cream separation.
112 Dairying

8. Briefly explain pearson’s square method of milk standardization.

9. How many kgs of 6.2% fat milk and 0.4% fat skim milk are required
to prepare milk testing 3.5% fat.
10. Given 15250 kgs of cream testing 42.5% fat. How much of skim
milk is required to decrease the fat % in cream to a level of 30%.
UNIT 8
Heat Treatment to Milk
Structure
8.1 Pasteurization – Definition – Objectives, Advantages and Disad
vantages
8.2 Types of Pasteurization
8.3 HTST Pasteurization
8.4 UHT Pasteurization
8.5 Sterilization of milk
8.6 Homogenization Definition – Advantages and Disadvantages
8.7 Packing of milk (Prepack) and storage
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
• Understand the concept of heat treatment to milk by Pasteurization/
sterilization.
• Understand the concept of Homogenization and Prepack
8.1 Pasteurization – Definition – Objectives, Advantages
and Disadvantages
Pasteurization term has been coined after the name of Louis Pasteur of
France, who in 1860- 64 demonstrated that heating wine at a temperature
between 122 to 140oF (50 to 60oC) killed the spoilage organisms and helped in
114 Dairying

preservation. The application of this term “pasteurization”, although, Louis Pasteur

pioneered studies on heat treatment for preservation, pasteurization of milk was
first attributed to Dr. Soxhlet of Germany in 1886.
Definition : The term pasteurization as applied to market milk today
refers to the process of heating every particle of milk to at least 63oC(145oF)
for 30 minutes or 72 oC (161oF) for 15 seconds or to any temperature – time
combination which is equally efficient in approved and properly operated
equipment and immediately cooling to 4oC.
As per international Dairy Federation (IDF) pasteurization is defined as
a process applied to a product with an object of minimizing possible health
hazards arising from pathogenic micro organism associated with milk by heat
treatment, which is consistent with minimal chemical, physical and organoleptic
changes in the products.
Objectives
1. To render the milk safe for human consumption by destruction of
cent percent pathogenic microorganisms,
2. To improve the keeping quality of milk by destruction of almost all
spoilage organisms (85 to 99 %).
Need : As it is difficult to exercise strict supervision over all milk supplies,
it becomes necessary to pasteurize milk so as to make it safe for human
consumption. Any impairment of nutritive value is of the slightest extent.
Objections
1. Pasteurization encourages slackening of efforts for sanitary milk
production.
2. It may be used to mask low quality milk.
3. It diminishes significantly the nutritive value of milk.
4. It reduces the cream line or cream volume.
5. Pasteurized milk will not clot with rennet.
6. Pasteurization may be carelessly done; it gives false sense of security.
7. It fails to destroy bacterial toxins in milk.
8. In India, pasteurization is not necessary; as milk is invariably boiled
on receipt by the consumer.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 115

Formulation of Standards
The following considerations were involved in the formulation of standards
for pasteurization.
Bacterial Destruction : Cent percent for pathogens. Mycobacterium
tuberculosis being considered the most heat resistant among pathogens, was
chosen as the index of organism “Coxiella bernette” was considered the heat
resistant organism among pathogens. Any heat treatment (i.e. temperature –
time combination), which kills T.B/ Q fever organism, also destroys all other
pathogens in milk.
Cream Line reduction : The Cream line or cream volume is reduced
progressively with increase in temperature – time of heating. The consumer judges
the quality of milk on the basis of the cream line.
Phosphatase inactivation : The complete destruction of phosphatase
by pasteurization. (The phosphatase test is used to detect inadequate
pasteurization).
Thus the standards of pasteurization were such as to ensure 1.complete
destruction of pathogens 2. Negative phosphatase test and 3. Least damage to
the cream line. As T.B. Germs are destroyed by a heat treatment slightly lower
than that for phosphatase inactivation, pasteurization is carried out at a heat
treatment temperature above that for phosphatase inactivation and at below
that for cream- line reduction as shown below.
Particulars 30 minutes 15 seconds
To kill T.B. Germs 138oF / 58.9 oC 158oF / 70 oC
To inactivate phosphatase 142oF/ 61.1 oC 160oF / 71.1oC
Pasteurization Requirement 143oF/ 61.7 oC 161oF / 71.7 oC
Creamline Reduced 144oF/ 62.2 oC 162oF / 72.2 oC
Types of Pasteurization
1. Batch Pasteurization
2. High Temperature Short Time pasteurization (HTST)
3. Ultra – high Temperature pasteurization(UHT)
4. Vaccum Pasteurization
5. Stassanization.
116 Dairying

8.2 Types of Pasteurization.

This is also called low temperature – long time (LTLT) method. The
milk is heated to 63 oC / 145oF for 30 mts and promptly cooled to 5 oC or
below. In this method heating and cooling of the product is done through a
metal wall. When the product is heated or cooled gentle agitation is done for
rapid heat transfer. Agitation must not be so rapid that whipping or churning
occurs. For continuous processing 3 to 5 tanks may be connected in series.
Depending upon the method of heating the batch process may be classified into
four types.
1. Water Jacketed Vat or Flooded tank system : This is double
walled around the sides and bottom in which hot water or steam under partial
vacuum circulates for heating and cold water , for cooling. The outer wall (lining)
is usually insulated to reduce heat loss. The heat exchange takes place through
the wall of the inner lining. The difference between the temperature of the heating
water and the milk is kept to a minimum. The milk is agitated by slow moving
(revolving) paddles / propellers. When heating, the vat cover is left open for
escape of off flavours and when holding, the cover is closed. During the holding
period, an air space/ foam heater (steam or electrically heated) prevents surface
cooling of milk.
Advantages
(a) Flexibility in use (It is also known as a multipurpose or multi process
vat).
2. Water Spray type : It consists of an inner tank for product
surrounded by an outer tank to form space between the two. A film or hot water
is sprayed from a perforated pipe over the outer surface of the tank holding the
product. The product is agitated. A rapidly moving continuous film of hot
water provides rapid heat transfer. The temperature of hot water is kept abut
72 oC to heat the product to 62 oC. The speed of the agitation is 45 to 50 rpm.
The over all heat transfer coefficient of water spray heat exchanges is
approximately 1000 k cal / hm2 oC.
Advantage
(a) Flexibility in use (b) It provides quicker control
3. Coil- Vat type : In this method, the heating or cooling medium is
pumped through a coil place in either horizontal / or vertical position, while the
coil is turned through the product. The turning coil at a speed of about 30 rpm
agitates the product. The coil and walls of the tank is constructed of stainless
steel.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 117

The side and bottom of the tank is insulated. Steam or hot water may
be used as heating medium. The overall coefficient about 1000 k cal / hm2oC
Disadvantages : Coils are difficult to clean, which accounts for decline
in their use.
4. High Velocity Liquid type : A heating or cooling medium is pumped
at a high velocity over the outside surface of the tank through pipes surrounding
the tank. Vat pasteurization is well suited for small plants and for low volume
products. It can handle a variety of products with a wide range of physical
characteristics.
But vat pasteurization is a batch operation and is slow. It requires manual
controls and constant attention must be given to prevent over heating and over
holding. Regenerated heating is not possible so heating and cooling of products
is relatively expensive.
Agitation of Liquids.

Fig 8.1 Batch Pasteurization

In food industry the purpose of agitation may be promoting heat transfer,

uniform heating or cooling, preventing separation of various elements of the
product being processed; through mixing of products or maintanance of
homogenous distribution and equalization of concentration and temperatures.
The agitators may be impellers of self acing control as sown in the fig: No:8.3
118 Dairying

Water
coil

Product

Water spray
cooling
or
Product
heating
medium

Fig 8.2 Batch Pasteurization Unit

Capillary tube
Bulb
d bellow
Flui
Turbine
Product Spring i mp el ler
Mixing propeller
Steam to heat (St r a igh t
product blade)
Valve

Fig 8.3 Self-acting Control

Fig 8.4 Milk Pump

Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 119

8.3 HTST Pasteurization

The HTST system usually employs plate heat exchangers for heating
regeneration and cooling. In this method milk is heated to 72 oC for 15 seconds.
An HTST unit consists of a balance tank, a timing pump, a regeneration tank, a
heating section, a holding section, a cooling section a flow diversion value (FDV)
and controls as shown in the Fig 3.5.
HTST pasteurizer was first developed by A.P.V.Co, in the U.K. in 1922.
Milk Flow: The following steps or stages are involved as milk passes
through the HTST pasteurization system Balance tank, pumps, regenerative
heating, heating – holding, regenerative cooling and cooling by chill water or
brine. An arrangement for incorporation of the filter/ clarifier, homogenizer etc.,
in the circuit is also made when desired.

Fig 8.5 High temperature short-time pasateurizer

Raw milk from storage tank will enter in to float control balance tank
(FCBT) which controls the flow rate by sinking or floating in the milk. Centrifugal
milk pump with a flow control device to ensure constant output is used and after
FCBT a rotary positive pump between regeneration and heater.
Plates : The heat exchanger plates will be about 1.25 to 3 mm thick.
The plates are used for heating of milk to temperatures which are below the
point of boiling. The plate heat exchanger is a compact, simple, easily cleaned
and inspected unit. Its plates may be used for heating \ cooling, regeneration and
holding. These plates will have pors openings to permit transfer of fluid through
120 Dairying

the plates, which are gasketed in such a manner that during operation, milk and
medium cannot mix and no leakage can occur. The gap between the plate is
about 3-5 mm. These plates are supported in a press between a terminal block
in each heating and cooling section. The heat moves from warm to a cold
medium through stainless steel plates. These plates are numbered and must be
properly assembled.
They are tightened in to place and are so designed as to provide a
uniform but not excessively turbulent flow of products with rapid heat transfer.
Raised sections (corrugations) on the plates in the form of knobs, diamonds and
channels, help to provide the turbulent action required. Usually the ports are
provided in appropriate places, both at the top and bottom of heat exchanger
plates, to permit the products and heating cooling medium flow in alternative
passages without mixing.
Regenerative Heating : The raw cold incoming milk is partially and
indirectly heated by the hot outgoing milk (milk to milk regeneration). This adds
to the economy of the HTST process, as the incoming milk requires less heating
by hot water to raise its temperature for holding.
Filters : Various shaped filter units to connect directly to the HTST
system are placed after the preheater or regenerative heating section at 43oC
for warm siltation. Usually 40 – 90 mesh cloth, usually in cylindrical shapes are
used. Usually two filters are attached but they are used one at a time. This
permits continuous operation, the flow being switched from one to the other
while replacing a filter.
The warm raw milk is forced by a pump through the final heating section,
which raises the temperature of milk by using hot water or vaccum steam to72
o
C and then through holding section it takes at least 15 seconds to traverse.
Flow Diversion Value (FDV) : It routes the milk after heat treatment.
If the milk has been properly pasteurized, it flows forward through the unit; that
which is unpasteurized (i.e. in which the temperature does not reach the legal
limit) is automatically diverted back to the FCBT for reprocessing. It is usually
operated by air pressure working against a strong spring, should the temperature
fall, air pressure is released and the valve snaps shuts immediately. Then the
temperature is regained, air pressure builds up and the valve opens to forward
flow.
The system is so arranged that any failure of air or electricity moves the
valve in the diverted position. The flow of unpasteurized milk can also be stopped
with a ‘pump stop’ which automatically stops the milk pump motion of the product
temperature drops below the desired level. When the proper temperature is
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 121

reached the pump stop restarts the operation and allows the flow of milk to
continue.
Regenerative Cooling : The pasteurized hot outgoing milk is partially
and indirectly cooled by incoming cold milk (milk to milk regeneration). This
again adds to economy of HTST process. In fact when precooled (raw) milk is
received the high degree of regeneration (72 to 85%) allows water cooling to
be dispensed with, entirely.
From regenerator down the milk goes to the final cooling section. When
chilled water cools the milk usually to 4oC flow rates of hot water and cooling
water are about 4-8 and 2.5 to 4 times that of milk respectively.
As mentioned above, the final heating may be achieved by hot water or
vacuum steam. In the hot water system, the water is circulated through the
pasteurizer. Steam injection in a compact unit usually mounted on the pasteurizer.
Steam injection is controlled by a diaphragm valve operated via a pneumatic
relay. Which is actuated by thermosensitive bulb placed in the hot water pipe or
in the milk line. Variations in the water temperature produce an immediate
response in the diaphragm valve and consequently in the amount of steam injected.
The water temperature is then maintained within very narrow limits. In
the vacuum steam heating system, the heating section of the pasteurizer is put
under vacuum by a vaccum outfit, which consists of centrifugal pump, section,
water tank, cooling coil or three water injectors. This also evacuates condensate.
Steam is fed to the pasteurizer through steam valve and expands in under pressure
prevailing in the heating section. A damping device supplies condensate to the
steam, preventing over heating of the later.
Control Panel : It contains instruments, controls, FDV – mechanism
and holding system, all centralized in one moisture proof panel. The lower halt
of the panel forms and air-insulated chamber which carries the holding tube.
I. Automatic control Device : This include 1.Steam pressure
controller: Maintains a constant hot water temperature for heating of milk
accurately to the required pasteurization temperature. (Acts as a reducing
valve in the steam supply line, so as to give a constant steam pressure).
II. Water Temperature Controller : Regulates the amount of steam
entering the hot water circulating system.
III. Milk Temperature Recorder : Records the temperature of milk
leaving the holding tube / plate. This is an electric contact instrument that operate
either a FDV or a milk supply pump, automatically preventing milk from leaving
122 Dairying

the holding section at sublegal temperature, Both the frequency and duration of
the flow diversion and the temperature of milk leaving the holder are recorded
on the thermograph (recording chart) by means of two separate pens. The
check thermometer is placed near the milk temperature recorder.
Pressure in the System : The normal pressure maintained in the HTST
system are
Pasteurized milk : 15 PSI
Raw Milk : 14 PSI
Heating / Cooling medium : 12 to 13 PSI
Holding time test : The holding time of a HTST pasteurizer is the flow
time of the faster particle of milk of milk at a prescribed temperature through the
holding section. The holding time is calculated between the points at which the
heated milk leaves the heating section and reaches the FDV. The efficiency of
pasteurization in the HTST system depends as much on the correct maintanance
of temperature as on the holding time. Hence the later should be checked
periodically.
Advantages of HTST System
1. Capacity to heat treat milk quickly and adequately, while maintaining
rigid quality control over both the raw and finished product.
2. Less floor space required.
3. Lower initial cost.
4. Milk packing can start as soon as pasteurization begins, thus permitting
more efficient use of labour for packing and distribution.
5. Easily cleaned and sanitized (system adapts well to CIP cleaning).
6. Lower operating costs.
7. Pasteurizing capacity can be increased at nominal cost.
8. Reduced milk losses due to closed system.
9. Development of thermophiles not a problem as holding time is less.
10. The process can be interrupted and quickly restarted.
11. Automatic precision controls ensure positive pasteurization.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 123

12. This imparts less cooked flavour to the milk.

13. It is well suited for regeneration heating and cooling.
Disadvantages
1. The system is not well adapted to handle small quantities of several
liquid milk products.
2. Gaskets requires constant attention for possible damage and lack of
sanitization.
3. Complete drainage is not possible.
4. Margin of safety in the product sanitary control are so narrow that
automatic control precision instrument is required in its operations.
5. Pasteurization efficiency of high thermoduric count raw milk is not as
great as it is when the holder system is used.
6. Greater accumulation of milk stone in heating section (due to higher
temperature of heating).
8.4 UHT Pasteurization
Ultra High Temperature pasteurization (UHT) was developed in 1950’s.
In this method milk is heated to 135 - 150 oC for no hold (a fraction of a second).
UHT process is carried out by two main ways.
1. Indirect heating system
2. Direct heating system.
Indirect heating system : These are self contained continuous sterilizing
plants, and are to some extent like the conventional HTST pasteurizing plants,
although the operating pressures are higher. The heat exchanger may be of plate
type, tubular coil type or sometime scraped surface type.
The heating medium is steam under pressure. Most of the plants employ
either plate or double or triple concentric tube heat exchanger. The operating
principle is same for all plants. The operating temperature is achieved by
regeneration and indirect steam heating.
124 Dairying

High pressure
steam
Milk in
Low pressure
steam

water in

condensate condensate

Fig 8.6 Milk is pumped from the balance tank 1. Through the first regeneration
section of the heat exchanger. 2. And is filtered it. It then passes to a section. 3.
Heated by low pressure steam (0.35 – 0.45 atm) controlled by hand operating valve. In
this section the milk is hated to 85 oC and then the milk is homogenized 4. The milk
is held to 5-7 mts in a holder tank. 5. To reduce the amount of deposit formed on the
heating surfaces from the milk at later stages. The homogenizer provides the
pressure to pass the milk through the unit. A spring loaded relief valve. 6. Set at abut
5 atm is connected between the homogenizer outlet and the balance tank to prevent
excessive pressure developing in he plate assembly. Then the milk passes through a
second regenerator section. 7. and through a section. 8. Heated by stream at a
pressure of 5-6 atm.

