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Fundamentals of engine design

and operation

InfineumInsight.com/Learn

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Outline
• General features
• Spark ignition engines
• Diesel engines
• Conclusion

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What is an internal combustion engine?

• Transform potential (chemical) energy into output work

• Today, energy comes from fuels (fossil or bio-source)

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Main components of a 4-stroke internal

combustion engine
Rockers Camshaft

Valve springs
Valve

Piston
Piston rings
Cylinder block
Oil filter
Con rod
Journal bearings

Crankshaft
Oil pump

Oil
Sump

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Four-stroke cycle – spark ignition

(gasoline) engine

Intake-stroke: air induction

As piston moves down toward crankcase, intake valve(s) open(s). Pressure
difference between intake and combustion chamber forces air (as well as fuel
for port fuel injection) into cylinder.
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Four-stroke cycle – spark ignition

(gasoline) engine

Compression-stroke : mixture compression

Intake valve(s) close(s). As crankshaft rotates, piston moves up and
compresses air-fuel mixture.

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Four-stroke cycle – spark ignition

(gasoline) engine

Expansion stroke: burn gas expansion (power)

Ignition system fires spark plug to ignite mixture just before piston reaches
top of its travel. Expanding gases, which result from burning of fuel, force
piston down to turn crankshaft.
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Four-stroke cycle – spark ignition

(gasoline) engine

Exhaust stroke: burnt gas removal

After fuel charge is burned, exhaust valve(s) open(s). Due to pressure
difference between combustion chamber and exhaust, Burned gases are
removed out of cylinder.
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Engine capacity and configuration

• The capacity of the engine is the total displacement volume of all cylinders

• Configurations are normally referred to by their shape and number of cylinders

• Below are some common engine configurations

Straight/In-Line 4 V-8 Flat/Boxer-6

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Different valve configurations

Pushrod

Rocker

Push Rod

Lifter

Camshaft

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Different valve configurations

Single overhead cam (direct acting)

Camshaft

Bucket Tappet

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Different valve configurations

Single overhead cam

Rocker

Camshaft

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Different valve configurations

Double overhead cam
Camshafts

Tappets

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Variable valve timing (VVT)

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Hydraulic valve lifter

oil flows in

Tappet Tappet

Camshaft Camshaft

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Piston ring action

Intake Stroke Compression and Exhaust Strokes

Cylinder Scrapes surplus Ring rides on film of oil;

oil from walls absolute viscosity of
lubricant influences film
thickness

Enlarged view showing

how ring tips and
Piston presents lower edge to Cylinder wall
cylinder wall.

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Piston ring action

Firing Stroke

Head

Fired fuel mix

Firing pressure pushes

ring down until entire
ring face engages
cylinder wall Piston

Cylinder
wall

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Diesel engines – Basics

• Air (only) charging
• Fuel injection near the Top-Dead-Centre leading to a local fuel/air mixing
• Kinetic energy coming from spray injection (Pinj~2000 bars, Vinj~600m.s-1) is
converted into turbulent kinetic energy
• Auto-ignition of favourable mixture
• Combustion in a “diffusion” regime around the liquid spray
Injector Auto-ignition

spray

Heat Release (W)

Time (s)

Diffusion flame
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Efficiency
Overall efficiency is split in several efficiencies.
Efforts shall be made to increase each of them!

Chemical Calorific Theoretical Indicated Effective

energy energy work work work

Combustion Theoretical Cycle Mechanical

efficiency thermodyn eff efficiency efficiency

Overall efficiency
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Combustion process
• Ideal combustion is:

C xH y + RO 2 + R N2  x CO2 + y/2 H2O +  R N2

Where R = x+y/4 and  = 0.79/0.21 ≈ 3.76

• Ideal burnt gases is an unreachable state because it

contradicts chemical equilibrium theory
– At best, chemical equilibrium can be reached, not complete fuel
conversion into CO2 and H2O
• In reality, combustion products are:
– CxHy , CO2 , CO, H2O , H2, N2, NO, NO2,, etc.
– Among which CxHy , CO, NO, NO2 are pollutants

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Spark Ignition engines

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Fuel-Air mixing - throttling

• Gasoline engines only combust in a relatively reduced
range of air/fuel mixtures
• To control load, the throttle controls the air flow into a
gasoline engine

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Fuel-Air mixing – air motion

• Main flow motion is tumble
– Near Top Dead Centre, tumble motion is converted into
turbulence
– High turbulence level allows rapid flame propagation
– Favourable for efficiency and stability

tumble

swirl

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Spark-Ignited Engines - Basics

