V.

SAFETY
A. Occupational Health Defined by World Health Organization (WHO)
The promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of
workers in all occupations by preventing workers form getting sick, protecting workers from health risks,
and placing worker in tasks adapted to his ability.

B. Accident Causation Models

Accident is defined as unplanned or unexpected occurrence that may or may not result in personal injury,
property damage, work stoppage or interference or combination thereof which arises out of and in the
course of employment.

Safety refers to the physical or environmental conditions of work or employment which substantially comply
with the provisions of Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHS).

1. Heinrich Domino Theory (by Heinrich, Herbert William)

Heinrich's Domino Theory is a sequential accident model which represents an accident sequence as
a causal chain of events, represented as dominos that topple in a chain reaction.

What are Unsafe Conditions and Acts?

According to Heinrich, all incidents directly relate to unsafe conditions and acts, which he defines as
“unsafe performance of persons, such as standing under suspended loads ... horseplay, and removal
of safeguards”; and “mechanical or physical hazards such as unguarded gears ... and insufficient light.”

The Dominoes
Heinrich posits five metaphorical dominoes labelled with accident causes. They are Social Environment
and Ancestry, Fault of Person, Unsafe Act or Mechanical or Physical Hazard (unsafe condition),
Accident, and Injury.

a) Social Environment and Ancestry

This first domino in the sequence deals with worker personality. Heinrich explains that undesirable
personality traits, such as stubbornness, greed, and recklessness can be "passed along through
inheritance" or develop from a person's social environment, and that both inheritance and
environment (what we usually refer to now as "nature" and "nurture") contribute to Faults of Person.

b) Fault of Person
The second domino also deals with worker personality traits. Heinrich explains that inborn or obtained
character flaws such as bad temper, inconsiderateness, ignorance, and recklessness contribute at one
remove to accident causation. According to Heinrich, natural or environmental flaws in the worker's
family or life cause these secondary personal defects, which are themselves contributors to Unsafe
Acts, or and the existence of Unsafe Conditions.

c) Unsafe Act/or Condition

The third domino deals with Heinrich's direct cause of incidents. As mentioned above, Heinrich defines
these factors as things like "starting machinery without warning ... and absence of rail guards. " Heinrich
felt that unsafe acts and unsafe conditions were the central factor in preventing incidents, and the
easiest causation factor to remedy, a process which he likened to lifting one of the dominoes out of
the line. These combining factors (1, 2, and 3) cause accidents.

** Heinrich defines four reasons why people commit unsafe acts "improper attitude, lack of knowledge
or skill, physical unsuitability, [and] improper mechanical or physical environment." He later goes on to
subdivide these categories into "direct" and "underlying" causes. For example, he says, a worker who
commits an unsafe act may do so because he or she is not convinced that the appropriate
preventative measure is necessary, and because of inadequate supervision. The former he classifies as

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a direct cause, the latter as an underlying cause. This combination of multiple causes, he says, create
a systematic chain of events leading to an accident.

d) Accident
Heinrich says, "The occurrence of a preventable injury is the natural culmination of a series of events
or circumstances which invariably occur in a fixed and logical order." He defines accidents as, "events
such as falls of persons, striking of persons by flying objects are typical accidents that cause injury."

e) Injury
Injury results from accidents, and some types of injuries Heinrich specifies in his "Explanation of
Factors" are cuts and broken bones.

http://www.hrdp-idrm.in/e5783/e17327/e24075/e27357/

2. Frank Bird Loss Causation Model

This model is based on a sequence of events that leads up to an eventual loss. This model also
suggested that underlying cause of accidents are lack of management controls and poor
management decisions. This model recognized the need for management to prevent and control
accidents in what were fast becoming highly complex situations due to the advances in technology.
a) Lack of control
Lack of control is the first domino and refers the fourth function of the management (planning,
organizing, directing, controlling and coordinating). It involves accident investigation, facility inspection,
job analysis, personal communication, selection and training, 'standards' in each work activity
identified, measuring performance by standards and correcting performance by improving the existing
programs. This first domino may fall due to inadequate standards, programs and follow up.