Milk leaves this section at about 135 - 145 oC and after a short period
of 2-4 sec. holding period, it passes through a flow diversion value. 9. Operated
by the control system and the two regenerator sections(7.2) to the milk outlet.
The second regenerator is by passed by a line with a hand-operated value in
order to give manual control of the outlet temperature. This will be 70 oC for hot
filling before an in- bottle sterilizing process. If the milk has to be cooled further
more regeneration will be used.
Milk diverted by the flow diversion value must be cooled to below
boiling point before it can be returned to the balance tank. This is done in water
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 125

cooling section of he heat exchanger (10) preset values (11) are connected as
restrictions.
A temperature sensitive element (x) measures the temperature of milk
as it leaves the heater and the controller provides air pressure to a diaphragm
valve in the steam line of the final heating section.
Advantages
1. Produces the milk of high bacteriological quality.
2. Little effect on colour and flavour of milk.
3. Control system is simple compared to direct system.
4. Water and electricity requirements are less than direct system.
5. Steam consumption is same as in the case of direct system.
Disadvantages
It forms deposits on the heating surfaces, which is difficult to clean.
Direct Heating System
In this system product is heated by direct contact with steam. This is
accomplished either by injecting steam into the product or by admitting the
product in to a chamber containing an atmosphere of high pressure steam (infusion
heaters). The injectors are smaller and less expensive than the infusers, but
requires a higher operating temperature. The steam used must be of culinary
quality and with some products, it may be necessary to remove the steam, which
condenses in the product so that the original composition may be maintained.
Milk is heated by mixing it directly with steam at high pressure, so that
the steam is condensed and gives up its latent heat there by heating the milk
almost instantaneously to 140 – 150 oC. the excess water is removed by
evaporation in a vacuum chamber an the milk is at the same time cooled by the
extraction of latent heat. Undesirable volatile odours may also be removed
during this evaporative cooling.
Milk is supplied from float controlled balance tank by a pump to the
preheater, where it is heated to 80 oC with hot water. Then it passes through a
steam chamber. The steam chamber may be a steam injection head, where
steam is injected into the milk, or a steam pressure chamber which is filled with
steam and milk is sprayed in this chamber. Here milk temperature is raised to
140 oC - 150 oC in a fraction of second. Milk then passes through holding tube
which it takes 2.5 to 4 sec to traverse. The milk now sterilized. Continues
o
126

1. Float hopper 2. Centrifugal pump 3. Milk preheater and vapour condenser 4. Vapour condenser 5. Milk preheater 6.
High-pressure pump 7. Steam injector 8. Holding pipe 9. Flow-diversion valve 10. Vacuum vessel 11. Aseptic centrifugal
pump 12. Aseptic homogenizer 13. cooler 14. Vacuum vessles 15. Centrifugal pump 16. Cooler for diversed

Fig 8.7
C. the flashed vapor is condensed in the condenser.

Fig 8.7 UHT Pasteurizer

through a flow diversion value (some plants do not have FDV) to a constant
vacuum vessel. Here the milk temperature falls instantly to about 81 oC to 82
Dairying
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 127

Milk is drawn from the vacuum vessel by an aseptic pump and passed
to an aseptic homogenizer and then to aseptic final cooler, through an aseptic
precooler, in which its temperature is lowered to about 20 oC. milk is then
aseptically packaged. The diverted milk goes back to balance tank for vacuum
chamber.
The vacuum in the expansion vessel is so controlled that the amount of
the water evaporated is equal to the amount of steam condensed, so that the
total solids percentage of milk remains unaltered. Apparently it may be achieved,
if the milk temperature at the outlet of expansion vessel is equal to its temperature
immediately before it was mixed with steam.
Advantages
1. The plants will run for long period compared to indirect system without
cleaning.
2. Produces good quality product.
3. Off flavours are removed.
4. Able to process variety of products with little modifications.
Disadvantages
1. High initial cost.
2. High operating cost.
3. More complex and so more difficult to operate.
Stassanization : This type of pasteurization is carried out in tubular
heat exchanger consisting of three concentric tubes. The principle of its operation
is that heating of milk to the desired temperature by passing it between two
water heated pipes through the narrow spaces of 0.6 – 0.8 mm. The milk is
heated to 74oC (165oF) for seven sec. The rest of the process resembles HTST
system.
8.5 Sterilization of milk
Sterilized milk may be defined as milk which has been heated to a
temperature of 100 oC or above or such lengths of time that it remains fit for
human consumption for atleast 7days at room temperature.
Commercially sterilized milk must
(a) Keep without deterioration for a sufficient period to satisfy commercial
requirement.
128 Dairying

(b) Be free of micro organisms and toxins harmful to health of consumer.

(c) Be free of any micro organisms capable to proliferate, it should not
show any signs of bacterial growth.
Sterilization System and Plants
There are three methods of milk sterilization as indicated below.
(a) In container sterilization, in which milk is bottled and heated for 20
to 40 mts at temperature between 110 and 120 oC.
(b) Ultra high temperature process discussed under UHT pasteurization
(c) Two-stage process, where the milk is first sterilized according to
UHT process, then boiled and finally subjected to further heat treatment to
destroy any spores which may have entered during bottling.
Incontainer Sterilization.
In this process the milk is heated in container at a temperature of 100oC
o
- 120 C, usually by steam. The temperature of milk rises slowly on account of
the slow heat penetration especially when the container is not agitated in the
sterilizer, because of this and for the fact that the bottles do not withstand sudden
and extreme temperature changes, the milk must be sterilized by a time,
temperature combination where by the temperature is low and the time
correspondingly is long. This tends to five the milk a rather strong flavour and a
brownish colour especially when the bottles are not agitated in the sterilizer. In
container sterilizers are grouped in two categories i.e.
Batch Sterilizer. Continuous sterilizer.
Batch Sterilizer : these sterilizers use steam as heating medium. Batch
sterilizers may be either stationary type or rotary type. The simplest type is the
stationary autoclave or sterilizer. This is a pressure vessel, either cylinderical or
rectangular in cross-section, designed to hold steam under a pressure sufficient
to give required sterilizing temperature. The sterilizer is fitted with doors at one
or both ends which are provided with gaskets to make them air tight when
closed. The autoclaves are equipped with indicating pressure gauge, indicating
thermometers and temperature and pressure controller to maintain the inside
steam pressure of required level. The sterilizer may also be equipped with a
timer so that after the lapse of the desired holding period steam supply will
automatically stopped and a bell will ring. An air vent is provided usually at the
top of the sterilizer to facilitate the removal of air.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 129

When the sterilizer is fully loaded with crates of bottles, the door is
closed and sealed and the vessel is put under steam pressure corresponding to
the required treatment temperature. After the desired processing time, the steam
is vented out to atmosphere. The crates of bottles are removed either for natural
air cooling or for cooling by blown air from fans. Water cooling can also be
done in the autoclave before the bottles are removed.
Some sterilizers are built so as to agitate the milk during heating by
rotating the load of bottles. The shell of the sterilizer may rotate in a horizontal
axis. In this way, the rate of heat transfer to milk is increases. These are called
batch type sterilizers. In this sterilizer the heat treatment of milk is more uniform
than in non rotating batch type.

Fig 8.8 Schematic diagram of a rotary batch sterilizer

Batch process is relatively wastes full of steam, and large heat losses
are unavoidable. The steam consumption will be 0.2 – 0.5 kg per litre of milk.
Continuous sterilizer
In the system the containers of milk are loaded mechanically in to a
conveyor which carries them in continuous sequence through the plant, so that
the milk automatically subjected to the required sterilizing process. These
sterilizers can be divided into two kinds – namely those operating with steam as
the sterilizing medium and those using hot air, those operating with steam are
either hydrostatic or hydrolock system.
130 Dairying

Hydrostatic Sterilizer : consists of a number of towers which together

form a number of ‘U’ shaped passages. One of the towers filled with steam, is
maintained at high temperature.
The other towers are filled with water to seal off the steam tower from
the atmosphere to allow a high pressure of steam, and hence a high temperature.
The product in the containers in conveyed through the machine in carriers fitted
between two endless chains. An automatic feed system introduces the containers
in to the carrier. At the end of cycle, an automatic discharge mechanism removes
the containers from the machine. A bottle normally leaves the outlet seal at the
temperature of 85oC. Further cooling is obtained either by passing the bottle
through a cooling tank or lower, or by spraying water at controlled temperature
on to the bottle. This sterilizer is economical in the use of steam, water and
labour. Steam consumption in 0.1 to 0.15 kg per litre of milk.
Hydrolock sterilizers contain a water sealed rotary value, not commonly
used.
Hot air sterilizer have various forms. In one form the bottles are crated
and the crates are loaded to a conveyer which move through a tunnel. They are
first heated by hot water spray of increasing temperature and then by hot air at
temperature up to 145 oC circulated by fans. The hot air is normally heated by
steam pipes. Cooling is effected with hot water sprays in stages reducing
temperatures. In another form the bottles are heated and cooled by passing
through water baths instead of sprays.
The hot air sterilizers have the advantage of the temperature is obtained
without pressure. But thermal efficiency is poor.
The raw milk on receipt should be strictly examined and only high quality
milk should be used for production of sterilized milk. Take only with no developed
acidity and with least number of spore forming bacteria. The milk is promptly
cooled to 5 oC for bulk storage and check bacterial growth. Then milk is
preheated to 35 - 40 oC for efficient filteration / clarification, so as to remove
visible dirt etc., and to increase the aesthetic quality. Then milk is again cooled
to 5 oC so as to preserve its quality. Then it is standardized to confirm legal
requirements and stored at 5 oC until further processing.
Then milk is preheated to 60 oC for efficient homogenization to prevent
any visible cream layer formation. Then milk is homogenized at 60 oC with
2500 PSI pressure. The homogenized milk should be clarified to remove the
sediment formed during homogenization process. Then milk is filled in bottles
and sealed with special caps (of crown seal type). Then bottles are sterilized by
any method discussed in this chapter. Usually the temperature applied is 108 -
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 131

11 oC (225 -230oF) for 25 – 30 mts. The sterilized milk bottles are gradually
cooled to room temperature (sudden cooling causes breakage of bottles) and
stored at room temperature.
The official checking test for efficiency of sterilized milk is turbidity test.

Receiving Milk

Cooling to 50C and bulk storage

Pre-heating (35 - 450C)

Cooling 50C
Standardization and storage 50C

Pre-heating (600C)

Homogenization (2500 psi at 600C)

Clarification (600C)

Filling and capping

Sterilization (108 - 1110C/25 - 30 Minutes)

Cooling (Room temperature)

Storage (Room temperature)

Flow diagram of sterilization of Milk

8.6 Homogenization Definition – Advantages and
Disadvantages
Homogenization refers to the processing of forcing the milk through a
homogenizer with the object of sub-dividing the fat globules. According to United
States, Public Health Service, homogenized milk is milk, which has been treated
in such a manner as to ensure breakup of the fat globules to such an extent that
after 48 hours of quiescent storage, no visible cream separation occurs on the
milk, and the fat percentage of the milk in the top 100ml of milk in a quart of
bottle, or of proportionate volumes in containers of other sizes, does not differ
132 Dairying

by more than 10 percent of itself from the fat percentage of the remaining milk,
as determined after through mixing (In efficiently homogenized milk, the fat
globules are sub – divided to 2 microns or less in diameter).
Advantages
1. No formation of cream layers / plug.
2. Fat in milk does not churn due to rough handling or excessive agitation.
3. Better adapted to bulk dispensing, mixing not necessary.
4. More palatable due perhaps to brighter appearance, heavier body
and richer flavour.
5. Produces soft curd and is better digested, hence recommended for
infant feeding.
6. Less susceptible to oxidized flavour development.
Disadvantages
1. Increased cost of production.
2. Returned homogenized milk difficult to salvage, fat recovery is a
problem.
3. Sediment appearance to a greater degree.
4. Curdling is cookery.
5. More susceptible to production of activated or sunshine flavour defect.
6. Greater tendency for milk seepage through bottle caps.
8.7 Packing of milk (Prepack) and storage.
Fluid milk for immediate consumption is packed in glass, plastic or
laminated container. The bottle are sealed with aluminum caps. Sachets are
single service containers. The four sided tetra pack is a very effective package
for fluid milk product.
Packing in Cans : Milk is filled in cans made of stainless steel or
aluminum and having the capacity of 20 or 40 litres. Before filling milk into the
cans, it should be ensured that the cans have been properly cleaned and sterilized.
Milk can be filled into the cans directly from the outlet point of the pasteurizer or
by providing a holding tank in between.
Packing in Bottles : Inspite of the weight of the bottles and
disadvantages attached to their return and sterilization of empty bottles, bottles
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 133

had been still the most widely used container. However the dairies have shifted
to sachet packing. The bottle should be 500 ml or litre of good shape with
adequate resistance.
There are two types of bottle fillers in use i.e. gravity fillers and vacuum
fillers. In both types, filling nozzles are arranged in a circle. The unit comprising
of the float chamber. Filling nozzles and supports assembly revolves the bottles
are automatically fed in to the bottle supports, each support raises its bottle so
that its mouth is pressed against the soft rubber gasket of the filling nozzles. The
milk flows in to the bottle, while it is travelling with this assembly and just before
it has made one complete revolution, the filled bottle is automatically brought
down and removed and its place is taken by an empty bottle.
In vacuum filler, the supply tank is under moderate vacuum. A high
speed centrifugal blower supplies the vacuum by connecting its section in let to
the top of the supply tank. Vacuum pipe is connected to the supply tank, vacuum
through the filling valve. The lower end of the tube may be opened or closed
with ports on the side. As the bottles rises towards the outer tube upward
against the spring, this connects the bottle to the vacuum chamber through the
vacuum pipe and the airport. And then allows the milk to flow down the annular
passage into the bottles.
The height of filling is determined by the distance the vacuum tube (or
the position of air port on the tube) extends into the bottle. In case of fillers,
which have ports on the vaccum tube, no air flows on to the filler except that
contained in the bottle. Another form of vacuum filler is “valveless” type. Vacuum
fillers are exact and will not fill a broken bottle. Milk does not drip from the filler
valve when a bottle is not under the valve.
Gravity fillers are similar in construction as vacuum fillers with filling
valves. However the supply tank is under atmospheric pressure in place of the
vacuum. Therefore they will fill even broken bottles and milk will drip from the
filling valves when a bottle is not in a position.
In both the type of fillers, the force is gravity and the speed of filling is
governed by the head of the milk over the bottle. Vacuum fillers are mostly
used because of the advantages mentioned earlier. The adjustment for bottles
of different sizes ad capacities differ in various makes. It involves proper
centering of the bottles below the nozzles, and adjusting the clearance between
the raised bottle support and the nozzles.
134 Dairying