• Fuel (commercial gasoline, gas, etc.) can be directly injected
within the combustion chamber (DI for Direct Injection) or within
the air-path (PFI for Port Fuel Injection)
• Ignition is caused by a “spark” near the Top Dead Centre (TDC)
• Main combustion regime is the premixed flame regime
• Just after the ignition, initially spherical flame kernel propagates
and is progressively wrinkled and accelerate by the turbulence

Spark
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Ignition

• In Spark-Ignited engines, combustion is initiated by a controlled

spark, generally a spark plug (usually electronic system)
– External source of energy for the air-fuel mixture

• Delivered ignition energy usually far greater than “needed

energy” to avoid any misfire and good combustion stability

Development of technology over time

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SI engine In-cylinder pressure

P (bar)
Pression 45
with combustion
Mesure 40
35
without ss comb*
combustion
Calc 30
25
20
15
10
5
0 CA
-180 -135 -90 -45 0 45 90

* In that case, pressure increase is only due to piston movement.

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SI engine - Combustion process

• 1st step: ignition
– Electrical energy is released at the spark plug at a given time ("spark timing")
– Delivered energy typically 20 to 100 mJ, depending on the difficulty to ignite the
mixture
– Ignition process more difficult in:
• lean mixture
• fouled spark plug
• 2nd step: flame occurrence
– Plasma kernel evolution toward early kernel
flame
– Propagation thanks to diffusion of chemical
radicals and heat ahead of flame front
• 3rd step: flame propagation
• 4th step: flame extinction, flame can disappear because of:
– Lack of reactant (unsuitable local air / fuel ratio)
– Heat losses at the wall
– Dead volume (crevice, piston rings, …)
This results in emissions of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC)
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Fuel-air mixing - Multi-point fuel injection

• Single injector is obsolete

Air • For better control of fuel
distribution from cylinder to
cylinder, multipoint injection
Throttle (MPI) is preferably used
• Fuel is injected into the
Fuel Intake plenum inlet port, usually whilst the
inlet valve is closed
Injectors • Generally targeted on the
back of the valve to
Engine maximise heat transfer

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Ignition
• Higher energy deposit
• Better control on spark distribution to appropriate cylinder
by electronics
• Variable level of energy
• Last generation: Corona Discharge Ignition (CDI)
– More powerful ignition source
– Fuel/air mixture is ionised and forms a
plasma
– Improved lean and stratified ignition ability
– Higher dilution (EGR) tolerance
– Higher pressure
– Faster burn rates for combustion stability
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Downsizing engines

Low High
load load

+
• Smaller engine while maintaining performance
– Shift from low to high loads
– Reduction of pumping losses
– Better efficiency
– Fuel economy
• Additional technologies:
– Mostly achieved through increased use of boosting technologies
– Often coupled with GDI (Gasoline Direct Injection)
• Today, typical gain is about 10 to 20% in fuel consumption
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Turbocharging and supercharging

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Downsizing engines - Knock

• Spontaneous combustion of the

unburnt charge (end-gas) which
has not yet passed through the
flame front P
Knock
• Apparition after spark plug firing
Gaz frais
• Very quick combustion
• Pressure waves causing
Normal
characteristic metallic pinging
combustion
sound
• Damage to the combustion S.A.
chamber, generally on the piston,
the valves, the cylinder head…
TDC
• These degradations can lead to
valve, piston or cylinder head wall 340° 360° 380° 400°
piercing
CAD
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Downsizing engines - LSPI (Low-Speed Pre-Ignition)

• LSPI is a pre-ignition event often followed by heavy-knock
– Very early stage of combustion (before spark was triggered = pre-ignition)
– Initial combustion is relatively slow and similar to normal SI combustion
– Sudden increase in combustion speed = super-knock
• LSPI events appear sporadically and disappears without the uses of engine
control system

Super-knock

Knock

Normal
Pre-ignition
combustion

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Downsizing engines - LSPI (Low-Speed Pre-Ignition)

• LSPI events are rare (few LSPI events over 10,000 cycles)
• There are many theories for explaining LSPI sources
• The prevailing theory to date is the auto-ignition triggered by oil
Oil droplet release out
from piston crevice area Vaporisation Auto-ignition

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Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)

• Injection takes place inside the combustion chamber, thanks to an

injector specially designed
• The injector may be located
– in central position
– in lateral position