b) Basic Causes
Basic Causes (origins) are (1) Personal factors lack of knowledge or skill, improper motivation and
physical or mental problems and (2) Job factors inadequate work standards, design, maintenance,
purchasing standards, abnormal usage etc. These basic causes are origin of substandard acts and
conditions and failure to identify them permits the second domino to fall, which initiates the possibility
of further chain reaction.

c) Immediate Causes
Immediate causes are only symptoms of the underlying problem. They are substandard' practices or
conditions (known I as unsafe acts and unsafe conditions) that could cause the fourth domino to fall.
These causes should be identified, classified and removed by appropriate measures.

d) Accident
Accident or incident is the result of unsafe acts or/and unsafe conditions. This point is the contact
stage. Some counter measures employed are deflection, dilution, reinforcement, surface modification,
segregation, barricading, protection, absorption, shielding etc.

e) Injury
Injury includes traumatic injury, diseases and adverse mental neurological or systemic effects resulting
from workplace exposures. 'Damage' includes all types of property damage including fire. The severity
of losses involving physical harm and property damage can be minimized by prompt reparative action,
salvage in the case of property damage and fire control devices and trained personnel.

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C. Occupational Safety and Health in the Philippine Setting
Labor Code of the Philippines, PDD, May 1, 1974: Book IV of the Labor Code of the Philippines covers
medical, dental and occupational health and safety education.

Homework: Have a hard copy of

Occupational Safety and Health Standards Act (RA 11058, August 2018)

D. Hazard vs. Risk

1. Hazard
Hazard is defined as any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on something or
someone under certain conditions at work. Some of the examples of hazards may include chemicals,
electricity, a bully work or stress, etc. A hazard is said to be present when there is an object or a situation
present that may have an adverse effect on the surrounding. There can be other hazards like an explosion,
leakage of toxic gas etc.

** Harm - physical injury or damage to health.

Workplace Hazards:

a) Safety Hazards:
Safety Hazards are unsafe working conditions that can cause injury, illness and death. Safety
hazards are the most common workplace hazards.

THEY INCLUDE:
• Anything that can cause spills or tripping such as cords running across the floor or ice
• Anything that can cause falls such as working from heights, including ladders, scaffolds, roofs, or
any raised work area
• Unguarded machinery and moving machinery parts that a worker can accidentally touch
• Electrical hazards like frayed cords, missing ground pins, improper wiring
• Confined spaces

b) Biological Hazards:
Biological Hazards include exposure to harm or disease associated with working with animals, people,
or infectious plant materials. Workplaces with these kinds of hazards include, but are not limited to,
work in schools, day care facilities, colleges and universities, hospitals, laboratories, emergency
response, nursing homes, or various outdoor occupations.

TYPES OF THINGS YOU MAY BE EXPOSED TO INCLUDE:

• Blood and other body fluids
• Fungi/mold
• Bacteria and viruses
• Plants
• Insect bites
• Animal and bird droppings

c) Physical Hazards:
Physical hazards can be any factors within the environment that can harm the body without
necessarily touching it.

THEY INCLUDE:
• Radiation: including ionizing, non-ionizing (EMF’s, microwaves, radiowaves, etc.)
• High exposure to sunlight / ultraviolet rays

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• Temperature extremes – hot and cold
• Constant loud noise

d) Ergonomic Hazards:
Occur when the type of work, body positions and working conditions put a strain on your body. They
are the hardest to spot since you don’t always immediately notice the strain on your body or the
harm that these hazards pose. Short-term exposure may result in “sore muscles” the next day or in
the days following the exposure, but long term exposure can result in serious long-term illness.
ERGONOMIC HAZARDS INCLUDE:
• Improperly adjusted workstations and chairs
• Frequent lifting
• Poor posture
• Awkward movements, especially if they are repetitive
• Having to use too much force, especially if you have to do it frequently
• Vibration

e) Chemical Hazards:
Are present when a worker is exposed to any chemical preparation in the workplace in any form
(solid, liquid or gas). Some are safer than others, but to some workers who are more sensitive to
chemicals, even common solutions can cause illness, skin irritation, or breathing problems.