Fig 8.9 Schematic diagram of a vacuum bottle filler

The filled bottles leave the filler assembly and are transferred to the
revolving capper has three or more magazines each with a movable support
beneath it. The support raises the bottle on to the conveyor for inspection and
crafting. The rising bottle actuates and mechanism, which slides a cap over the
bottle and then brings the cap and bottle mouth against a plunger to force the
cap on to place. The plunger is backed up by a spring so that a cap is seated
under regulated pressure. The two most commonly used material for sealing of
bottles are aluminum caps and crown corks.
Packing in Single Service - Containers
Single service containers have the advantages of resistance to tampering,
less weight, less bulk, no return of empties and no cleaning problem. On the
other hand they are costly and opaque. There are two types i.e. prefabricated
packs and the other in form and fill cartons.
Prefabricated cartons are made of card board and coated inside with
paraffin or plastic. The fillers for perfabricated cartons operate in a manner very
similar to a gravity filler in glass bottles. A pre measured volume of milk dispensed
into the carton. High speed fillers upto 260 cartons per ml are available. This is
not popular in India.
Form and fill carton system is mostly used now a days. Carton is received
as a scored and sized plastic coated blank with bonded side seam. As three
components, bottle sidewalls and top or in the form of a roll of heat scalable
material. The packing material used is laminated paper, consisting of duplex
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 135

craft paper coated inside with poly ethylene and outside with wax. Another
type of laminated paper consists of a thin aluminum foil sandwitched between an
outer craft paper and inner poly ethylene coating.
Of different form – fill and seal machines, one is tetra pack for packing
of sterilized and pasteurized milk. The machine forms, fills seals and automatically
packs tetrahedron shaped containers (which have least surface to volume ratio)
in one continuous operation. In operation, the packing material supplied in rolls,
is fed from a reel through an enclosed sanitary chute to the top of vertically
designed machine. The paper strip then travels downwards and is formed in to
a tube by guide rods and forming rings.
The polyethylene coating on the paper acts on the sealing medium.
The vertical tube is filled with the product through a filling pipe extending in to
the tube. Electrically heated jaws, positioned at right angles to each other,
alternatively pinch the product – filled tube, forming a chain of individual tetra
pack containers. Then a cutter automatically divides the chain in to individual
units. The individual packages are conveyed to an automatic packer, which
positions 18 cartons into a plastic case.
As the strip of packing material unwinds from the cell, a device punches
holes n the material and also heat seals paper ‘pull tabs’ over the holes. The pull
tab opening is provided near the apex of one side of each finished carton.
Removing the tabs uncover a hole through which a straw may be inserted or the
milk may be drained.
Special equipment is available for adopting tetra pack machines to aseptic
packing of sterilized milk.
Prepack
Generally two types of sachet filling machines are available in dairy
industry. They are Prepack and fill pack. The machines available in a capacity
of 2500 and 5000 packs per hour with a packing size of one litre, half litre, and
200 ml.
The components of machines are enclosed in a stainless steel cabinet.
The major items are either of stainless steel or treated aluminium covered by a
weather proof paint coating. Heat scalable film rolls are mounted inside the
compartment located in the rear bottom. They are supported on idler rollers or
guide rollers. The film is exposed to UV lamp in order to sterilize it; just, before
wrapping. The film is overlapsed and sealed in to a tube by impulse heated
element known as vertical electrode. The downward movement of the film is
controlled by a set of nip rollers made of rubber.
136 Dairying

Below the nip rollers the film tube enters the horizontal sealer. Here
simultaneous seals, across the bottom of each pocket and across the top of
preceding sachet, are made with the same horizontal electrode. This also
separates one sachet from the other. Injection of product takes place between
the strokes of horizontal element, controlled by pneumatic solenoid value. The
heat of both the sealing elements are controlled by the circulation of soft water
and the movement is controlled by the compressed air (6 kg/ cm2).

Fig 8.10 Pneumatic circuit of Machine (Prepac)

Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 137

Pneumatic system is one of the important systems of the machine which

controls the entire mechanical working. The compressed air is passed through
an FRL unit, which filters the air, regulates the air pressure to 6 kg / cm2 and
lubricates the air. A flow of 3-4 drops of oil per mt, is ideal. Pneumatic circuit
is given in the fig 8.10.
When solenoid valve ‘A’ closes, i.e. no supply is given to it.
(a) 1 and 3 ports are connected i.e. no supply is given to it.
(b) 2 and 4 ports are connected i.e. return air is going to exhaust when
solenoid valve ‘A’ is given supply.
(c) 1 and gets connected
(d) 3 and 4 gets connected and air gets exhausted through 4 to exhaust.
When solenoid ‘B’ is not energized, 1 and 2 gets connected. In sachet
filling machine an electronic programmer with printed circuit cards have been
incorporated. These get the power supply of 24 V DC through a power cord.
This supply is required for clutch and beak coils, solenoid coils and D.V.P. coils.
Printed circuit cards controls the operation of clutch and brake, scaling heat and
injection of the product.
Starting of Machine
1. Put on the main switch
2. Preset the pack length
3. Turn ‘on’ the vertical seal switch and adjust the temperature.
4. Check the film for desired overlapping, beneath the vertical seal
electrodes.
5. Turn ‘on’ the auto switches and check the film movement.
6. Check the strength of vertical seal.
7. Turn ‘on’ the horizontal seal switch and check for the seal strength
and pack separation.
8. Put the machine on manual operation.
9. Check the filling of the product by inching the machine by turning ‘on’
and ‘off’ the injection switch in quick succession for accuracy.
10. Put the machine on ‘Auto ‘and turn on the injection switch and
make the final adjustment.
138 Dairying

11. When the film roll is to be changed for continuous operation, the
machine is to be put on. New roll is to be placed and to be joined with the end
part of the previous roll and check for the overlapping and sealing. Then switch
over the machine to ‘Auto’.
Aseptic Packing of UHT Milk
A UHT sterilization system demands reliable aseptic filling avoiding
bacterial contamination, because a good sterilization process can be completely
nullified by it during and after filling. An aseptic packing system has three main
requirements. The container material and any closure system must be adequately
sterilized product in a sterile atmosphere and the filled container must be sealed
in the similar environment. All the parts must be connected together in such a
way as to prevent contamination between the stages.
In a simple aseptic packing system, the UHT plant is connected directly
to aseptic straight- line slit filler, supplying milk at a constant flow rate. It is
possible to connect the UHT plant to two or more aseptic fillers. Often fillers
are intermittent in operation but the packing machine must be capable of dealing
with the continuous flow from the UHT plant. Therefore an aseptic tank is
incorporated between the UHT plant and filler(s). A by – pass line drawn from
the line connecting the UHT plant and the filler connects the aseptic tank. This
tank serves as a buffer for a sterile product that is fed to the filling unit(s) in a
continuous flow. The aseptic tank will permit a constant flow of milk to the
fillers even during the cleaning of UHT plant.
Before starting production, the tank and UHT plant are sterilized at
130oC for 20 to 30 mts with steam. After sterilization, the steam is cutoff and
the tank is cooled and air is supplied from a compressor via two pasteurized
bacteriological fillers. By regulating the air flow to and from the tank by venting
correct pressure is kept on milk to suit the filling machines. The container
sterilization and aseptic filling and sealing system would depend on the type of
container. Commonest types packages are cans and form and fill cartons.
Aseptic Canning : In this system, the filler and closing machine are
enclosed in inter connected rectangular boxes. Cans from air cleaner enter the
can sterilizer through a narrow passage along a conveyor. The sterilizer box is
filled with super heated steam at 230 oC - 290 oC and the can temperature is
raised to 200 oC. An atmosphere of superheated steam is maintained in filler,
sealing machine and inter connectivity conveyor system to maintain sterility. As
the cool sterilized milk flows continuously from the UHT plant, it is filled into the
sterilized cans coming from the can sterilizer. The filled cans are then conveyed
to the sealing machine. The can covers, sterilized with super heated steam in a
vertical chamber, are placed on the cans are sealed by the machine.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 139

Aseptic Cartooning : This system of aseptic packing using tetra pack

machine is gaining more attention. The paper strip passes through a bath of
dilute hydrogen peroxide at 80 oC to sanitize it. Chlorine spray also has been
used. After the paper has been formed and heat seeded in to a vertical tube, it
passes on to electric heating element which is totally enclosed by the paper
tube. The heating element raises the temperature of the inside surface of the
paper tube to 200 - 250 oC, which renders the sterilizing affect and disintegrates
the existing hydrogen peroxide.
The hot zone also prevents atmospheric contamination from passing
down the tube and reaching the milk surface. The milk supply tube is thermally
insulated and passes down through the heating element. The paper tube containing
the milk is heat scaled transversely as has been described earlier.

Fig 8.11 Schematic diagram of Tetra Pack System

140 Dairying

Summary
Pesteurization definition, objectives, objection, formulation of standards
and various types of pasteurization methods discussed. The batch method,
HTST,UHT, Vacuume pasteurization methods were described with the help of
sketch flow diagram. Sterilization of milk, types of sterilizers were discussed.
The packing of milk, types of packing including prepak and aseptic packing of
milk were briefly explained. The various effects of different heat treatment on
milk quality and on milk constituents were discussed.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define pasteurization.
2. Mention three standards applied for pasteurization.
3. What are the different methods of pasteurization ?
4. Mention temperature - time combination for batch, HTST, UHT and
stassanization processes.
5. What is the function of FDV ?
6. What is the benefit of regeneration section ?
7. Classify different methods of UHT pasteurization.
8. What are the requirements for a commercial sterilized milk ?
9. Define sterilized milk.
10. Name the official checking tests for checking efficiency or
pasteurization and sterilization.
11. What is prepak ?
12. Define aseptic packing.
13. What is browsing ?
14. Define caramelization.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. What are the objectives, objection and standards for pasteurization
process ?
2. Briefly explain different types of batch pasteurization.
3. Write detail HTST system with the help of sketch diagram.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of HTST system ?
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 141

5. Explain indirect UHT system.

6. Briefly write about direct UHT treatment with the help of flow diagram.
7. Explain vacuume pasteurization process.
8. Briefly write about the preparation of sterilized milk.
9. Explain prepak process of milk packing.
10. Describe in detail about aseptic packing of milk.
11. What are the various effects of heat on milk and milk constituents ?

.
142 Dairying

UNIT 9
Cleaning and Sanitization
Structure
9.1 Detergents and Sanitizers – Desirable Characteristics
9.2 Cleaning and Sanitation Methods – Hand, Machine and CIP Systems
9.3 Cleaning and Sanitization of Cans – Types of Can Washers
9.4 Cleaning and Sanitization of HTST Pasteurizers and other
equipment
9.5 Dairy Effluents – Treatment Measures.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
• Understand about Detergents and Sanitizers
• Different methods and cans of Cleaning and Sanitization.
• Cleaning and Sanitization of HTST Pasteurizers.
9.1 Detergents and Sanitizers – Desirable Characteristics.
Cleaning or washing of dairy equipment implies the removal of soil from
the surface of each machine. Detergents or cleaning/ washing compounds are
the substances capable of assisting cleaning.
The soil consists primarily of milk and milk product residues which may
be more or less modified processing treatment or interacts on with water or
cleaning materials previously used or by dust, dirt or other foreign matter.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 143

Milk stone is an accumulation of dried milk solids and salts from hard
water and washing solutions. All dairy equipment should be properly cleaned
as milk provides an excellent medium for the growth of microorganisms. At the
same time, detergents used for cleaning should be so selected as not to affect
the material of the equipment.
Desirable Characteristics of a good detergent
1. Good alkalinity
2. Should be freely, easily, quickly and completely soluble.
3. Should not have corrosive action on metal surface
4. Good wetting power or ability to make a contact with the surface to
be cleaned.
5. Should make emulsion with fat and remove the same from the surface
(emulsifying power.)
6. Good dissolving power or ability to dissolve protein.
7. Good deflocculating power or the ability to break up dirt particles.
8. Germicidal power or effectiveness in killing microorganisms.
9. Penetrating power or the ability to penetrate the milk films on
equipment surfaces.
10. Sequestering and chelating power
11. Free rinsing
12. Economical
13. Stability during storage.
Dairy detergents are broadly classified into alkalies, acids,
polyphosphates and chelating agent and surface active/wetting agents.
(a) Alkalies
1. Soap powder : Soap powders are understood to be alkaline salts of
fatty acids. They have excellent emulsifying properties and therefore are used
for removing fat films. They are harmless to metals and to the hands of the
operator. Solutions of soap compounds rinse poorly and tend to leave a film on
the cleaned surface that readily harbours bacteria and so are not desirable as
cleaners on the milk side of equipment. These are suitable for washing wood
work, scrubbing floors etc. Their functions can be improved when used with
stronger alkalies.
144 Dairying