• Phasing of the injection (start of injection) has great impact on

performance
– Too early injection creates a fuel impact on the piston smoke emissions
– Too late injection leads to poor homogenisation (and impact on piston)
• Pressure injection is typically 100-200 bar to ensure:
– Homogenisation at low load
– Short time to inject the whole charge (only during the intake stroke) at high
speed – high load
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Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)

• Advantage: fuel droplet vaporisation requires heat taken from the in-
cylinder air
– Air is cooled down: it is called "cooling effect".
• Reduction of knock
• Better volumetric efficiency (air density is increased)
– increased torque (~ 5%)
– greater downsizing can be achieved
• Drawbacks: cost and complexity
– Degraded homogenisation compared to PFI engines
• CO emissions, combustion stability
– Risk of fuel impact on the piston
• Smoke and particle emissions
– Injector fouling must be avoided
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Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)

• Charge cooling effect allows higher compression ratio (fuel efficiency)
• Fuelling control permits to reduce transient issues and to pollutant emissions
• Limit knock
• There exist different strategies:
Spark
Injector
Wall-guided GDI
• Injected fuel is swirled around
when it hits the piston floor

Piezzo Injector Spark

Spray-guided GDI
Hollow • Injected fuel is sprayed onto
cone
piston head

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Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

• 2 ways for increasing dilution by inert
species
– (External) Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
– Internal Gas Recirculation (IGR) which
requires variable valve timing + valve overlap
• EGR is widely used at part load because
of
– NOx reduction (lower combustion T)
– Heat transfers and pumping reduction
• A major difficulty is to achieve a high EGR rate at high load
• Decrease knock intensity and LSPI probability
• But:
– Degradation of combustion stability at low loads
– Management of transients
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Other SI engine technology developments

• Increasing use of bio-fuel

• Hyboost: combination of downsizing, e-boost,

economical energy storage and micro-hybrid
(stop-and-start)
• New low-friction material design
• Stratified lean combustion

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Raw emissions
• Main pollutants from SI
engines are CO, HC and NOx

CO
NOx
HC, CO NOx (g/kW.h)

HC
Euro 5

Equiv. ratio
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
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Raw emissions - HC formation process

• Storage of the air/fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber "dead" zones during the compression stroke
• Adsorption/desorption of HCs
into the oil layer
• Trapping of the air/fuel
mixture in the combustion
chamber deposits
• Flame quenching at the
cylinder wall
• HC formation increased the
impact of liquid fuel on the
chamber walls
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Raw emissions - NOx

• NOx are mainly formed thought a “Thermal” process
– The main source is N2 in the air
– High temperatures prone NOx formation
– Everything that dampens in-cylinder temperature reduces NOx
• Introduction of dilution by EGR

Source Where Kinetics

Combustion
N2 products «Thermal NO »
(O, OH, H)

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Raw emissions - Particles

• Locally rich mixtures create smoke inside the combustion
chamber
• Smoke and particle emissions may be an issue for GDI engine
• A regulation will appear with next European regulation on
pollutant emission:
– limitation of the mass of particles
emitted: < 5 mg/km (Euro5)
– limitation of the number of particles
emitted (Φ>23nm):
• 6.1012 particles/km (Euro6b in 2014)
• 6.1011 particles/km (Euro6c in 2017)

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Raw emissions - Catalytic converter

• A 3-way catalyst can simultaneously convert HC, CO and NOx
• Very close stoichiometry mixture
(± 0.5%) is needed
• TWC contains precious metal
(Pt, Rh, Pd, etc.)
• TWC is only efficient after
reaching a suitable temperature
• For cold start, dedicated engine
strategy is needed
• Temperature is achieved after
few seconds (about 15-60 s)
Source [Ricardo]
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SI engines conclusion
Evolution of technology
Complexity
Cost
CO2 emission [g/km]

Vehicle Weight [kg]

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Diesel engines

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Diesel combustion
• Combustion is initiated by spontaneous self-sufficient auto-
ignition
• Combustion spreading is controlled by
• Injection timing(s)
• The number of injection(s)
• Injection duration
• Dilution (EGR) inside the cylinder

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Diesel – combustion process

• 1st step: injection/vaporisation
– Fuel, forced through small holes under very high pressure, is torn-
up into small droplets (so-called “atomisation”)
– Air is “entrained” into this jet
– Evaporation occurs at the fringes so that droplets become non-
uniform clouds of vapour and air
– Local premixed fuel/air mixture is created
• 2nd step: auto-ignition / premixed
– Auto-ignition delay and combustion heat release are triggered by
fuel characteristics [source: CORIA]
• 3rd step: diffusion of the combustion to the rest of the chamber
– Depends on engine geometry (bowl)
– Turbulence and combustion spreading are linked to the spray
and the swirl movement

tumble

swirl

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Diesel – combustion process

N-heptane/air 20 bar
stoichiometric mixture

• Auto-ignition depends on:

