Building A Powerful Reading Program: From Research to Practice

Over the last two years California has seen a decline in the reading test scores of its
students and increased concern among educators and parents, along with renewed
interest and accelerated research into the teaching of reading. In the Fall of 1995, the
State Superintendent of Public Instruction issued a report from the Reading Task
Force that called for balance in the way reading is taught. Since that report, many
schools and districts have been attempting to design and implement comprehensive
programs. This document lays out the current research base along with proven
practices for effective literacy instruction, particularly in the early grades. In addition,
recommendations are included for preservice and inservice education that will
guarantee a well-prepared teaching force to tackle the complexities of literacy and
teach all of our children to read well.
This report was prepared by Linda Diamond and Sheila Mandel of theConsortium on Reading Excellence, a division of the Institute for Policy Analysis
and Research, 2200 Powell Street, Suite 250A, Emeryville, CA 94608, (510) 450-2555.

In the Fall of 1995, California issued a report from the Reading Task Force appointed
by State Superintendent of Public Instruction Delaine Eastin. The Task Force Report
called for a return to balance in the way reading is taught. The Task Force also
emphasized the importance of a comprehensive approach to reading that includes both
direct skill instruction and the activities and strategies most often associated with
effective whole language classrooms.

Teaching reading has never been easy. While oral language seems to develop
naturally for most children, reading does not. In addition to the "unnaturalness" of
reading for many children, reading instruction has often been at the center of
philosophical and political debate. Teachers, administrators, and parents have watched
the pendulum swing one way and then another for so long that they are weary.
However, enough is now known about reading that the destructive and often
rancorous debates about how best to teach it can and should be put to rest.

The research presented in this document draws on the entire field but especially
highlights three respected practitioner/researchers: Hallie Yopp, Professor,
Department of Elementary and Bilingual Education, California State University
Fullerton; Marilyn Adams, Ph. D., Senior Scientist, Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc.;
and David Pearson, Professor at Michigan State University. All experts emphasize the
importance of a systematic and research-based instructional approach aimed at giving
students control as they learn to read. This systematic approach has two critical
elements:

 teaching the system of language
 linking instruction in a logical sequenced progression throughout the grades

Such an approach is not a return to dull, repetitive drills in classrooms devoid of

engaging literature; rather it is part of a broader language-rich program consistent with
the best practices of whole language and the California Language Arts Framework.
The implications, then, for teacher preparation arise out of understanding what is
required to teach reading: teacher education should include an "understanding of how
the English language system works, how students learn to read, and state-of-the-art
best practices in both skill development and whole language activities" (Professor
Gerald Treadway, California State University at San Diego).

This report builds on the Task Force Report by describing the clear research base for
changing the way reading is taught and by providing practical ways for schools to
implement such comprehensive reading programs. It covers three main topics:

 the latest and best research on how children learn to read

 the effective practices for educators based on the research
 the implications for professional development
 recommendations for the field

Because of the convergence of research and best practice, it is now abundantly clear
what it will take to enable children to become skilled readers. All successful early
reading programs must:

 base instruction on accurate diagnostic information

 develop print concepts
 develop knowledge of letter names and shapes
 convey the understanding that spoken words are composed of sounds
(phonemic awareness) and that letters correspond to these sounds
 provide systematic and explicit instruction in sound/ symbol relationships
(phonics)
 connect that instruction to practice in highly decodable text that contains the
sounds and symbols taught
 make use of rich and varied literature and read to children regularly

In addition, direct instruction and practice comprehending the meaning of text must
start early and build through the grades. Instruction in the upper grades must extend
and build upon the skills developed earlier. All of these skills must be taught as part of
a comprehensive approach that includes varied and abundant printed materials, active
learning, and the development of written and spoken language through highly
engaging activities.
Research Highlights
Hallie Kay Yopp, Ph.D, Professor, Dept. of Elementary and Bilingual Education,CSU Fullerton

Professor Yopp addresses the critical role of phonemic awareness in the early stages
of reading acquisition. She defines phonemic awareness as "the awareness that
phonemes exist as abstractable and manipulable components of spoken language. It is
the ability to reflect on speech and experiment (play) with its smallest components
(phonemes). Phonemic awareness is not phonics and not auditory discrimination."