BEWARE OF:
• Liquids like cleaning products, paints, acids, solvents – ESPECIALLY if chemicals are in an
unlabeled container!
• Vapors and fumes that come from welding or exposure to solvents
• Gases like acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide and helium
• Flammable materials like gasoline, solvents, and explosive chemicals
• Pesticides

WILL EXPOSURE TO HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE ALWAYS CAUSE INJURY, ILLNESS OR OTHER ADVERSE
HEALTH EFFECTS?
Not necessarily. To answer this question, you need to know:
• what hazards are present,
• how a person is exposed (route of exposure, as well as how often and how much exposure occurred),
• what kind of effect could result from the specific exposure a person experienced,
• the risk (or likelihood) that exposure to a hazardous thing or condition would cause an injury, or disease
or some incidence causing damage, and
• how severe would the damage, injury or harm (adverse health effect) be from the exposure.

The effects can be acute, meaning that the injury or harm can occur or be felt as soon as a person comes
in contact with the hazardous agent (e.g., a splash of acid in a person's eyes). Some responses may be
chronic (delayed). For example, exposure to poison ivy may cause red swelling on the skin two to six hours
after contact with the plant. On the other hand, longer delays are possible: mesothelioma, a kind of
cancer in the lining of the lung cavity, can develop 20 years or more after exposure to asbestos.

Once the hazard is removed or eliminated, the effects may be reversible or irreversible (permanent). For
example, a hazard may cause an injury that can heal completely (reversible) or result in an untreatable
disease (irreversible).

https://safetylineloneworker.com/blog/workplace-hazards/
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hazard_risk.html

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2. Risk
The chance or probability that a person will be harmed or experience an adverse health effect if exposed
to a hazard. It is the combination of the likelihood of the occurrence of a harm and the severity of that
harm.

** Likelihood – the chance of something happening

For example: the risk of developing cancer from smoking cigarettes could be expressed as:

• "cigarette smokers are 12 times (for example) more likely to die of lung cancer than non-smokers",
or
• "the number per 100,000 smokers who will develop lung cancer" (actual number depends on
factors such as their age and how many years they have been smoking). These risks are expressed
as a probability or likelihood of developing a disease or getting injured, whereas hazard refers to
the agent responsible (i.e. smoking).

Factors that influence the degree or likelihood of risk are:

• the nature of the exposure: how much a person is exposed to a hazardous thing or condition (e.g.,
several times a day or once a year),
• how the person is exposed (e.g., breathing in a vapour, skin contact), and
• the severity of the effect. For example, one substance may cause skin cancer, while another may
cause skin irritation. Cancer is a much more serious effect than irritation.

Overall, for some harm to occur or for the risk to be present, there must be the presence of a hazard and
above all the exposure to that hazard. If they do not exist together, there will be no risk.

WHAT IS A RISK ASSESSMENT?

Risk assessment is the process where you:
• Identify hazards and risk factors that have the potential to cause harm (hazard identification).
• Analyze and evaluate the risk associated with that hazard (risk analysis, and risk evaluation).
• Determine appropriate ways to eliminate the hazard, or control the risk when the hazard cannot be
eliminated (risk control).
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hazard_risk.html

E. Goals of Safety
RE(Recognize hazards)
ACT(act to control hazards)

Hierarchy of Controls
When planning for hazard controls, remember that the control selected must not eliminate one hazard
while creating another.

1. Engineering Control
Use work equipment or other measures to prevent falls where you cannot avoid working at height.
Install or use additional machinery such as local exhaust ventilation to control risks from dust or fume.
Separate the hazard from operators by methods such as enclosing or guarding dangerous items of
machinery/equipment. Give priority to measures which protect collectively over individual measures.

• Elimination/minimization of the hazard -- Designing the facility, equipment, or process to remove

the hazard, or substituting processes, equipment, or materials to reduce the hazard;
• Enclosure of the hazard using enclosed cabs, enclosures for noisy equipment, or other methods;
• Isolation of the hazard with interlocks, machine guards, blast shields, welding curtains, or other
methods; or
• Removal or redirection of the hazard such as with local and exhaust ventilation.

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In manufacturing, for instance, a part of the process may be spray painting parts. This task poses both
health and ignition concerns. In order to isolate the hazard, many manufacturers would utilize a spray
booth. The booth prevents the worker from inhaling the paint fumes and paint residue while also
reducing the risk of explosions and fires. A glove box for handling hazardous materials and chemicals
is another example of isolation as the box allows the employee to do the work while not being exposed
to the material/chemical.