2.Phosphates:These are available as phosphate,pyrophosphate, and

hexametaphosphates. They are most effectively in combination with soda ash
and soda bicarbonate. Trisodium phosphate is effective for cleaning and heating
surfaces, such as pasteurizers, but corrodes alumunium and tin. It dissolves
protein, is an excellent emulsifier of fats, holds dirt particles in suspension and
precipitates the hardness of water as floccules. Other polyphosphates that are
being used as an ingredient in compound cleaning agents prevent the formation
of stone by forming soluble compounds with calcium and magnesium salts and
usually have no harmful effects on metals or human skin.
3. Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydroxide) : Caustic soda is the most
alkaline cleaner. This is used when vigorous action is desired. It breaks up and
dissolves protein particles. Soponifies fats and precipitates the hardness of the
water as floccules. It has good bacterial action and good solvent properties but
causes skin irritation and is harmful to painted surfaces. It should not be used on
tinned surfaces as it destroys the tin coating and aluminium rapidly. This is more
suitable for mechanical bottle washers and for vacuum pan and stainless steel
heat exchangers in which heavy protein films are encountered.
4. Soda ash (sodium carbonate) : It is an effective remover of film of
fats and protein materials, is better for general cleaning purpose. It is an excellent
water softener. When mixed with more active chemicals, it acts as a buffering
agent and assists in cleaning. It corrodes both alumunium and tin, and is irritating
to the human skin.
5. Modified Sodas (sesquicarbonate) : These products are a mixture
of soda ash and sodium bicarbonates. They are useful for hand washing
operations, as they do not cause skin irritation.
6. Sodium metasilicate (Na2 Sio3 SH20) : It has good wetting
emulsifying and deflocculating power. It is effective in preventing lime scale in
medium hard water and is an efficient water softener. It is a good solvent of
protein material. It has pronounced buffer action, and has proved suitable for
use in every type of creamery equipment. It is readily soluble in hot and cold
water and rinses easily.
(b) Acids : For milk stone removal, mild acids have been found most
satisfactory. Among acids used are nitric, phosphoric, tartaric, citric, gluconic
and hydroxyacetic acids in strength of approximately 0.1%. Most acid cleaners
are combined with wetting agents to provide the greatest possible penetration
of soil.
Milk protein are coagulated in weak acid solutions which, in turn, are
readily dissolved in weak alkaline solutions. For scale removal, the solution
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 145

should have high dissolving power and high neutralizing value on the deposits,
low corrosiveness on equipment or other surfaces with which it comes in contact.
It should be relatively safe to handle and shall be harmless, it residues should get
in to food products per chance.
1. Nitric Acid : It is a strong inorganic acid that can easily dissolve milk
stone and hard water scale, it attacks tinned metals very strongly but not aluminium
or stainless steel. The strongly oxidizing acid has a stabilizing effect upon stainless
steel and has also a good disinfecting effect. It burns the skin. It is widely used
in cleaning in place (CIP) of plant employed for the heat treatment of milk. For
this purpose, acid with strength of 60 % is normally used.
2. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) : It is moderately strong inorganic acid
which is used to some extent instead of nitric acid.
3. Organic Acids : Such as acetic, oxyacetic, gluconic, tartaric and
citric acids have, even in stronger concentrations, a relatively high pH, so that
their corrosive effect upon metals is very much less than even weak solutions of
nitric acid. They have a good buffering ability, so that they can be used to
remove milk stone and hard water scales. They are only slightly irritating to
human skin.
(c) Wetting Agents : Water and most aqueous solutions wet the surface
with difficulty unless such surfaces are absolutely free of fats or oils. Surfaces
active or welting agents in solution improve the wetting of particles and penetration
of the solution in to capillary pores and minute spaces between and under soil
particles and equipment surfaces. They assist in forming stable dispersions and
emulsions of soil, which is there by easier to remove from the surfaces to be
cleaned. Too high a concentration, however would tend to insulate these particles
from chemical attack by the solutions.
There are three groups of surfactants, anionic, cationic, non ionic and
depending upon how they dissociate in aqueous solution. The most common
group is he anionic one. These compounds ionize with negative anion being the
active species. They are excellent detergents but poor sanitizers. Examples are
sulphosoaps, sulphated alcohols and alkyl aryl sulphonates.
Non ionic welting agents are also in use ad many of these are liquids.
Foaming characteristics vary from low to high; examples are condensation
products between ethylene oxide and an alkyl phenol. The cationic group includes
the quaternary ammonium compounds. They possess poor detergent properties
but are very good sanitizers.
146 Dairying

(d) Sequestering Agents : Prevention of water hardness precipitation

may be achieved by using sequestering / chelating agents. There are three main
classes of chelating agents. The first Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA)
and its sodium salts. They are heat stable and are compatible with quarternary
ammonium compounds (QAC). It greatly increases the anti-redeposition power
of a blend of detergents and also has a bacteriostatic property. The second
class consists of sodium of gluconic and heptonic acids which are rather stronger
chelating agents for calcium and magnesium than EDTA, but requires high
concentration of caustic soda solution (2-5%) for effectiveness. The third class
comprises of the poly phosphates. They are not heat stable.
(e) Inhibitors and antifoaming agents : Inhibitors are used to minimize
the corrosive attack of acids and alkalies on metals eg. Sodium Sulphite is used
to protect tinned surfaces from attack by alkalies and Sodium silicate protects
aluminium and its alloys from attack by mild alkalies. Anti foaming agents may
be incorporated for special applications such as bottle washing. Where foam
may be generated by pumping and jetting action during detergent recirculation.
Sanitizers
Sanitization implies the destruction of all pathogenic and all most all non
pathogenic microorganism from equipment surface. Sanitizers are the substances
capable of destroying all pathogenic and all most all non pathogenic
microorganisms.
Desirable Characteristics of a good Sanitizer
1. Non toxic
2. Quick acting
3. Relatively non corrosive to hands and equipment
4. Easily and quickly applied
5. Relatively inexpensive
The commonly used dairy sanitizers are hot water, steam, chemical
sanitizers (chlorine compounds, iodophors and Quarternary ammonium
compounds)
Hot Water : It is one of the most effective germicidal agents as it can
contact all clean surfaces of the equipment. It is used in sufficient quantities and
it kills a large percentage of the bacteria. To be effective as germicidal agent,
water should have temperature of less than 80oC and be circulated for 15 mts.
This temperature is taken at the outlet of the processing equipments.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 147

Steam : It is very effective for sterilizing vats, pipe lines and equipments,
which can be atleast partially closed during the process. The equipment should
attain a temperature of 78 oC for atleast 15 mts or 93 oC for 5 mts.
Chemical Sanitizers
Chemical sanitizers or sterilants are very effective germicidal agents.
1. Chlorine compounds : Chlorine sanitizers generally corrosive to
aluminium, copper tinned surfaces and stainless steel. Corrosion by chlorine is
increased by higher temperatures and concentrations. Inorganic compounds
include sodium hypochorited and chlorinated trisodium phosphate, and organic
compounds are dichloroisocyanurate and chloramines – T, the inorganic agents
may be used as sanitizing agents alone. Organic agents may be used with
detergents.
Sodium hypochorite containing 10-15% active chlorine with a pH 7-8
will do a good job. The lower pH though increases its effectiveness, but solutions
below 7 is highly corrosive to all metals. Chlorinated Trisodium phosphate
contains about 3 – 3.5 % available chorine. It is used in combination with
appropriate salts. The solution pH used is 8 -8.5. Chlorine – T contains 25%
active chorine and rather a slow sanitizer. The working solution should be of pH
7 for satisfactory effectiveness. Halane has 68% available chlorine and behaves
much like chloramine – T, Di and Trichloroisocyanuric acid and their salts have
60 – 90% available chlorine and are least corrosive for all chlorine compounds.
They can be used at solution pH at as high as 9.5 – 10.0.
The methods of application can include circulation with 200 ppm (0.02%)
for 5 mts through pumps, pipelines and coolers immersion in a 200 ppm solution
for 5 mts; spraying large open holding vats with 300 ppm solutions with 5 mts
contact time. Fogging is carried out closed vats and tankers with 500 ppm
solution with special automizing equipment and brushing cheese vat surfaces
and agitators weighting vats and similar open vessels with a 400 ppm solution.
Quarternary Ammonium Compounds (QAC) are non irritant to skin
and cationic. They possess both antibacterial and surface active properties. They
should not be used with anionic wetting agents in which case their effectiveness
is greatly reduced. Hard water salts also reduce their bacterial effectiveness.
They form deposits on glass surfaces and their last traces are difficult to remove
from equipment by rising. Even small residues of QAC may be harmful to
starter culture organisms. Their use therefore is limited.
Iodophores : Iodophores are prepared from iodine and suitable nonionic
wetting agent which serves as “carrier” of Iodine. Acidified conditions enhance
their bacterial activity and those approved for use in the dairying industry are
148 Dairying

invariably acidified, usually with phosphoric acid. The presence of surface active
agents and acids confers detergent properties on these Iodophors and all are
classified as detergent sanitizers. However they show only poor affectivity against
fat residues.
They will if used regularly, help to prevent accumulation of milk stone,
but they should not be expected to remove existing milk stone. They cannot be
used at higher temperatures, say higher than 50 oC, as Iodine vapors will be
released which are highly corrosive for all metals. Unless the acid content is
fairly low, they can corrode all non stainless steel metals to some extent. Some
plastic materials and rubber gaskets absorb Iodine and are stained brown.
Acids like nitric acid and phospharic acids are now being used as
sanitizers or detergent sanitizers eg. 0.5 litres of nitric acid (60%) per100 litres
of water is considered adequate. Sodium hydroxide at 1.5 – 2 % solution at 45
o
C for 2 mts is effective against non- spore forming bacteria.
9.2 Cleaning and Sanitation Methods – Hand, Machine and
CIP Systems
Principle : In the selection of any particular detergent, consideration
should be given to type of soil, quality of water supply, material of surface and
the equipment to be cleaned and method of cleaning viz., soaking, brushing,
spraying and /or recirculation. Detergents are invariably used as an aqueous
solution. In the selection of dairy sanitizers there are two types.
(a) High temperature Sanitizing : Advantages are penetrating ability
and quick drying of equipment.
(b)Low temperature Sanitizing : Advantages are, permits sanitizing
immediately before equipment is used (when hot equipment will be injurious to
the quality of milk / milk products) avoids excessive strain on the equipment and
permits flushing out of equipment immediately before use. Generally, chlorine at
15 - 20 oC containing 150 – 200 ppm available chlorine for 1-2 minutes contact
time is used.
The usual procedure for cleaning and sanitization of major items of dairy
equipment should consist of ---
I. Draining : To remove any residual loose milk and any other matter.
II. Pre-rinsing : With cold or tap water to remove as much milk residue
and other matter as possible.
III. Warm to hot detergent washing with detergent solutions of 0.15 to
0.60 % alkalinity, to remove the remaining milk solids.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 149

IV. Hot water rinsing : To remove traces of detergents.

V. Sanitizing to destroy all pathogens and almost all non pathogens.
VI. Draining and drying : To help prevent bacterial growth and
corrosion.
The selection of detergents and sanitizers for different surface materials
of equipment are shown below.

Material Cleaning Sanitization

1. Stainless steel All alkalies may be used. Care All sanitizers may
should be taken with acids. be used.
2. Milid steel All alkalies may be used. Acids All sanitizers may
should be used together with inhibi- be used.
tors.
3. Tinned steel / cop- Weak alkalies together with sodium All sanitizers may
per sulphite as inhibitors should be be used.
used.
4. Bronze Weak alkalies together with sodium All sanitizers may
sulphite as inhibitors should be be used.
used.
5. Galvanised Weak alkalies together with sodium All sanitizers may
sulphite as inhibitors should be be used.
used.
6. Aluminium alloy Weak alkalies, together with sodium All sanitizers may
silicate as inhibitors should be used. be used.
7. Glass All alkalies and acids may be used. All sanitizers may
be used.
8. Vitreous enamel Weak alkalies, together with sodium All sanitizers may
silicate as inhibitors should be used. be used.
9. Plastics Cleaning temperature should not be Only chemical
above the softening point of plas- sanitizers should
tic. be used.
10. Rubber Strong alkalies should be used to Only chemical
remove any fatty material stuck to sanitizers should
the surface. be used.
150 Dairying

Note
Chlorine sanitizers, if left in contact with metal surface, cause corrosion.
So it should be preferably used just before processing.
Methods of Cleaning and Sanitization
The methods of cleaning and sanitization of dairy equipment are hand
washing and mechanical or machine washing and cleaning- in- place (Inplace –
cleaning).
I. Hand Washing : The following points, in general should be
remembered while cleaning the equipment.
(a) The equipment should be rinsed with water at 43 oC – 50 oC.
(b) The equipment is washed with warm water containing suitable
washing powder. All parts are brushed to loosen dirt particles.
(c) Equipment is rinsed first with warm water and then with hot water.
(d) All pumps, valves fittings and sanitary pipelines are completely
dismantled for washing.
(e) All equipment are completely sanitized with steam, hot water at 82
o
C or by chemical sanitizer.
(f) All parts are permitted to dry and are left exposed to circulating air,
Rack is provided for storage of sanitary pipes and parts.
(g) Pumps and sanitary pipelines, fittings or valves are not assembled
until ready for use.
(h) After an equipment is assembled, it is sanitized with hot water, steam
or chlorine solution.
(i) Pump parts, valves, sanitary fittings and freezer dashers should be
handled carefully during washing and sanitizing operations in order
to protect the machined surfaces.
(j) Convenient dry place should be provided for storage of washing
powder and chemical sterilizers.
The normal cleaning and sanitization of hand washed dairy equipment in
organized dairies should be done as follows.
1. Prepare 0.8 to 1.0% of detergent mixture in tap water, so as to give
a minimum alkalinity of 0.5 percent (pH over 11.) in a wash up tank and maintain
the temperature at about 50 oC.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 151

2. Thoroughly rinse the utensils with clean cold water.

3. Introduce the detergent solution in to the equipment (quantity of
solution to be determined by requirement and experience). Thoroughly brush
the equipment surface, inside and outside, with a clean can-brush.
4. Wash the utensil with enough fresh cold water using a clean brush
again, if needed, to remove all traces of detergent.
5. Allow the equipment to drain thoroughly and let it dry (for at least 1-
2 hours).
6. Sanitize the equipment surface by steam / hot water after cleaning
and / or by rinsing with chlorine solution (200 ppm available chlorine) just before
using.
Bottles may be hand washed as follows.
A three compartment tank (with drainage outlet for each) is selected.
Two thirds of first compartment is filled with water at 50 - 55oC containing alkali
detergent. The second compartment is filled with water only at 50 - 55oC and
the third with cold water with 150 – 200ppm available chlorine. The drained
bottles are put in the first compartment and allowed to soak for few minutes,
then brushed with a clean bottle brush both inside and outside. Then the bottles
are placed in the second compartment for sufficient time and after careful emptying
are placed in the third compartment. Then bottles are left up side down to drain
and dry.
II. Mechanical / Machine Washing : This consist mainly using
machine which will perform work by fully automatic or semiautomatic systems.
Examples are can washers and bottle washers.
The can washers may be either rotary or straight through / tunnel type.
The capacity may be 4 -12 cans and lids per minute. The mechanical bottle
washer may either be soaker type (soaking) or hydro (jetting) or soaker – hydro
(part soaking and part jetting). Further it may be of the come back or straight-
through type; in the former, loading and unloading take place at the same end,
while in the latter, they are done at opposite ends. Generally, soaker-hydro-
comeback types are popular for smaller capacities and straight-through-
hydrotypes used are larger capacities. The stages of treatment in a mechanical
bottle washers are given below.
(a) Prerinse, using water at 32 – 38oC.
(b) Detergent wash, usually 1-3 percent caustic soda, together with
chelating and wetting agents given preferably in two stages at different
temperatures within 60 - 75 oC. Sanitizes the bottles as well.
152 Dairying

(c) Water rinse, to remove all traces of detergent. Reduces bottle

temperature for next stage. Water temperature varies from 25 - 45 oC and is
usually recirculated.
(d) Cold water rinse, normally recirculated chlorine water (containing
35 – 50 ppm. Available chlorine) is used to prevent recontamination of bottle.
(e) Draining after the bottles come out of the machines.
Soaker Type Washer : Is used in large dairy plants, soaking of
completely full bottles in caustic solutions is the main action of cleaning bottles.
The cleaning efficiency depends on the action of the solution in which bottles are
immersed.