The research outlines a progression of phonemic awareness development in pre-

school, kindergarten, and early first grade that includes the ability:

 to hear rhymes or alliteration

 to blend sounds to make a word (e.g., /a/-/t/ = at)
 to count phonemes in words ( how many sounds do you hear in "is"?)
 to identify the beginning, middle, and final sounds in words
 to substitute one phoneme for another (e.g., change the /h/ in "hot" to /p/)
 to delete phonemes from words (e.g., omit the /c/ from "cat")

Key Research Findings About Phonemic Awareness:

 Research has identified phonemic awareness as the most potent predictor

of success in learning to read. It is more highly related to reading than tests of
general intelligence, reading readiness, and listening comprehension
(Stanovich, 1986,1994).
 The lack of phonemic awareness is the most powerful determinant of the
likelihood of failure to learn to read because of its importance in learning the
English alphabetic system or how print represents spoken words. If children
cannot hear and manipulate the sounds in spoken words, they have an
extremely difficult time learning how to map those sounds to letters and letter
patterns - the essence of decoding. (Adams, 1990).
 It is the most important core and causal factor separating normal and
disabled readers (Adams, 1990).
 It is central in learning to read and spell (Ehri, 1984).

Phonemic awareness can be developed in children by providing them with rich

language experiences that encourage active exploration and manipulation of sounds.
These activities lead to significant gains in subsequent reading and spelling
performance. Most children will learn basic phonemic awareness from these activities.
Some children need more extensive assistance. Children should be diagnosed mid-
kindergarten to see if they are adequately progressing, and if not, given more intensive
phonemic awareness experiences. For all children, the more complex phonemic
awareness abilities are learned in the context of learning letter/sound correspondences.

A close relationship exists between a child's control over sounds and his reading
ability. Some quick test instruments that reliably assess development of phonemic
awareness in about five minutes include the Rosner, the Yopp-Singer tests, and the
Roswell-Chall.

In numerous studies, correlations between a kindergarten test of phonemic awareness

and performance in reading years later are extremely high. Thus, phonemic awareness
has been identified by researchers in replicated studies in many countries as a very
potent predictor of success in reading and spelling achievement. In fact, Professor
Yopp indicates that such high correlations remain even after controlling for
intelligence and socio-economic status.

Marilyn Adams, Ph.d., Senior Scientist, Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc.

Dr. Adams focuses on the need for children to develop automatic word

recognition and the system to achieve this. Dr. Adams supports Dr. Yopp's conclusion
that training in phonemic awareness is the foundation for learning to recognize words.
Such training is necessary because most children enter kindergarten without the
conscious awareness that words are made up of distinct sounds; rather they hear
words as complete units. Dr. Adams discusses the value of whole language in
encouraging flexible class organization, the use of quality literature, and the emphasis
on early writing. However, she faults the methodology of whole language for
operating under the mistaken assumption that skillful readers "skip, skim, and guess"
instead of reading what's on the page.

Extensive eye movement research replicated by brain scans shows that skillful readers
move their eyes from left to right, are "meticulously respectful of the words, and
irrepressibly translate print to speech as they read line by line." The goal of reading
instruction is to make the process of reading words effortless and automatic so that the
mind can be free to reflect on meaning. In order to do this children must have
"detailed knowledge of words, of how they are spelled, and of how they map onto
speech." Both whole language and some conventional phonics programs are faulted
for not teaching that speech can be broken down into sound (phonemic awareness)
and for not providing detailed knowledge of the language system.

Research shows that IQ, mental age, perceptual styles, handedness, race, or parents'
education are all weak predictors of reading success. 
The factors that contribute directly to reading ability are:

 letter knowledge
 linguistic awareness of words, syllables, and phonemes
 knowledge about print

After phonemic awareness, the best predictor of first grade reading is a child's ability
to recognize letters.