Temperature [K]
– Pressure
– Temperature
– Fuel/Air equivalence ratio
– Dilution Time [s]
– Nature of the fuel
– Turbulence (micro-mixing)

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Diesel – combustion process

In-cylinder pressure
Fired
pressure

Motored
pressure

Time
(Crank Angle
Degrees)

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Diesel – standard technology combustion chamber

LDD passenger car applications typically use a re-entrant
combustion bowl

Central injection

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Diesel – standard technology combustion chamber

The key feature of diesel combustion chamber is that the
combustion space is contained within the piston not the
cylinder head

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Diesel – standard technology combustion chamber

• Almost all current production use
“Common Rail” fuel injection systems
• It maintains a “rail” or accumulator of
fuel at the required high pressure
– Current research up to 3000 bar
• It releases the fuel into the injection
orifice with fast electric solenoid
valves for control
• It facilitates re-opening of the solenoid valves and allow
multiple injections per cycle
• It allows electronically control of:
– Number of injections
– Injection start
– Injection duration
– Injection pressure
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Diesel – multiple injection strategy

• Diesel fuel injection controls pollutant emissions

(particles and NOx) but also fuel economy and
combustion noise and torque
• Multiple injections may include:
– Pilot injection(s): small volume of fuel before the main injection
starts
• This creates a small initial combustion allowing a small (controlled)
increase of pressure and temperature which results in quieter engine
operation
– Main injection
– Post-injection(s): short injections after a longer main injection
• Soot reduction

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Diesel – multiple injection strategy example

Example cylinder pressure and injection strategy, varying load (EU5 Diesel)

Diesel.net

• As load increases:
– Boost pressure is increased
– Injection are advanced and injection
durations are increased
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Diesel – pollutant emissions

Diesel combustion is globally lean ( ≈ 0.7) but

it is LOCALLY rich
Rich

Rich
Soot

Conventional diesel
NOx
combustion path
Lean
Lean

NOx Formation
Diesel.net

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Diesel – pollutant emissions

• Soot formation cannot be avoid because mechanism is linked to rich mixture
– Very rich regions at combustion starting create soot that are oxidised as
more air is found
– Small droplet size (injected fuel spray) and high turbulence minimise soot
• High injection pressures and small nozzle holes
– Majority of soot are oxidised in the combustion chamber (up to 95%)

• Particulate mater (PM) is measured by passing a sample of exhaust over a

filter paper
– Soot, unburnt HC
– Condensed sulphates
– Wear particles
– Other solid or condensed ash materials from lube oil additives (Zn, Ca, …)

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Diesel – pollutant emissions

NOx Soot
Low load
Soot

Rich
High load

w/ EGR
w/out EGR

Lean
EGR EGR NOx

• The amount of NOx is governed by the residence tie of in-cylinder gases at

high temperature (T>2000 K)
– Peak temperature can be reduced by dilution
• EGR on passenger cars and trucks
• Water on large engines
• But negative effect on soot, HC and CO
• Optimising global emissions becomes a difficult balancing act

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Diesel – after-treatment
• DOC (Diesel Oxidation Catalyst)
– Oxidises HC and CO to CO2 and H2O
– Used for exothermic generation to raise exhaust temperature for
other after-treatment components
– Oxidises NO to NO2
• LNT: Lean NOx trap
– Used to reduce NOx emissions. Stores NOx on the brick during lean
operation, chemically reduces NOx to N2 during rich operation
• SCR: Selective Catalytic Reduction
– Uses a reducing agent, usually ammonia (carried as urea)

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Diesel – after-treatment
• DPF: Diesel Particulate
Filter 90+% Efficiency
– Used to trap particulates.
Trapped particulates are
periodically “burned off”
during an active Filter

regeneration
– Organic matter is burned off
leaving small amount of Oxidation catalyst

incombustible ash Fuel

Injector
– As filter fills with soot, back
pressure builds
– Catalysed Diesel Particulate
Filter is current technology
on passenger cars
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Conclusion

NOx Diesel Diesel 2010

Gasoline
DPF

DISI
+NOx trap PFI 2010
+ NOx trap
+ SCR
+ Hybrid + turbo
VVT
CO2
+ Hybrid

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