Alkali
Alkali soak Wa r m
soak water
Clean water spraying
Alkali soak

bottles in

Fig 9.1 Schematic drawing of a straight-through soaker type bottle washer

Before the bottles are transported from one soaker tank to the next,
they must be emptied by being approximately tilted. They are refilled in the next
tank. The advantage of various zones is temperature adoption (to prevent bottle
discharge
breakage due to thermal shock) and the division into zones in which the amount
of soiling matter is different.
Jet Type Washers : The jet water sprays the solution inside and outside
of bottles, through a series of jets in order to wash and sanitize them. The
inverted bottles pass over different zones having a number of nozzles through
which the solution and water is sprayed at a pressure about 2 kg / cm2.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 153

Fig 9.2 Schematic drawing of a Jet-type Bottle Washer 1. Bottles in 2. Water pre-
jetting 3. Caustic jetting 4. Warm water jetting 5. Clean water jetting

Division of zones offers the already mentioned advantages in this case

as well. With the aid of jetting, strongly adhering soil components can be removed,
even those which are soluble only with difficulty or are insoluble.
Soaker Jet Type Washer : It combines the advantages of soaking
and jetting and is therefore suitable for washing the bottles used for sterilized
milk filling.

Fig 9.3 Schematic drawing of a combined soaker-jet type bottle washer 1. Bottle in 2.
Caustic tank 1 3. Caustic tank 2 4. Intermediate jetting 5. Warm water 6. Discharge

In all bottles washers it is used to load manually or semi-automatically

onto one or more conveyers travelling to the filling machines. In all washers two
endless chains, one either side of the washer, run in vertical plane over suitable
sprockets and guides. Two chains are synchronized and are generally moved
mechanically with an intermittent motion, one pitch at a time. Connecting the
two chains are a large number of carriers. Which provide a series of baskets
(receptables) in which bottles are taken through the process.
154 Dairying

Where soaking tanks are used, the bottles travel down into the tank in a
horizontal position, filling as they become immersed; after traveling through the
tank, they are carried upwards, emptying as they rise above the liquid. Where
jets are used, it is most important that the inverted bottles should centre exactly
over a jet during the pause between movements.
III. CIP Cleaning : It is also called in-place-cleaning (IPC). This refers
to the system of cleaning also sanitization which does not require the daily
dismantling of dairy equipment. Inplace cleaning is based on taking the detergent
to the equipment rather than taking the equipment to the detergent.
Types of CIP system are.
1. Manual Control : In this, the completion and setting up of the product
and CIP circuits is done manually; the valves are hand operated and the entire
process is controlled by the operator.
2. Automation : Three levels of automation is possible i.e. low level in
which setting of CIP and other product circuits is done automatically. Medium
level in which setting up of CIP and product circuits as well as different types of
treatments are all controlled automatically, High level in which computer is used
for complete control of entire product manufacture and CIP system in large
plants.
Two different techniques are used in CIP cleaning i.e. single use system and
reuse system.
1. Single use System : In this system the cleaning solution are used
once at the lowest possible strength, and discharging it to the sewer at the end of
each cycle. It is therefore limited to very soiled equipment in which the detergents
are completely used up in the one passage. Solutions which are not completely
used up can to be stored in an additional recovery tank and reused as a prerinser
for the next cleaning run.
Milk heater
Milk
tank

Wa-
ter Wa t e r Recovery
tank tank

Caustic soda
Steam acid additives Drain
Fig 9.4 Single use System of CIP Cleaning
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 155

2. Reuse System : In this system, the same solutions are used for a
large number of cleaning operations. They are fitted with separate tanks for
each type of detergent as shown in Fig : 9.4.

acid concentrate lye concentrate

return from CIP

1 2 3 4 5 6

drain to CIP

Fig 9.5 Re-use System of CIP Cleaning 1. Newtalization 2. Return water 3. Acid 4. lye
I 5. lye II 6. Fresh water

The cleaning reagents to the solutions is added as required to maintain

its strength and cleaning ability. It requires more space and utilize more parts in
the form of tanks, valves, controls etc. Tanks and pipes are cleaned with 0.5 –
1.0% caustic soda solution and milk heating equipment with a 1-2 % solution.
Some recent installation have incorporated system which combine the
advantages of single use systems (flexibility and reliability) with water and solution
recovery procedures which aid in reducing the total amount of water required
for a given cleaning cycle. These systems were designed to recover the ‘spent’
cleaning solution and post rinse water from one cleaning cycle, store it temporarily
and then release this detergent rinse water mixture as re-rinse for the subsequent
cleaning cycle. This reduces water requirement by 25 – 30% steam requirement
by 12 – 15% and chemical consumption by 10 -12%.
Merits of CIP system
1. Ensures that all equipment receives uniform treatment day after day,
by eliminating the human factor.
2. Less damage to equipment (no dismantling and assembling)
3. Saving of (25% or more) total clean up costs and man hours.
4. Reduces possibility of contamination through human error.
5. Improved plant utilization and appearance.
156 Dairying

The closed equipment such as pipelines, plate and tubular heat

exchangers. HTST pasteurizers, pumps, homogenizers and evaporators are
cleaned by pumping the solution. Open equipment such as tanks, silos, churns
and spray driers requires spraying, devices that will give complete coverage of
the surface being cleaned.
The success of the CIP system depends upon
1. Proper temperature of cleaning solutions.
2. Adequate velocity of cleaning solutions.
3. Proper selection of pipes and fittings, installation and development of
circuits.
4. Use of detergents designed specially for re-circulation cleaning.
5. Proper concentration of detergent solution.
6. Sufficient cleaning solution.
9.3 Cleaning and Sanitization of Cans – Types of Can
Washers
A large quantity of milk in dairy is received in cans. The sanitary conditions
of cans used in dairy affects the quality of raw milk and finished products produced
from the raw milk. Milk cans are constructed of alumunium, stainless steel or
tinned steel. The alumunium cans are sturdy and light, but pit easily and are
difficult to clean. The problems of rusting, pitting and wearing off a tin coating
are eliminated by using stainless steel. The most commonly used milk can is
made of steel and is coated both inside and outside with tin.
All cans, after dumping of milk, should be washed thoroughly dried and
sterilized. Drying of cans is more important than complete sterilization, as it can
is dry, the remaining bacteria will not multiply. If the cans remain wet, bacteria
will multiply in the presence of moisture.
Manual Washing: Small dairy plants and milk collecting centres employ
manual washing for cans. In hand washing, cans should be prerinsed with water
at 32 oC to 38 oC. three tanks are used for cleaning operations. The first tank
contains 200 litres of warm water (52 oC) and good balanced alkaline cleaner
(115 g to 230 g per litres of water). The detergents used are either soda ash or
washing soda. Cans are immersed in the solution and brushed thoroughly inside
and out with a going type brush.
They should then be washed in the second tank containing warm water
at about 60 oC. Finally it should be rinsed in the third tank containing clean and
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 157

hot water at about 65 oC. If the steam is available, they should be subjected to
a treatment, if no steam is available, they should be subjected to a bacterial rinse
containing 200 ppm of QAC for 2 mts. (Chlorine should never be used). These
cans and covers are then inverted and stored to dry.
Mechanical Can Washing : Medium ad large size dairy plants use
mechanical washers. Mechanical washers may be either manually operated
type or power operated type.
Advantages
(a) Occupies little space.
(b) Machine can be operated by a single worker.
(c) Time is reduced.
The cleaning and sanitization procedure for mechanical can washing
consists of the following stages.
1. Drainage stage for liquid milk residues.
2. Pump –fed prerinsing with cold or Luke warm water. This is done by
passing ordinary water through a jet to clean the milk film remaining in the can.
The temperature of water used for rinsing is about 25 oC. The water is passed
through the jet at a pressure of about 1-2 kg / cm2 for 3-6 seconds, so that it can
rinse properly.
3. Drainage stage to remove water.
4. Pump fed jetting with detergent at not less than 70 oC, this is done by
passing the washing solution through jets at a sufficient high pressure to remove
all dried milk and cream film inside and outside of the cans. When using an
alkaline it should be less than 0.40% for farmers can and 0.15% for dairy cans.
Caustic soda must not be used as the detergent, but sodium carbonate and a
corrosion inhibitor (sodium sulphite for tin or sodium silicate for alumunium) are
suitable.
5. Drainage stage to remove detergent.
6. Hot water rinsing at 85-88 oC. the temperature of the can should
increase at successive stage, as the sterilization and drying stage of steam and
hot air temperature will be higher than 100 oC.
7. Final fresh water rinsing with steam and water ejector at 88 – 93 oC.
8. Live steam injection (sterilization)
158 Dairying

9. Drying with hot air at 95 – 115 oC to prevent the corrosion of metal

due to moisture and to check bacterial growth. The air used for drying should
be filtered.

Steam
Steam
Control Panel
On | Off
Clutch handle

Fig 9.6 Operation diagram of a rotary can washer

1. Rotary Can Washers

Rotary can washer carries the inverted cans on a large rotating table.
The table is mounted on a vertical shaft, and is rotated by means of an electric
motor through a warm gear drive. The movement may be continuous or
intermittent. The cans are loaded manually on the table and it passes through
the various sections viz. Pre – rinsing, washing, hot water rinsing, sterilizing and
drying. The rinsing water and washing solution is circulated through jets installed
blower. After drying the cleaned can is taken out and another can is loaded for
washing on the rotating table.
The capacity of rotary can washers varies from 3 to 6 cans per minute
depending on its size, make and the number of treatments given in the washer.
The rotary can washer is simple in construction, occupies less floor space, and
is used in smaller dairy plants. They can wash the cans of any size and shape,
but recontamination of cans by the washer or by the operator is difficult to
avoid. These require 1.0 kg steam per can, water 8.7 litre per can and energy
0.86 Kwh per 100 cans.
2. Straight – Through Can Washer.
This type carries the cans through the washer in a straight line by means
of a continuously moving conveyor or slide along rail as they move intermittently
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 159

from one jetting position to the next. The driving unit at regular intervals show
the can forward from one position to the next.

Fig 9.7 Schematic drawing of a straight-through can washer

The prerinsing (position 2) is done by spraying sufficient amount of wash

through jets inside the can. The position 4 employs an acid cleaning by circulating
acid solution inside the can instead of usual alkaline solution. In the washing
(position 4 and 5 ) the washing solution at 65 - 70 oC is circulated for two times.
At position 6 and 7 hot water at a temperature between 80 oC and 90 oC is used
for rinsing. The high temperature of water saves the amount of steam consumed
in the next treatment. The sterile rinsing (position 8 and 9) is done by passing
steam through jets at about 107 oC temperature. After sterilizing, hot air drying
(position 10) is done by passing air at 124 oC temperature, the temperature of
the hot water and washing solution is controlled by means of thermostats.
The capacity of straight through can washers varies from 6 – 16 cans
per minute. This type is used in large size dairy plants. It is easily accessible for
maintanance and cleaning of inner parts. There is no recontamination of cans
either by the washer or by the operator. It occupies more floor space in dairy
and requires space and close inspection while in operation.
The requirements are 0.85 – 1.8 kg of steam per can, water 4.0 to 4.5
litres per can, energy between 1.0 and 2.4 Kwh.
Selection of Can washers : In selection of can washers the following
points should be taken into consideration.
1. Number of cans to be washed per day in a given period of time
2. Quality of drying is necessary.
3. Available space for can washer and can storage before and after
washing.
160 Dairying

4. Steam requirements and capacity of boiler available to meet the steam

requirements of the washer.
5. Relative cost of manual washing and mechanical washing.
6. Facility requirements for maintanance.
Maintenance of Can washers.
1. The water valves should be opened, cleaned and water pressure 2 to
4 kg/cm2 should be checked. If pressure is less, it is due to clogged
jets and defective pump. Which should be rectified. The pump
strainer inlet and outlet lines should be checked for the accumulation
of lime and scale.
2. The can washers should be cleaned as and when necessary. All the
wash sprays, nozzles and strainers should be checked and cleaned.
3. The mechanical difficulties are caused by lack of regular and sufficient
lubrication failure to make adjustment for wear and failure to replace
worn out parts. Most of the mechanical difficulties can be avoided
by proper lubrication of the moving parts, making adjustments for
wear and replacing the worn out parts.
4. The temperature and pressure of washing solution, hot water steam
and drying air should be maintained at optimum level. The roper
strength of solution is also important.
5. Heavy scale deposits in can washers are usually the result of inadequate
daily cleaning, use of hard water and use of solution at inadequate
temperature and strength. The scales can be removed by using
inhabited acid at a temperature of about 50oC.
9.4 Cleaning and Sanitization of HTST Pasteurizers and
other equipment
HTST Pasteurizer : The CIP method is followed.
After the day’s operation, cold water followed by warm water at a
temperature not exceeding 38oC is passed through the equipment to rinse out
the remaining milk. Rinsing is completed when the water, leaving the plate sections
becomes clear. The outlet pipe from the plate heating section is then connected
with the down steam side of the milk regenerate and the outlet of the final cooling
section is extended to the top of the float control tank. By this arrangement, the
timing pump and flow diversion valves are by passed by the cleaning solution.
These are washed separately. A centrifugal pump is connected in the line between
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 161

the float controlled tank and the up stream side of the milk regenerator to circulate
the acid leaning solution.
An acid cleaning solution of 0.5% is prepared. This solution is pumped
through the plate and circulated for zero minutes at a temperature between 60oC
- 65oC. After the acid solution treatment is completed, hot water is added to
the solution container. After the solid materials have been flushed away, the
outlet pipe from the unit is removed so that warm rinse water is pumped from
the container through the plates and on to the floor. This rinsing should continue
for 10-15 minutes. The hot water is then turned off. And the outlet pipe to the
solution container is replaced so that a mild alkaline solution should be circulated
through the plates following the acid solution treatment. A detergent (soda, ash,
tri sodium phosphate or sodium silicate) solution of strength 0.25 – 0.5 is
prepared. The alkali solution should be circulated at 60-75 oC for 30 minutes.
After alkali solution treatment, the cold water is pumped through until
the plates are cooled to at least room temperature; Sterilization is continued by
circulating hot water (80 oC - 90 oC) for 15 minutes through the system or by
chlorine solution (Containing 100 ppm chlorine) at 20 oC for 10 minutes or by a
combination method.
In an alternative method alkali treatment precedes acid treatment. In
this method a 0.7 – 1.5% solution of caustic soda 70oC - 75oC is circulated for
30 minutes after rinsing. Then cold water is pumped through the plant for 5 -10
minutes to rinse away any residual detergent. This is followed by the circulation
of 0.5 – 1% acid solution at 70 oC for 30 minutes. The pasteurizer is then
flushed with water for about 5-10 minutes. Sterilization is done as before.
Milk Storage Tanks / Milk Tankers
All interior surfaces of storage cans and tank trucks should be rinsed
with water at 50 oC. The agitator should be removed, if it is removable. Large
vats and tanks may be washed either with a mechanical spray mechanism or by
hand. When washing by hand, the cleaning solution should be made up in a
bucket and carried in to the vat or tank. By using a long handled brush, all
surfaces can be scrubbed thoroughly. Particular attention must be paid to cleaning
of sight glasses, vents pipe opening, manhole. Gasket and agitator. The final
step is through rinsing with hot water, followed by air drying with all valves, lids,
vents and manhole open for maximum aeration. The sterilization may be done
either by live steam or by using 200 ppm chlorine solution.
The introduction of mechanical methods put an end to the inadequacies
or the manual cleaning method. There are high pressure jetting methods, where
a small amount is sprayed on the walls under high pressure and low pressure
162 Dairying

jetting methods in which large amounts of liquid coming from jet nozzles or
rotating turbine nozzles are jetted over the tank walls. For spraying tanks and
vessels, spray cleaning devices of varius types are used