Dr. Adams emphasizes the importance of organized phonics instruction because it

allows children to use the system of language rather than to guess. Research indicates
that a direct and organized way of acquainting children with the major components of
our alphabetic system is more effective than an indirect approach which lacks
precision, order, and clarity. While some children will intuitively figure out the
system, many will learn faster and better by receiving organized and explicit
instruction. In addition to direct instruction, Dr. Adams states that students must be
able to practice what they have been taught in decodable text mostly comprised of
words that contain the sounds/symbols being taught. Dr. Adams' study of the research
has shown clearly that students who do not develop basic phonemic awareness, letter
recognition, and the ability to decode words quickly will have difficulty learning to
read. Many of these children end up identified as dyslexic and require special
education.

A major series of research studies directed by G. Reid Lyon of the National Institute
of Child, Health, and Human Development (NICHD) in Bethesda, Maryland and
others confirms this. These studies looked at the features that predispose children to
having reading disabilities. The major problem appears to be phonological processing.

Three areas of phonological processing difficulty predispose children to reading

disabilities:

 a lack of phonemic awareness

 difficulty with lexical access, or the ability to rapidly name pictures, colors, and
objects 
deficits in phonological memory, which is the ability to hold lexical units in
memory and then to operate on those units (e.g., repeat a string of numbers, or
follow a set of oral directions)

For these students, without systematic and explicit instruction in the code system,
reading becomes a probabilistic guessing game. The NICHD studies identify the best
strategies to use with these children.
The following three strategies need to be in place for all successful interventions:

 explicit work to help children understand the sound structure of the language at
the phonemic level
 intensive and explicit work in sound/symbol associations, ranging from thirty
minutes a day, five days a week to one hour at a time in a 1:1 tutorial
 explicit application to connected text with controlled vocabulary

Furthermore, the NICHD research indicates that interventions must begin early.
Research shows that if schools delay intervention until age seven for children
experiencing difficulty, 75 percent will continue having difficulties. Professor
Foorman of the University of Houston finds that dyslexic problems, if caught in first
or second grade, may be remedied 82 percent of the time. Those caught in third to
fifth grades may be improved 46 percent of the time, while those identified later may
only be treated successfully 10-15 percent of the time. Robert Slavin's effective
reading program, Success For All, which focuses on early intervention, has actually
reduced special education populations more than 25 percent in schools using his
approach.

In addition to organized phonics, Dr. Adams talks about the value of invented spelling
because it serves as an excellent diagnostic tool and it engages children in the sounds
of words. Professor Adams and others encourage this practice as a way for children to
begin to express their ideas unconstrained by their limited orthographic knowledge.
Adams (1990) points out that students who have ample experience with invented
spelling improve in both reading fluency and spelling. She goes on, however, to
indicate that direct instruction in word analysis and consonant blending is a necessary
adjunct to children's spelling development. Furthermore, Professor Adams and others
(Woloshyn and Pressley) urge an organized, spelling program starting around the
middle to late first grade as a productive and often neglected strategy to help children
learn to read.

Unlike the old phonics programs of the past which relied heavily on drill and rote
memorization, Professor Adams and others, notably Stanford University Education
Professor Robert Calfee, cite the importance of making decoding and spelling
instruction active. Calfee encourages "word work", 10-20 minutes of daily word play
during which small groups of students construct words. Such interactive lessons treat
students as "budding cryptographers" and problem solvers and integrate decoding
with spelling (Calfee and Moran, 1993).
Finally, Professor Adams indicates that in addition to the skills for decoding, children
need to explore the language of books, hear texts read aloud, and read a large number
of books.

David Pearson, Ph. D., Professor, Michigan State University

David Pearson focuses on the need to systematically develop students' comprehension

skills. His comments are directed at helping students with text meaning, which
requires teaching students to be good thinkers when they read by instructing them in
metacognitional strategies, providing opportunities for in-depth discussions,
encouraging extensive authentic reading and writing activities, and immersing them in
literature. Professor Pearson finds that in many classrooms, students spend little time
actually reading texts. Much of their instructional time is spent on workbook-type
assignments. The skill/time ratio is typically the highest for children of the lowest
reading ability (Allington, 1983). Furthermore, the research indicates that teachers are
spending inadequate amounts of time on direct comprehension instruction. A study
completed in 1979 (Durkin) concluded that teachers used either workbooks or
textbook questions to determine a student's understanding of content, but rarely taught
students "how to comprehend." In 1987, Dr. Pearson (and Dole) described the
importance of "explicit instruction" for teaching comprehension.

Such instruction involves four phases:

 teacher modeling and explanation

 guided practice during which teachers "guide" students to assume greater
responsibility for task completion
 independent practice accompanied by feedback
 application of the strategies in real reading situations

Dr. Pearson emphasizes that comprehension instruction must be embedded in texts

rather than taught in isolation through workbook pages.

Dr. Pearson describes what good comprehension instruction should include:

 ample time for text reading in order to have regular practice, acquire new
knowledge and concepts, and build vocabulary
 teacher-directed instruction in comprehension that includes both modeling
and guided practice of such strategies as summarizing, predicting ,and using
the structural elements of text
 opportunities for discussing what's read with the teacher and peers to
enable students to learn to defend opinions based on their readings, thus
deepening their understanding of the texts and their ability to use a whole range
of responses from literal to critical and evaluative

Recommendations for Schools and Classrooms

Given the extensive research into effective reading practices, schools will need all of
the components described below to have comprehensive, balanced programs.

Early Literacy Program

Beginning in pre-school and continuing through the primary grades, schools must
include language activities that develop listening and expressive skills. Such activities
include:

 listening to stories, poems and expository text

 telling and retelling stories and nursery rhymes
 singing and chanting (including the alphabet song)
 discussing word meanings, ideas, books and experiences
 making predictions about words and stories

These activities develop understanding of vocabulary, syntax, and story structure in

all children. They are especially important for English language learners and for
children who do not come from homes where literacy is nurtured. 

Schools must build activities which teach children concepts about print and foster a
love of reading. Children should be read to daily, using books with predictable
patterns, repetition, and rhyme. The classroom needs to be full of print that is varied
and meaningful to the children. This includes:

 labeling children's cubbies and work areas

 listing birthdays, chores, and daily activities
 teaching page arrangement, directionality and story structure through repeated
readings and repetitive texts (big books are especially useful for these
purposes)
 noting words that begin or end with the same sound, words with the same
pattern, and punctuation cues
 Sharing wonderful stories and informational literature
 creating and posting student-generated stories 

These activities support developing readers.

Starting in pre-school and continuing in kindergarten, phonemic awareness should be
developed in linguistically-rich environments where children are encouraged to play
with the sounds of language through developmentally appropriate activities. Phonemic
awareness may include:

a general awareness ( that some words are longer than others, for example)

 rhyming
 blending
 segmentation
 initial sound
 final sound
 medial sound

Activities that capitalize on children's natural curiosity and sense of playfulness would
include (Yopp):

 sharing books that play with language

 reading and reciting nursery rhymes
 singing songs that play with sounds
 engaging in games that encourage word play
 sharing riddles and rhymes that focus on songs
 activities that allow for phoneme substitution

All of the activities above start through oral development. Children "hear" the words
and see pictures of the objects (e.g. a milk bottle, a top, a man, a cup). These activities
should be dynamic, not done through drills and rote memorization. 

Schools should assess students' phonemic awareness development and should

intensify experiences for students who are not progressing.

 Begin assessment in mid-kindergarten

 Build phonemic awareness activities into instruction in letters and sounds

Research has shown that about twenty minutes a day, three to four times a week, will
result in dramatic improvement for students who need further development in
phonemic awareness. Both formal and informal assessments should be conducted that
will allow teachers to assess which phonemic insights need continued development in
order to help students progress in decoding. Again, the school needs to have in place
intensified intervention in phonemic awareness for any student in the primary grades
who has not developed this ability.
Starting in pre-school and kindergarten, schools should help students learn the names
and shapes of letters. Schools should make use of various fun strategies to familiarize
children with the names of the letters thus giving them a "peg to which their visual
perceptions can be attached" (Adams). Instruction in recognizing the shape that
matches the letter name takes "time and practice and takes careful visual attention"
(Adams). Research suggests important points to consider when teaching the alphabet:

 teach upper and lower case letters separately

 begin with upper case letters in pre-school (However, since the ability to read
lower case letters is more important for reading text, it may be wiser to
emphasize the lower case letters when working with first graders with little
letter knowledge.)
 incorporate printing into instruction in letters as a powerful means of
developing letter recognition
 use letter/keyword/picture displays when introducing letter-sound instruction
(Marilyn Adams)

By learning letter names through playful and engaging repetition, students may be
protected from confusing the sound of a letter with its name.