Spray head
Rotating
turbine jet

In sta ll ed
spray head

Ring Spray

Rota ti n g
arm spray

Fig 9.8 Spray Cleaning devices

The CIP method of cleaning of tanks using above mechanical devices as follows.
(a) Pre rinse with tap water.
(b) Drain for 3 – 5 minutes.
(c) Hot detergent wash with sodium hydroxide solution (sodium
hydroxide 90 parts, sodium thiosulphate 9 parts and washing agent 1 part.) of
0.35 – 0.5 % strength at 71 oC for 15 – 20 minutes. Once or twice a week, an
acid – alkali program may be used. The acid may be phosphoric or nitric. This
should be followed by alkali as above.
(a) Drain for 3-5 minutes
(b) Post rinse with hot water at 65 - 75 oC
(c) Drain for 3 -5 minutes
(d) Sanitize with hot water at 90 oC for 2 - 3 minutes or chlorine solution
at 15 – 20 oC containing 150-200 ppm available chlorine for a contact time of 1
-2 minutes.
(e) Drain for 1 – 2 minutes.
(f) Hot air blow for 1-2 minutes.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 163

Glass Enameled Milk Vats : These are cleaned like other equipment’s
except for alkali preparations, which should not be used. Alkali attacks the glass
coating, etches the enamel and injures it.
Batch Pasteurizer : The equipment is pre rinsed using a brush and
bucketful of solution of general purpose detergent at 43 oC, it is scrubbed. Finally
it is rinsed with hot water. The agitators should be cleaned separately.
Thermometer holes in the lid, and the air space heaters, it present, should not be
forgotten. These should be scrubbed thoroughly. The entire outside surface of
the pasteurizer and the lid should be washed each time the interior is cleaned.
Batch pasteurizers and also uninsulated tanks and vats equipped with covers
may be sterilized with steam.
A short hose or pipe may extend from the steam line into the vat through
the thermometer opening or manhole. The outlet valve should be left open to
permit the condensed steam to drain from the vat. After the steam has been
applied for 20 – 30 minutes, the steam valve should be closed and cover of the
vat raised to permit the steam to escape. After the steam has escaped and hot
surface dried, the cover should be replaced to prevent contamination. Large
insulated vats and tanks are best sterilized with a spray of chlorine solution.
Surface Milk Coolers : The pre rinse is immediately followed with
cleaning solution and while the solution is flowing over the cooler surface, all the
parts of the cooler are brushed vigorously. Particular attention is paid to the
joints on the under side and ends of each section. The washing by cleaning
solution is followed by the final rinse during which the brush should not be used.
Surface coolers may be sterilized before re-using by allowing hot water at 88 oC
to flow over the surface for 10 – 15 minutes. When a milk cooler is enclosed
with metal covers, steam from a hose may be passed in to the cooler compartment
for 15 – 20 minutes and the tubes heated to a sterilizing temperature. Alternatively
200 ppm chlorine solution may be circulated for 10 minutes. After sterilization,
the covers should be opened to permit the steam to escape and the tubes to dry.
Milk Pumps : After the flow of milk has ceased, head of pump is
removed and it is cleaned thoroughly with water at 50 oC. Impellers are removed
and placed in the cleaning solution. Intake and discharge parts of pumps and
chamber are washed thoroughly with a pipe brush. The impeller is brushed,
placed in a wire basket, rinsed with hot water, and permitted to dry. The pump
and pipelines after reassembly may then be sterilized by pumping hot water (88
o
C) through them. Hot water or chemical sterilization is preferable for milk
pump as steam will not easily pass through certain types of pumps.
Milk Pipes : These are rinsed free of milk by passing warm water
through them. They are then taken apart and soaked in general purpose detergent
164 Dairying

solution for 20 minutes. They are then brushed in a special in trough used for
washing sanitary pipes and fittings. Next they are rinsed thoroughly with hot
water and permitted to drain and dry. Sterilization is accomplished just before
next use by passing small flow of steam through the pipeline for 10 – 15 minutes
or by using a 200 ppm chlorine solution of hot water.
Separators and Clarifiers : Immediately after the day’s run, the
equipment is rinsed with 50 oC water until the discharge is clear. It is dismantled,
the bowl and disc removed and each piece rinsed with warm water before
placing it in the wash vat. The wash vat should contain an alkaline cleaning
solution and each disc should be washed separately. All discs and other parts
should then be thoroughly rinsed with hot water and racked to drain and dry.
Next day, when the machine has been reassembled, it is sanitized with hot water
or chlorine solution of 200 ppm strength.
Homogenizers : After each days use, cold water is pumped through
the machine without pressure until water at the discharge is clear. Then a 0.5%
solution of detergent at 50oC- 60 oC is circulated. Thereafter all parts coming in
contact with the milk are dismantled and by using a brush, internal parts of the
block and al removable parts are washed in the washing powder solution.
Removable parts are placed on draining rack and rinsed thoroughly with hot
water at 77 oC. Block inside is rinsed in the same way.
Piston packing is washed as in the second step, rinsed with hot water
and placed in glass jar containing chlorine solution 200 ppm. With the compressed
filtered air, the inside of block and parts, that have been removed to drain rack
are dried. Just before use, the machine is assembled and 200 ppm chlorine
solution is circulated for 5 mts. Rinse water is pumped for 3 mts. To take care
of water left in the machine and to prevent the bottling of unhomogenized milk,
enough of the first milk is set aside through the machine, equal to 2% of the rated
hourly capacity of the machine.
Evaporator : The CIP system consists of
(a) Warm water rinse (45 oC)
(b) After the water has run clear, cleaning with a 1 – 4% alkaline solution
(80 oC) by spraying and circulation for 45 – 60 m.
(c) Discharge of caustic solution and a worm water rinse.
(d) Circulation of a 0.3 – 0.5% acid solution (70oC) for 20 – 3- minutes
to remove mineral deposits.
(e) Discharge of the solution and a worm water rinse (60oC)
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 165

(f) Cleaning of external surfaces with a cleaning solution if necessary

with brushing. Final rinsing with slightly chlorinated water.
(g) Immediately before use, another sterilization is necessary. A rinse
with 75 ppm available chlorine for 5 minute is good. Because of danger of
corrosion, this solution must immediately rinsed off again.
Dryers : The CIP system followed for evaporator is followed, except
that before start up, of the dryer must be well dried. For sterilization, hot air to
the walls of dryer for 10 minutes at90oC.
9.5 Dairy Effluents – Treatment Measures.
Dairy wastes (effluents) may have its origin from disposal of spoiled
products or by products, Spillage, overflow, leakage, rinsing from washing of
equipment etc. The volume of effluent from a dairy processing plant is related to
the particular product being produced, normally processing of one litre of milk
yield 8 – 10 litres of waste water depending upon types of products
manufactured, quality of water utilized, type of process in operations and control
of management. The dairy wastes are particular as compared to other industrial
wastes, because of relative high concentrated efficient, danger of shock, load of
waste water, particularly whey and butter washings water in to drains.
The strength of dairy waste is expressed in different terms
1. B.O.D. : Biological or bio chemical oxygen demand is the quantity
of oxygen in mg consumed by biological agents in a sample of waste incubated
over a period of five days at 20oC. Expressed as mg BOD per litre or ppm
BOD. The value indicates the organic matter content in the waste.
2. C.O.D : Chemical oxygen demand is the quantity of oxygen in mg
O2 or ppm which is necessary for the chemical oxidation of organic substances
in the presence of potassium dichromate and silver sulphate as catalysts. It
includes oxygen utilized for oxidation of compounds that is not utilized by micro
organisms.
3. T.O.C : Total Organic Carbon content i.e. amount of organic carbon
content per litre of water expressed as mg per litre.
The strength of dairy waste i.e. B.O.D varies from 300 – 2000 mg / litre
depending upon type of product made and quantity of milk processed.
The B.O.D of some of dairy products are
Milk : 1, 10,000 mg B.O.D
Skim Milk : 72,000 mg B.O.D
166 Dairying

Whey : 44,000 mg B.O.D

As per the Bureau of Indian Standards (B.I.S), for disposal of industrial
effluents as application of dairy wastes are

Ch ara c- Tolerance into Limits for I n d u s t r i a l Effluents into

teristics inland surface into public onland irriga- m a r i n e
water sewer tion coastal area
1. B.OD. 30 350 100 100
mg / lit
max.
2. C.O.D 250 -- -
250
mg / lit max
3. PH 5.5 to 0.90 5.5 to 0.90 5.5 - 9.0 5.5 to 9.0
valves.
4. Dis- 2100 2100 2100 -
solved sol-
ids. (inor-
ganic / mg
5. Sus- 100 600 200 100
pended
solids.
6. Tem- 45
40 45 -
perature
0
C max

Effluent Treatment Methods

The selection of waste treatment method for a specific application is
done by considering the above effluent standards, location of sites, waste water
characteristics, waste water variation, and cost of treatment etc. The methods
are classified as mechanical methods, chemical methods and biological methods.
Mechanical and chemical methods are used to separate solid wastes from waste
water which are further disposed.
Mechanical Methods : These are 1. Screening using siever. 2.
Filtration- using filter. 3. Sedimentation: Allowing for gravity sedimentation. 4.
Flotation: Aided by gas bubbles to which the particles of impurities becomes
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 167

attached and removed. 5. Reverse osmosis would also remove dissolved

constituents, but it is not suitable in large scale.
Chemical Methods : Consists of precipitation of dissolved substances
by means of suitable precipitating agents such as iron sulphate, iron chloride,
alumunium sulphate. A sedimentable coagulum is formed which also contains
suspended solids. The formed coagulum may be removed by using any
mechanical methods.
Biological Methods : These methods are most suitable methods.
Dissolved or colloidally suspended organic compounds are decomposed by
oxidation with the aid of aerobic or anaerobic micro organisms. Dairy wastes
are normally treated by
i. Conventional Methods : Eg: Activated Sludge method, trickling
filters
ii. Low cost treatment Methods : Eg : Aerated Lagoons Stabilization
pond, oxidation Ditch.
iii. Anaerobic Methods : Eg : Septic Tank method.
Activated Sludge Method : This is one of the most popular methods
used in the treatment of dairy waste water, this is given in the fig. 9.9.

Fig 9.9 Activated Slude Method

The degree of purification is high in this method. The first step is to

allow sedimentable impurities to sediment in a settling tank. Then the waste
water is passed in to aeration tank where actual biological purification takes
place. The influent waste water and recycled sludge enter the tank at the head
and are aerated for period of about 6 – 8 hours. The air is incorporated by
pressure jet or surface aerators and amount of air incorporated should be sufficient
to raise the oxygen content in aeration tank at least 1- 4 mg/ litre. The optimum
168 Dairying

temperature to aerobic digestion is 30oC. The water is also agitated to prevent

the flocculated material from settling. The sludge contains desirable micro
organisms which decompose organic matter. Then the waste water and sludge
mixer passes in to sedimentation tank where the flocculated material settles within
2 -4 hours forming a layer of sludge at the bottom.
The sludge is returned at a rate of approximately 25 – 50 % of influent
flow rate. This process provides aerobic biological treatment using suspended
growth of bacterial floc. High concentration of organisms, maintained by sludge
return reduces the size of reactor. The sludge should not remain for too long
time (more than 6) as it can start to decompose by purification and gases evolved
will float to the surface. Part of organic matter, then increasing the sludge amount.
The solids / sediments obtained in primary settling tank and excess sludge from
final settling tank are decomposed by digestion method.
The sludge floc is generally produced by the growth of zoogleal bacteria
ad other orgaism in the presence of oxygen.
Advantages
1. Occupies least space for comparable loading rates.
2. BOD and suspended solids removal is good to excellent
3. Operator can exercise control over the process
4. No odour or fly problems.
5. Wasted sludge is fairly stable.
Disadvantages
1. High capital cost
2. High operating cost
3. Requires skilled operator
Trickling Filters (BIO FILTERS)
Trickling filters or percolating filter contains broken pieces of plastic or
any other material which serve as support for the growth of bacteria, yeast,
fungi, protozoa and nematodes. The depth of rock varies with a particular
design but ranges from 0.9 to 2.5 meters. The media grows in to slimy skin on
the filtering medium Aerobic heterotrophic bacteria play role in form of jelly like
matrix which enmeshes micro organisms and suspected particles forming a strong
floc. The important species is zoolea ramigera which produce extra cellular
mucopoly sacharide responsible for floc formation.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 169

Liquid waste water is distributed over the top of the bed by rotary
distributor. A stream of air is often passed through the filter medium. By aeration
the cells are destroyed by their own metabolism (endogenous oxidation) thus
greatly reducing sludge volume. Sloughing of sludge is a natural process and
must occur in order to maintain an active biological film on the media. Trickling
filters are followed by clarification in order to intercept and remove sloughed
solids from the filter.
Single passage of efficient through the filter will not give satisfactory
results. The effluent may be passed several times through the same filter.

Fig 9.10 Schematic diagram of a percolating filter

Advantages
1. Initial cost is less than activated sludge method.
2. BOD and suspected solid removal efficiency good.
3. Greater space requirements than activated sludge method but less
than lagoon system.
4. Low to moderate maintenance cost.
5. Can be arranged in series or with other biological oxidation system.
Disadvantages
1. Prohibitive cost for smaller industries.
2. No operator control on the process.
3. Start up time is 3 – 4 weeks to build up functional system.
170 Dairying

Aerated Lagoons : This is extension of activated sludge process. It is

a single unit system in which there is no sludge return. It consists of simple
earthen basin 2.5 to 3.5 meter deep in which mechanical surface aerators are
installed on floats or on a permanent base to aerate the liquid contents.
In this method single tank acts as biological oxidation and sedimentation
tanks. Other principle and operation is just like activated sludge process. This
process uses low concentration of activated sludge solids in the range of 50 –
500 mg / litre. This is developed by Central Pubic Health Engineering Research
Institute, Nagpur.
Oxidation Ditch
Oxidation ditch is an oval shaped closed circuit channel of simple
construction.
Raw waste enters into the channel, where mechanical rotors vigorously
aerate the mixer liquor containing a high concentration of activated sludge solids
in the channel and keep the mixed liquor in circulation. The channel depth is 1 –
1.5 m and can be constructed in simple masonry on earth work as long as water
tightness is ensured. Oxidation ditch is essentially an extended aeration system,
in which low organic loading high biological solids concentration in the range of
4000 mg / litre and extended period of aeration is normally used. This system
requires sludge return involving separation of solids from the effluent and returning
the same in to the system. National Environment Engineering Research Institute
(NEERI), Nagpur has developed this system.
Advantages
1. Effluent removal of BOD and suspected solids.
2. No odour and fly problem.
3. Lower operating cost.
Disadvantages
1. Higher initial cost
2. Energy is required for aerators, pumps etc.
3. Problem in winter season.
Rotating Biological Contractors (RBC)
This process is a modification of the trickling filter process, in which
fixed biological film is rotated through the waste water. The apparatus consists
of a number of large diameter (12 ft) light weight plastic discs mounted on a
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 171

horizontal shaft to form rotating biological contractors or discs. The discs are
about half immersed and slowly rotates as waste passes through a horizontal
pen tank. The tank usually has a semi circular bottom to fit the centres of the
disc. Microorganisms attach to the surface of the discs and grow by assimilating
nutrients from the waste water.
The discs are rotated at 2 r.p.m, while submerged to about 40 % of
their area. Organic matter is absorbed by the biomass on the discs and is
subsequently oxidized in the presence of oxygen. A positive means of excess
film sloughing is provided by the shearing action caused by the rotation of discs.
A clarification facility is needed to remove the sloughed biological solids from
the discs.
Composition of Different Treatment Methods.