In late kindergarten and early first grade, schools must provide organized and
systematic phonics instruction that is based on diagnostic information. Many children
enter school with lots of prior print experience. For these children, the content of the
phonics lessons will consist more of review and clarification than of new information,
and sound/symbol lessons may proceed quite rapidly.

Other children, however, enter school with little prior print knowledge and will
require more instruction. For these children, sufficient and repeated practice spread
over time will be essential, along with frequent opportunities for evaluation.
Instruction should be based on the following critical points:

Students must learn that the symbols of the alphabet are worth learning and
discriminating because each stands for at least one of the sounds that occur in spoken
words (the alphabetic principle).

Phonics instruction must be explicit and should include instruction in blending letter
sounds. 
Explicit phonics provides children with the real relationships between letters and
sounds, or at least the approximations of them (Juel).

Teachers need to provide instruction in word attack skills, including sounding out,
syllabication, recognizing common letter patterns and generating alternative
pronunciations that will enable children to start to read beginning materials
independently.

Students need ample opportunities to practice in books they can read independently,
and teachers need to reinforce phonics instruction as they share literature with
students. 

Without the right skills, children will over-rely on context rather than visually store
words and letter patterns that will lead to automatic word recognition. Adams points
out that a solid base of letter/sound correspondence knowledge supported by, rather
than relying on, context will enable students to sound out and then identify any
written word that is in their listening vocabulary (Adams).

The best instruction provides a strong relationship between what the children learn in
phonics and the stories they read. There should be a "high proportion of the words in
the earliest selections children read that conform to the phonics that they have already
been taught" (Becoming a Nation of Readers). These selections also need enough
high-frequency words so that the texts sound natural.

Reading predictable texts to children may help them develop syntactic awareness,
semantic knowledge and vocabulary; however, predictable (when they are not
decodable using grapho-phonic cues) texts do not support children's growing
understanding of the alphabetic principles of English.

The best practice combines immersing children in rich language by reading to them
and providing access to a variety of texts, while explicitly and systematically teaching
them the sounds and their symbols and connecting these to decodable texts. 

Phonics instruction need not be tedious. Instead, activities which promote play with
words in hands-on ways will contribute to children's growing understanding of the
sound/symbol system. When children are able to decode automatically, they can
concentrate on the meaning of text. 

Although a formal spelling program need not begin until late first grade, schools
should encourage and accept invented spelling as soon as children begin to write
spontaneously. Invented spelling is a diagnostic tool that provides a window on
children's developing knowledge of speech sounds and orthography and frees children
to experiment with print. Research has shown that writing can precede and support
reading. Students should be given regular opportunities to express themselves on
paper. Below are some examples of early writing activities:

 writing captions and stories for drawings

 creating lists
 writing notes and cards
 recording observations

Direct spelling instruction is also necessary. Recent research has shown that children
progress faster in both spelling and reading if they are taught how to analyze speech
sounds in words and taught how to spell them by using sound/symbol correspondence.
Moreover, Adams points out that "the process of copying new words strengthens
students' memory for those words and does so rather enduringly" (Whittlesea, 1987).

A daily writing program beginning in kindergarten (for those who already have the
necessary fine motor control) and in first grade is essential to help children learn
phonics.

Encoding the sound/symbol correspondences in both directed and free writing

sessions provides practice for the children and information for the teacher about how
much each child knows about these correspondences.

Opportunities to write stories, letters, and reports, as well as instruction in mechanics,

grammar and usage, should all be part of the writing program. Further, student-
authored books contribute positively to a classroom library.

Schools should consider a number of different grouping strategies to reduce the span
of skills so that instruction can be efficient and effective, and to avoid a lock-step
curriculum that is too easy for some and too difficult for others. Some flexible
grouping practices include:

 skills-organized groups
 every six to eight weeks based on assessment reconstituting primary grades into
mixed-age classes, each with a specified curriculum for ninety minutes a day
 organizing (and reorganizing after assessment) five to six groups within the
first grade based on what children are learning

Because of the critical nature of reading, sufficient time must be set aside for
instruction. In kindergarten, it is recommended that at least one third of the day be
devoted to language arts activities. In the early primary grades, at least two to three
hours should be spent on language arts activities, including reading, writing, oral
language and spelling. Language arts activities in general and reading in particular can
and should also be linked to other areas of the curriculum.

Upper Elementary
Instruction in writing continues through the grades.

Children should have opportunities to practice the process of writing as well as to

fine-tune and edit writing. Writing instruction needs to develop fluency as well as
correctness.

Children should learn complex sentence structure, paragraphing, organization, and

more advanced grammar and usage both directly and indirectly through daily writing
that encourages them to write across the curriculum.

Children should be writing for a variety of purposes and to a variety of audiences.

It is important to encourage oral reports, debates, and group discussions so that

children continue to develop their oral skills. Learning to take turns and respond to
questions should be part of this oral skill development.

Spelling lessons that are based on diagnostic information continue to be important. 

For those children who continue to struggle with the sound-symbol system, spelling
lists organized by sound themes remain critical.

In addition, irregular words, homonyms and high-utility morphemes should be taught. 

Research suggests that immediate self-correction of tests is critical to progress in
spelling.

Decoding skills should continue through the elementary school years as needed.
Students should be taught more advanced skills, including how to make use of
complex letter/sound correspondences, word roots, prefixes and suffixes, and
syllabication.

Vocabulary development continues through extensive reading opportunities, during

oral discussions and explanations, and through strategies such as synonym building
and semantic trees.

Advanced strategic reading skills such as summarizing, predicting, questioning, and

visualizing should be modeled and directly taught in the context of reading varied
materials. This presupposes regular time for reading and discussion in groups as well
as independently.

Activities to foster "deep discussions" about books should be built into the school day.
Such discussions should focus on important questions and extend and deepen
children's understanding of texts.
All Grades

Parents should be enlisted to support the development of their child's reading skills
by:

 reading to their child

 listening to their child read
 discussing what has been read

This home-school connection should be supported by schools and teachers through

regular communications with parents about classroom activities and expectations.
Materials should be sent home for parents to read with their children. 

Because ongoing assessment is a critical part of successful reading programs, children

who need more intense instruction should be identified beginning in mid-
kindergarten. For these children, tutors should be made available on a daily basis.
Children who transfer in to a school should be immediately assessed and provided
tutoring assistance if the need is warranted.

 Classrooms need a variety of appropriate books to meet the needs of children at

many different reading levels.
 Children must read material in which they can recognize at least 90% of the
words if their reading time is to be effective.
 On the other hand, if they are reading books in which they recognize 98 to
100% of the words, they are not going to progress.

Students should be given ample opportunity to read in order to put their skills to use.
Children should be reading twenty-five to thirty-five grade-appropriate books each
year from accepted fiction and non-fiction lists. Teachers should:

 conference regularly with children

 engage in in-depth discussions
 introduce children to a variety of genres
 require reading in different subject areas
 provide guided reading sessions
 read to children regularly

Flexible grouping should be used throughout the grades to ensure children are
acquiring the skills they need.
Implications for Professional Development: 
Preservice and Inservice

Teaching reading is a complex activity. Teachers must be equipped with the necessary
practical skills and underlying linguistic understandings in order to have a repertoire
of techniques that will enable all children to learn to read. So much has been learned
about reading and literacy recently that both preservice educators and those already
teaching will need up-to-date information on best practices. The key to improving
literacy instruction in California is professional development and teacher preparation.