Type Efflu- Relia Cost L a n d R e s Eco n

ent bility R e - p o nimic
Oper-
quired n s e l i f e
Bod A m - ating
m o - Phos Capital t o (year)
cost
nia shock

Activated +++ +++ + +++ H H L +++ 15

Sludge
Oxidation +++ +++ + +++ H H A +++ 15
Ditch
Aerated +++ +++ + ++ A A H +++ 20
Lagoon
Trickling ++ ++ 0 ++ H H A ++ 15
filter
Biological +++ +++ + +++ H L L ++ 15
Disc

Excellent +++ H – High

Good ++ A – Average
Fair + L – Low
Poor o L – Low
172 Dairying

Summary
The desirable properties of detergents and sanitizers and various
detergents and sanitizers agents were discussed. The importance of quality of
water for cleaning operations was explained and remedies discussed to remove
hardness from water. Hand, machine and CIP system of cleaning and sterilization
methods explained in detail. Cleaning and sanitization of various equipment like
cans, HTST pasteurizers, tanks Coolers, Pumps, Pipelines, homogenizer,
evaporator, were discussed. The various factors affecting methods of dairy waste
disposal were described in detail to control the pollution.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define detergents and sanitizers.
2. What are sequestering agents ?
3. Give some examples for acid detergents.
4. Classify different types of surfactants.
5. What is CIP system ?
6. What are the inhibitors used in cleaning solution for aluminium and
tinned surface vessels ?
7. How rotary can washer differs from straight - through can washer.
8. Define B.OD.
9. Define C.O.D.
10. What are different mechanical methods used for disposal of dairy
effluents ?
11. Give examples for low cost dairy effluent treatment methods.
12. What do you mean by RBCS ?
13. Define TOC.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Mention the desirable characteristics of a good detergent and
sanitizers.
2. Briefly write about various alkali detergents.
3. Write in detail about chemical sanitizers.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 173

4. Briefly write about treatment of water for preparing cleaning solutions

with appropriate reactions.
5. How do you select the detergents and sanitizers for different surface
materials.
6. Briefly write about hand washing methods.
7. Explain CIP method of cleaning and sanitization.
8. Give the steps of hand washing of cans.
9. Describe in detail about various types of can washers.
10. Write the CIP procedure for HTST pasteurizer.
11. What are the different factors affecting efficiency of cleaning and
sanitization ?
12. Briefly write about Trickling filter.
13. Explain activated sludge method of waste disposal.
14. Discuss in detail septic tank method.
174 Dairying

UNIT 10
Steam and Refrigeration
Structure
10.1 Properties of steam
10.2 Steam Boilers – Types of Water tube and Fire tube
10.3 Steam Requirements in Dairy
10.4 Direct and Indirect Refrigeration Systems
10.5 Vapour Compression Cycle, Compressor types and construction
details
10.6 Bulk Coolers – Plate Chillers – Shell and Tube Chillers
10.7 Common Problems in Refrigeration System and Remedies
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
• Understand about Steam and Refrigeration.
• Steam boilers and their different types of water tube and fire tube.
• Steam requirements in Dairy
• Understand direct and Indirect refrigeration
• Different types of Chillers in Steam.
• Problems and Remedies in Refrigeration.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 175

10.1 Properties of Steam

Steam is vapourized water, which is formed from water by adding
sufficient heat or reduced by the pressure. When water is heated, vaporization
occurs because the vapour pressure of the liquid exceeds the vapour pressure
of the surrounding atmosphere.
Steam is colourless, however, when dispersed with liquid drops, it is
whitish in colour. At low pressure steam is lighter than air, thus it tends the rise
in air and condenses on ceilings. If 1 kg of water at 0oC is heated to 100 oC,
approximately 100 kcal the heat added is known as sensible heat. When heat is
added to ice, then melting starts, and when the solid has been completely
transformed into liquid there will be rise in temperature. When the liquid is
transformed into liquid there will be rise in temperature. When the liquid is
transformed into vapour, it absorbs 539 k cal per kg of heat without change in
temperature.
Sensible heat is the quantity of heat (h) in kcal required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water from 0 oC to the saturation temperature at which
water begins to boil at a given pressure. Sensible heat of water may be found
approximately by multiplying its specific heat by the temperature rise.
The latent heat of vapourization is defined as the quantity of heat in k
cal, required to convert 1 kg of water at saturation temperature for given pressure
to 1 kg of dry saturated steam, at the pressure. It decreases as the pressure
increases and it becomes zero when the critical pressure is reached.
The total heat steam Hs is the sum of sensible heat and latent heat an it
increase with pressure.
Hs = h + L
Hw= h + x L
Where Hw is the total heat of wet steam and L is the latent heat.
Forms of Steam
(a) Saturated Steam : It is the vapour at the temperature corresponding
to the boiling point of the liquid at the imposed pressure. For each liquid, a
certain definite boiling point exists for each pressure, when heat is applied to
saturated vapour and to the liquid with which it is in contact, more liquid
evaporates, but the temperature remains constant. Similarly if heat is removed,
more of the vapour condenses but the temperature will remain constant.
(b) Dry saturated and wet steam : If saturated steam does not contain
any water it is known as dry saturated steam. It contains just sufficient heat
176 Dairying

energy to maintain all of the water in gaseous state. If saturated steam contains
liquid particles, it is known as wet steam. Wet steam does not contain sufficient
heat to maintain all water in gaseous state. If some of the heat energy is absorbed
from the dry saturated steam, the steam becomes wet.
(c) Supersaturated Steam : If the temperature of the steam is greater
than that of boiling point corresponding to the pressure of steam generation, the
steam is known as super heated steam. If super heated steam is brought in
contact with water, it will give up parts of its heat to the water.
Dryness Fraction : Saturated steam consists of dry saturated steam
and water particles in suspension. The dryness fraction of steam in the ratio of
the weight of dry steam in a certain quantity of steam to the weight of wet steam.
It is denoted by ‘x’.
X = W / WS
Where W is the weight of dry steam in a certain quantity of wet steam WS.
Thermal Properties of steam
The specific heat of the dry saturated steam increase with an increase in
pressure. At pressure below 7 kg / cm2 ga there is an increase in specific heat
with an increase in temperature, while above this pressure, there is a decrease in
specific heat with an increase in temperature. The specific heat of steam at
normal atmospheric pressure is 0.4 k cal per kg (c).
The latent heat decreases with an increase in temperature of evaporation,
the total heat, however, increases with an increase in temperature of evaporation
and with an increase in degree of super heat. The viscosity of steam increase
with an increase in pressure and with an increase in temperature of super heated
steam (at constant pressure). The heat content of steam is given in steam tables;
typical values for the heat content of dry saturated steam under conditions found
in dairy practice are given in the table.

Pressure kg / Saturation Sensible heat Latent To t a l

cm2 abs temp 0C (H) kcal/kg heat (L) heat (H)
1.0 99.12 99.15 539.5 638.7
1.033 100.00 100.00 539.0 639.0
2.0 119.6 119.85 525.9 645.8
3.0 132.84 133.3 516.7 650.0
4.0 142.89 143.5 509.6 653.1
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 177

Pressure kg / Saturation Sensible heat Latent To t a l

cm2 abs temp 0C (H) kcal/kg heat (L) heat (H)
5.0 151.11 152.1 503.7 655.8
6.0 158.08 159.3 498.5 657.8
7.0 164.17 165.6 493.8 659.4
8.0 169.61 171.3 489.5 660.8
10.0 179.04 181.2 481.8 663.0

10.2 Steam Boilers – Types of Water tube and Fire tube

A steam boiler is closed vessel in which steam or other vapour is
generated by direct application of heat resulting from the combustion of fuel or
by use of electricity or nuclear energy. The function of a steam boiler is to transfer
the heat produced by burning of fuel of water ad thus to produce steam. The
boiler output is denoted by boiler horse power (bhp) which is defined as the
evaporation into dry saturated steam of 15.64 of water per hour at a temperature
of 100 oC.
1 BHP = 8.43.56 kcal / hour
Classification of Boilers
(a) Fire Tube and Water tube : On the basis of heat transfer, the
boilers are classified as fire tube and water tube. A tube boiler is one in which
the product of combustion of fuel gases, pass on inside the tubes. A combination
of water and fire tube is one in which part of tube arrangement is of the fire tube
type and part of water tube type.
In addition to water and gas passages the principle difference between
the water tube and fire tube boilers are
1. The tubes in fire tube boilers are contained within the shell or drum
where as in water tube boilers they are located outside the shell or drum.
2. As the fire tube boiler become larger, the capacity becomes limited
because of the larger size shell required. The water tube boiler has a distinctive
178 Dairying

advantage, as tube arrangements can take many different forms to obtain more
heating surfaces.
3. The water tube units are capable of greater capacity and pressure,
which would be impossible in the fire tube unit. The largest modern steam
generators are of water tube design.
The fire tube boilers are of simple and rugged construction and of relatively
low first cost. The larger hot water capacity makes it possible to meet steam
and load changes quickly. High pressures and large diameter shell requires
thick plates. Hence there is a definite economical limit on pressure and capacity
that can be reached with the fire tube type.
Water tube units, having higher capacity larger heating surfaces are
exposed to the radiant heat of the fire they are not subjected to overheating and
can be constructed of heavier plate for higher pressures. Most parts of water
tube boiler are accessible for cleaning, repair and inspection. The general design
permits higher operating efficiencies, and the furnace designs are such that various
fuels can be used within making major alterations.
(b) Forced circulation and natural circulation : This classification is
based on natural or forced circulation.
(c) Externally fired or internally fired : Based on place of firing.
(d) Horizontally or Vertically : based on shape.
Water Tube Boiler
The water tube boiler has a steam drum at the top and a mud drum at
the bottom. Baffles are provided to deflect the hot gases back and forth between
the tubes a number of times to enable greater heat absorption by the boiler
tubes. They also permit designing for better temperature difference between
tubes and gases throughout the boiler. Baffles help to maintain gas velocity,
eliminate dead pockets, deposit fly ash and for proper removal and prevent high
draft losses.
The firing door is either inward opening type or with self locking door
latches which omit spring or friction contact. The reason is that the door should
not be blown upon the pressure inside the furnace in case of tube rupture or
furnace explosion. The main causes of tube failures in water tube boilers are
solid deposits, corrosion, low water condition and slagging of gas passages.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 179

Fig 10.1 Water tube boiler

Bent tubes are used in water tube boilers as they are more flexible than
straight tubes. Boilers can be made wide and low, where head room is limited
or narrow and high where floor space is at a premium. Bent tube boilers allow
more heating surface to be exposed to the radiant heat of the flame. They allow
for free expansion and contraction of the assembly. They enter the drum radially
to allow many ends of tubes to enter the drum and allow greater flexibility in
boiler tube arrangement than is possible in straight tube boilers. The steam
drum serves as convenient collecting points in the steam water circuit and for
separation of steam and water.
The above figure shows two typical curves, the upper curve indicates
the fuel gas temperature from furnace to the exit portion and the lower curve
shows feed water enter the boiler. The feed water temperature is slowly raised
by the hot gas to its final steam, temperature. The various tubes provide the
necessary heat transfer to accomplish just this.
The water tube boiler is safer, largely because most of the water at the
hottest art of the furnace is in small tube, thus if a tube ruptures; only a
comparatively small volume of water is instantly released to flash into the steam.
All parts are more assessable for cleaning inspection and repairs. Large boilers
can carry much greater loads and respond more readily to sudden changes and
fluctuations in demand. The drum in water tube boilers is not exposed to radiant
heat of the fire. The capacity and pressure can be increased which is impossible
with the fire tube boilers. For the same diameter and thickness of tube a water
tube boiler has more heating surface than a fire tube type.
180 Dairying

10.3 Steam Requirements in Dairy.

Considerable quantity of steam is required for processing, cleaning and
sterilization in dairy. A plant using batch pasteurizer requires 0.28 to 0.35 kg of
steam per kg milk processed. HTST pasteurizer using regenerator requires about
0.2 to 0.3 kg of steam per litre of milk Approximate steam requirements for
different processing operation.
Process Steam KG / 1 litre of Milk
Reception 0.05
Separation 0.05
Pasteurization (HTST) 0.30
Bottle Washing / 100 bottles 1.3
Sterilization Batch 0.4
UHT direct 0.12
Ghee making 0.036
Rotary can washer / can 0.51
Straight through /can 0.43
Ice cream 0.25
Cheese making 0.10
Evaporator Steam kg / kg of water evaporation
(a) Single effect 1.1
(b) Double effect 0.6
(c) Triple effect 0.46
(d) Roller drier 1.1
(e) Spray drier 2.1

The total plant requirements are approximately 30-40 kg of steam per

hour per 1000 litres of milk processed per day. Low pressure steam below (2.0
kg / cm2 abs) can be used where high temperature above 115 oC are not required.
Low pressure steam is less expensive because of reduced labour costs, lower
fuel costs, and less equipment maintanance. Low pressure steam requires large
pipe size.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 181

The first step in calculating the size of boiler needed for a given dairy
plant is to find the steam requirements of each equipment, second, determine
the steam needed for heating water. Third make a processing chart which will
show the time and duration of use of each equipment to use steam. Fourth, sum
up the total requirement for given period and maximum requirement at a time
determine the capacity of the boiler.
10.4 Direct and Indirect Refrigeration Systems
The refrigerants are classified as primary refrigerants and secondary
refrigerants. The primary refrigerants directly take part in the refrigeration system
and so it is known as direct refrigeration system. The working of direct
refrigeration system is well explained in chapter 8.3.
The secondary refrigerants are first cooled with the help of the primary
refrigerants and are further used for cooling purpose. So this is known as indirect
refrigeration system. Under many circumstances it is not desirable to carry the
heat from the heat generating source directly by refrigerant, hence it is carried
by using secondary refrigerant as water or brine. The heat carried by the
secondary refrigerant is given to the refrigerant in the evaporator and recirculated
continuously. The indirect refrigeration system, in which the evaporator cools a
circulating medium, has the following advantages over the direct cooling system.
1. The indirect system is easy to control and easy to handle compared
with primary refrigerant.
2. The pipe line used for carrying the heat by secondary refrigerant from
the source is considerably smaller compared with the pipeline used with direct
expansion refrigeration system and this is because, the specific volume of the
chilled water or brine is considerably low compared wit the specific volume of
the refrigerant vapour. Therefore the pipeline diameter required for secondary
refrigerant is considered lower than the refrigerant pipeline diameter.
3. The indirect system keeps coils and pipes containing a toxic refrigerant
away from the load placed. The secondary refrigerant also eliminates long
refrigerant also eliminates long refrigerant lines with their possibilities of leakage
and their penalizing pressure drips. The commonly used secondary refrigerants
are water, sodium chloride brine, calcium chloride brine and propylene glycol.
When the required temperature to be achieved is above the freezing point of
water, then water is universally used as secondary refrigerant.
182 Dairying

Brine : Brine is a solution containing the salt in dissolved condition in

water. When he temperature required to be maintained are below the freezing
point of water, then brine solutions are used.
The freezing temperature of the brine is lower than the freezing
temperature of water and it decreases with the increase in salt concentration. If,
the concentration is increased beyond a certain point, the freezing temperature
of brine increases instead of decreasing. The solution at this concentration is
known as “Eutectic Solution” and the lowest freezing temperature is achieved at
Eutectic point. The Eutectic temperature of calcium chloride brine is -55 oC at
corresponding salt concentration of 30 % by weight.
The Eutectic temperature of sodium chloride brine is - 21 oC at
corresponding salt concentration of 23 % by weight.
Calcium chloride brine is more preferable over sodium chloride brine,
when required temperature is below -20 oC. It is commonly used for product
freezing, cooling and ice making plants. The major disadvantage of this brine is
dehydration effect on food with which it may come in contact. The brine solution
should not come in contact with the refrigerated foods. At concentration of 5%
and 10 % the crystallization starts at -2.4 oC and – 5.4 oC respectively.
Sodium chloride brine is used where the use of calcium chloride brine is
objectionable. This brine is commonly used for freezing the meat and fish with
the help of brine spray. At 5% and 10 % concentration the crystallization starts
at -2.8 oC and -6.44 respectively.
Brines to be suitable as a simple refrigeration carrying medium should.
(a) Remain liquid under all temperatures to which they are subjected.
(b) Be essentially non corrosive when in contact with metals.
(c) Have a sufficiently high specific heat.
(d) Undergo no changes when in contact with refrigerants.
10.5 Vapour Compression Cycle, Compressor types and
construction details
The vapour refrigeration system now – a- days are universally used for
all purpose of refrigeration. The principle advantages are.
• Smaller size unit for given capacity of refrigeration.
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 183

• Less running costs.