Marilyn Adams and Hallie Yopp both cite the need for teachers to have diagnostic-
based professional training that includes a serious examination of language, literacy,
and cognitive development. Professor Treadway reiterates this position, adding that
good materials must also be available to support instruction, and that teachers need
enough theory to be able to use the materials well. Preparation should include:

 an understanding of how the mind works

 information about how people use language
 knowledge about the English linguistic system
 diagnostic and research information

Beginning Teachers

Given the body of information to be learned and the practical experience to gain,
many are now calling for five-year programs in teacher education, with reading and
literacy preparation beginning prior to the fifth year. Beginning teachers need
practical experience student teaching and observing in classrooms taught by veterans
identified as effective teachers of literacy. These apprenticeships should be joined to a
seminar that provides the research base and diagnostic information to reinforce what
teachers are seeing and doing with children and which can serve as a vehicle for
collegial learning and problem solving.

The linguistic system itself is a complex topic that will require in-depth preparation.
Louisa Cook Moats, director of Teacher Training at the Greenwood Institute in
Putney, Vermont and Adjunct Assistant Professor of Clinical Psychiatry at Dartmouth
Medical School, talks about the importance of teachers understanding the
phonological structure of words since so much research now points to the
importance of phonemic awareness as a predictor of a child's reading success. In
addition, she calls for instruction to beginning teachers in the morphemic structure
of words since poor readers and spellers have limited structural awareness.
Furthermore, she cites the lack of understanding many teachers have of the basic
alphabetic system and the importance of "code-based instruction" for beginning
and problem readers. 

Informed teachers will be able to present linguistic concepts accurately and be better
able to assess a student's stage of reading and spelling development. Such knowledge
provides a solid foundation on which to base instructional practice.

Others in the field of teacher education stress the importance of clinical instruction for
teachers in training. Professor John Shefelbine at California State University,
Sacramento, has trained master teachers and then places his student teachers with
those masters to work directly with students. By regularly reflecting upon and
discussing the students' development, pre-service teachers are able to gain practical
insights into the way children learn to read.

Because so much reading instruction will require teachers to diagnose students and
group them for specific instruction, teacher education must arm teachers-in-training
with a repertoire of effective diagnostic tools and with an understanding of how to
manage a classroom in which students will be working at different levels in small
groups.

Effective Beginning Teacher Programs:

 start during the undergraduate years

 provide practical experience teaching and observing in highly effective
classrooms
 include a seminar that provides the research base and diagnostic information
and serves as a forum for discussion
 contain course work that includes cognitive research, language theory and the
background of the English linguistic system

Inservice Education

Many veteran teachers may not have been able to keep current with the growing body
of research into reading. In addition, many new teachers have entered the profession
without the background described above. Thus, inservice education needs to address
the same topics and information as that of preservice education. Inservice professional
development should include:

 enough theory and up-to-date research to provide teachers with the rationale for
specific instructional changes in the ways they currently teach reading
 important topics about which we have new and clear information
 training in understanding phonemic awareness and ways to teach it
 phonics instruction that is dynamic, systematic, and reinforced through
connected text
 instruction in teaching spelling
 instruction in the use of appropriate diagnostic tools

The training should be presented through workshops which include demonstrations,

practice with children, and opportunities for discussion and problem solving.

Effective Inservice Education:

 includes current theory and research

 provides training in phonemic awareness assessment and instruction
 conveys dynamic methods to teach phonics and make use of connected text
 demonstrates effective ways to teach spelling that will reinforce reading
 includes a diagnostic toolkit that will enable teachers to teach what children
need
 includes whole language strategies and powerful uses of literature
 provides practice with children in a clinical setting with ample opportunity for
feedback and support
 assists teachers to effectively implement balanced literacy programs

Such workshop training should be supported at the school sites by regular staff
discussions about the research as well as about implementation issues. Furthermore,
school staff should extend their knowledge by conducting case studies on individual
students and/or controlled group studies to assess their own and the school's progress
over time. Teachers will need school-based support through coaching and feedback as
well as time to observe in classrooms where teachers are highly effective in teaching
children to read.

References

Citations in this document are taken from Professor Adams' book identified in the
resource list below and directly from presentations made during a February 29, 1996
seminar sponsored jointly by the California Education Policy Seminar and The
California State University Institute for Education Reform. References in the section
on Professor David Pearson are from his work cited below. The source documents for
other citations are noted below in the Resources and Organizations list.