The major disadvantages, is that it requires greater safety and prevention
of leaks.
In this system, the vapour alternately under goes a change of phase
from vapour to liquid and liquid to vapour during completion of cycle. The
latent heat of vaporization is utilized for carrying heat from refrigerator.
At atmospheric pressure, liquid ammonia evaporates at – 33.3 oC
(saturation temperature corresponding to 1.033 kg/ cm2 abs) and under these
conditions 1 kg liquid is changing to vapour absorbs 327.4 k cal (latent heat of
evaporation). Thus the simplest form of vapour refrigeration system consists of
an open vessel containing a liquid refrigerant such as ammonia. The ammonia
evaporates at temperatures below those surrounding the container and in doing
so absorbs heat. Such systems are not used as they are uneconomical.
With properly auxiliary equipment, however, the refrigerant can be
recovered and reused in a cycle process; moreover, the temperature of
evaporation of the refrigerant can be controlled by controlling the pressure.
Thus if the liquid ammonia is maintained at a pressure of 2.138 kg/ cm2 abs,
saturation or evaporation temperature is -18 oC, and the latent heat of
vapourization is 316 k cal per kg, if the absolute pressure is 4.20 kg /cm2, the
evaporating temperature is -1oC and the latent heat of vapourization is 302.67
kcal per kg.
The refrigerant changes from liquid to vapour or from vapour to liquid
may be controlled by controlling the pressure, of refrigerant. If the ambient
temperature surrounding the refrigerant and its container is above the saturation
temperature corresponding to the refrigerant pressure, than evaporation, and
consequently absorption of heat, takes place, if the refrigerant is already in the
vapour state and if the temperature is surrounding the refrigerant and its container
is below the saturation temperature corresponding to the refrigerant pressure,
condensation occurs.
A complete vapour compression refrigeration system requires an
evaporator to contain the boiling liquid refrigerant, a compressor to pump the
refrigerant vapour from low pressure to high pressure side of the system and to
control the pressure with in the evaporator; and a condenser for removing the
heat from the refrigerant gas, so that it may be returned to liquid from. In addition,
a receiver for storing the liquid refrigerant under high pressure and an expansion
184 Dairying

valve for controlling the rate of flow of liquid refrigerant between the high and
low pressure sides of the system are needed as shown in the figure.

Metering device
Evaporator

Reciever

Condenser

Fig 10.2 Vapour Compressor Ammonia refrigeration system

The high pressure (10.82 kg/ cm2 ga) liquid ammonia is held in the receiver.
The liquid passes to the entrance of the expansion valve. The temperature of
liquid ammonia is 30oC, the saturation temperature at 10.82 kg/ cm2 ga. The
liquid refrigerant is throttled through the expansion valve into the evaporator.
Here, low pressure of 1.33 kg / cm2 ga maintained by operation of the
compressor. The liquid ammonia is evaporated at a temperature of -15 oC
corresponding to the surrounding evaporator pressure. The refrigerant is no
longer in a stable state, since the objects surrounding the evaporator are at a
temperature higher than-15oC and thus supply the latent heat absorbed through
the coil walls.
The ammonia vapour from the low pressure side of the system is drawn
into the compressor and discharged into the high-pressure side by the compressor.
The high-pressure ammonia gas discharged into the condenser. Water passing
over the condenser coils removes first the heat of super heat and then condenses
the vapour by removing the latent heat. The heat removed by the condenser is
equal to that absorbed in the evaporator plus the equivalent or energy supplied
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 185

to the vapour through the compressor. All the processes occur simultaneously,
only the action of the reciprocating compressor being intermittent in operation.
10.6 Bulk Coolers – Plate Chillers – Shell and Tube Chillers.
Bulk Milk Coolers
There are many makes and manufacturers of the bulk milk coolers. The
construction of one design is shown in the figure 8.3.

Fig 10.3 Bulk Milk Cooler

The unit consists of milk measuring gauge, agitator, dial thermometer

and refrigeration channels. Milk is stored in the tank and the cooling is done
either by circulating chilled water or refrigerant through the coils surrounding the
tank. When cooling starts the agitator is rotated for efficient heat transfer. Chilled
water is circulated by means of a pump.
The Ice bank system requires a compressor working 80 - 90% of the
time. With the direct expansion, larger compressor is needed, but works for
only 25 – 30% of the time. Milk comes into the tank at 30 - 37oC and cools to
2 oC in 1.5 to 2 hours. The maximum temperature of blend(when the warm milk
is added into the tank) should be about 10 oC. This type of cooler is expensive
to install and its full advantages cannot be utilized unless milk is collected every
other day. This type of cooler is used in collecting centres.
Plate Chillers
A popular heat exchanges for fluid of low viscosity such as milk is the
plate heat exchanger, where heating or cooling fluids flow through alternate
tortuous passages between vertical plates as illustrated in figure.
186 Dairying

Fig 10.4 Plate Heat Exchanger

The advantages are

• High efficient
• Occupy less space
• Compact and simple
• Easily cleaned
• Low in cost
• Versatile, sanitary
• Easily inspected
The places are supported in a press between a terminal block in each
heating and cooling section. The heat transfer takes place through stainless steel
plates. The plates are stamped from 18: 8 stainless steel sheet of 20 gauge
thicknesses and are found in various shapes, sizes and designs. An approximate
of 3 mm space is maintained between the plates by a non- absorbent rubber
gasket or seal, which is valcanized to the stainless steel. Gaskets along the
edges of the plates and around the ports separate the various flow streams.
The plates are arranged to form streams and passes with each stream
alternating with a passage carrying the heating or cooling medium. Streams may
be parallel or in series, and the heat exchange medium may flow counter or
parallel to the product flow, as desired. The plates are numbered and the total
number depends upon the capacity and the amount of heat to be transferred.
The plates are tightened in to place with a jack or screw device on the frame
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 187

and are normally mounted vertically in banks. To save space, the recent trend is
to have the long edge of the plate in a vertical rather than in a horizontal position.
The plates are designed to provide uniform but not excessive turbulent
flow of products with a high heat transfer rate. Raised sections on the plate in
the form of knobs, diamonds and the channels help to provide the turbulent
action required. Greater capacity is secured by adding more plates. Normally
the operating pressure of plate heat exchanges will be 2 kg / cm2, the plate
thickness will vary from 1.25 to 3.00 mm and the spacing between plates ranges
from 1.25 to 7.75 mm. The channeled corrugated or dimpled surface provide
turbulent flow for higher heat transfer rate and adds strength to the plates
permitting the use of thin material.
Approximately 2.5 to 4 times the quantity of the product is circulated
for cooling a product from 27 oC to 4 oC using a coolant at 1 oC.
For proper operation of the plates it should.
1. Be sealed tightly, so there is no dripping.
2. Be designed so that all the plates are utilized for heat transfer.
3. Allow product to be drained from the heat exchange plates without
opening the plates.
4. Provide venting so that air is eliminated during start up and operation.
Shell and Tube Chillers
When the required heat transfer surface is large, the recommended type
of exchanger is the shell and tube type. In this type of cooler, large heat transfer
surface can be achieved economically and practically be placing tubes in a bundle;
the ends of the tubes are mounted in a tube street. This is very commonly
accomplished by expanding the end of the tube into a close fitting hole in the
tube sheet by a process called rolling. The resultant tube bundle is then enclosed
by a cylindrical casing (the shell), through which the second fluid flows around.
The form of the shell and tube exchanges is just shown in shell and tube
condenser. The fluid flowing through the tubes enters a header or channel where
it is distributed through the tubes in parallel flow and leaves the unit through
another header. Either hot or cold fluid may flow in the shell of the exchanger
surrounding the tubes.
Parallel flow through all tubes at a low velocity gives a low heat transfer
coefficient and low pressure drop. Because of structural considerations it is
rarely possible to space the tubes in the tube sheet so closely that the area of the
188 Dairying

path outside the tubes will be as small as that inside the tubes, and therefore the
velocity of the fluid outside the tubes will be low in such constructions. To
remedy this condition, baffles are placed outside the tubes to strengthen the
path and decrease the cross section of the path of the second fluid.
The liquid passes back and forth at high velocity which gives good heat
transfer coefficients. The baffle consists of circular discs of sheet metal with one
side cut away. These sheets are perforated to receive the tubes. The baffles are
held in place by means of one or more fluid rods. Thus, the baffling increases
the velocity of the liquid outside the tubes and causes it to flow more or less at
right angles to the tubes. This causes an added turbulence which aids in reducing
the resistance to heat transfer outside the tubes, two film coefficients an be
improved, and therefore overall coefficient V is correspondingly increased.
Cleaning of both shell and tube bundles is difficult. At best to allow
provisions for easy removal of the tube bundle for cleaning and to allow for
thermal expansion, a floating- head exchange is used, but add to cost of
fabrication. Shell side cleaning is very difficult without removing the tube bundle.
The nature of the shell side fluid is also important and will influence the selection
of the type of exchanger. Since the shell side of the exchanger is difficult to
clean, the least corrosive and cleanest require the use of expensive alloys and to
the corrosive fluid should not be passed through the tubes to save the cost of an
expensive alloy shell.
A fluid that would normally be flowing in laminar (straight layer) flow in
the tubes should be placed in the shell to improve the heat transfer characteristics.
High – pressure fluids should flow through the tube to avoid expensive high –
pressure shells.
10.7 Common Problems in Refrigeration System and
Remedies
1. Causes for high head pressure.
(a) Insufficient condenser water
(b) Air in the system
(c) Scales on the condenser
(d) Too much refrigerant
2. Causes for low head pressure.
(a) Too much condenser water or too cold condenser water
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 189

(b) Not enough refrigerant

(c) Leaky compressor valves
3. Causes for Low suction Pressure
(a) Clogged strainer
(b) Not enough refrigerant
(c) oversized compressor
4. Causes for higher suction pressure.
(a) Too much load on the evaporator
(b) Oversized evaporator
(c) Faulty suction valve.
5. Causes for low refrigeration capacity
(a) Clogged strainer or expansion valve.
(b) Frosted cooling coil
(c) Too large evaporator pressure drop
6. Unit runs with poor refrigeration
(a) Wrong thermometer setting
(b) Moisture in the system which freezes intermittently
7. Compressor becomes too hot during operation
(a) Not enough refrigerant
(b) Air in the cycle
(c) Discharge valve not in working order.
(d) Condenser contaminated
(e) Safety valve in the compressor is not seal, sealed is damaged.
The remedies for the above problems is only to correct the causes.
Summary
The proprties of steam, forms of steam and thermal properties of steam
were detailed. The quality of water is important to avoid damage to the boiler
surfaces and water softening was fully explained. The various types of boilers
190 Dairying

were mentioned. The boiler accessories, controls and safety devices controls
were explained. The requirement of stem for various dairy operations were
discussed.
A steam boiler is closed vessel in which steam or other vapour is
generated by direct application of heat resulting from the combustion of fuel or
by use of electricity or nuclear energy. The function of a steam boiler is to transfer
the heat produced by burning of fuel of water ad thus to produce steam. The
boiler output is denoted by boiler horse power (bhp) which is defined as the
evaporation into dry saturated steam of 15.64 of water per hour at a temperature
of 100 oC.
The basic heat transfer and thermodynamics were discussed in detail.
The direct and indirect refigeration systems were explained. The vapour
compression cycle is explained with the help of sketch diagram. The types of
constructional details is condensor evaoprator compressor and expansion valves
were discuseed . Chillers and cooler wrere discussed. The various refigerants
and desirable properties of a good refrigrants were covered.The construction
of cold storages were discussed . The common problems in refrigeration systen
and remedies mentioned.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Defien Latent heat.

2. What is sensible heat ?

3. Define Saturated steam.

4. What is dryness fraction of steam ?

5. What is importance of quality of water in steam production ?

6. Mention different types of boilers.

7. What is the function of pressure gauge in boiler ?

8. What are the fucntions of blow off valve?

9. How much steam is required to evaporate 1 kg of water from different

types of evaporators.

10. How much steam is required to pasteurize 1 kg of milk by HTST,

UHT and sterilization methods?
Paper I - Quality Control of Milk and Processing 191

11. Defien Conduction.

12. Define Convection.

13. What is Direct refrigeration?

14. What is indirect refrigetation system?

15. What are the important parts in vapour compressed refrigeration

system ?

16. What are the functions of Evaporator ?

17. Give the function of Compressor .

18. Mention various types of Condensers.

19. Define refrigerant.

20. Give the B.P freezing point and refrigeration effect of ammonia.

21. What are the materials used for insulation of cold storeges ?

22. What are the causes for high heat pressure in refirgeration system .

Long Answer Type Questions

1. Write brefily about various types of steam.

2. Explain the thermal properties of steam.

3. How water is softened for using in a steam boiler?

4. Classify variouis types of boilers.

5. With the help of diagram explain water tube boiler.

6. Write breifly about boiler accessories .

7. Briefly write about conduction of steam of heat transfer.

8. Briefly write about conduction process of heat transfer.

9. With the help of sketch diagrm explain vapour compressed

refirgeration cycle.
192 Dairying

10. Briefly discuss about different types of compressors.

11. Write about various types of condensers .

12. Discuss in detail about types of evaporators.

13. Briefly write about expansion devices in refrigeration system.

14. Explain about the bulk milk cooler.

15. Explain charcteristics of ammonia and Freon.

16 What are the desirable characteristics if an ideal refigerant?

17. Write about constuctional designs of cold storage.

18. Breifly explain about insulation of cold storage .
19. Mention the problems and remedies in refigeration system.