2. Administrative Control/Work Practice

These are all about identifying and implementing the procedures you need to work safely. For example:
reducing the time workers are exposed to hazards (eg by job rotation); prohibiting use of mobile phones
in hazardous areas; increasing safety signage and performing risk assessments.
• Written operating procedures, work permits, and safe work practices;
• Exposure time limitations (used most commonly to control temperature extremes and ergonomic
hazards);
• Monitoring the use of highly hazardous materials;
• Alarms, signs, and warnings;
• Buddy system; or
• Training.

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Figure 2. Anatomy of a Safety Sign

https://www.graphicproducts.com/media/72709/how-to-make-a-compliant-osha-safety-sign-
infographic.png

3. Personal Protective Equipment

Only after all the previous measures have been tried and found ineffective in controlling risks to a
reasonably practicable level, must personal protective equipment (PPE) be used. For example, where
you cannot eliminate the risk of a fall, use work equipment or other measures to minimise the distance
and consequences of a fall (should one occur). If chosen, PPE should be selected and fitted by the
person who uses it. Workers must be trained in the function and limitation of each item of PPE.

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http://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/lwit/assets/downloads/hierarchy-risk-controls.pdf
https://ehs.princeton.edu/node/180

Figure 1. Personal Protective Equipment

F. Workplace Housekeeping
Workplace Housekeeping is defined as “Activities undertaken to create or maintain a

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tidy, clean, orderly and safe working environment.”
-WSH Guidelines on Workplace Housekeeping

Good housekeeping is not just about cleanliness; it lays the basic foundation for accident and fire
prevention. It requires attention to details, such as the layout of the worksite or facility, identification and
marking of physical hazards, ensuring the adequate number of storage facilities, and routine maintenance.
Here are some of the many benefits that can be gained when implementing good workplace
housekeeping:

Improved Worker Safety

1. Fewer trip and slip incidents where walkways and working surfaces are free of clutter and spills.
2. Decreased fire hazards as a result of the reduction or elimination of waste, dust, debris, and other
flammable materials.
3. Reduced number of workers being struck by objects through organized and careful storage of
materials, tools, and equipment.
4. Fewer worker injuries as a result of defective or malfunctioning parts through timely maintenance of
machinery, equipment, or systems.

Improved Worker Health

1. Reduced worker exposure to hazardous substances, such as dust and vapor buildup, by following a
regular cleaning schedule.
2. Improved working conditions and worker health through regular servicing, cleaning, and supplying
sanitation facilities.

Increased Worker Productivity/Reduced Costs

1. Safe work environments lead to healthier workers, higher worker morale, and increased productivity.
2. Workplace cleanup and maintenance, including worker training, will ensure better control over tools
and materials as well as the inventory of supplies.
3. Tidy and clean work areas allow for more effective use of space.
4. Improved preventive maintenance can reduce property damage.
5. Increased worker participation in general housekeeping helps reduce the workload and cost of
janitorial staff.
https://www.osha.gov/dts/maritime/sltc/ships/housekeeping/benefits.html

5S in the Workplace
“5S relates to workplace organization and forms a solid foundation upon which many organizations base
their drive for continuous improvement. It is equally applicable & successful in all sectors helping to achieve
high impact results. It is a systematic and methodical approach allowing teams to organize their workplace
in the safest and most efficient manner. “
-Kaizen Institute

“5S is a simple tool for organizing your workplace in a clean, efficient and safe manner to enhance your
productivity, visual management and to ensure the introduction of standardized working.”
-Lean Manufacturing Institute

1S Sort (Seiri)
Sorting is the first phase of 5S. When you sort, you remove items from the work area that aren’t needed
for current production needs. This may mean you store them somewhere for long-term storage, or perhaps
you’ll even dispose of them.

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The process of red tagging is designed to help you sort. Just go around the work area and put a red tag
on everything that’s unnecessary. Then you can collect all the red-tagged items, put them in a central
holding area, and deal with them appropriately item-by-item.

2S Straighten (Seiton)–Also Known as Set in Order

Once the unnecessary items have been removed, organize the rest of the items so they’re in the best
possible location. Put things in place so they’re easy to access when they’re needed and so their location
helps to increase efficiency and decrease waste.

While sorting, consider marking areas with tape or paint so it’s obvious what goes where.

Below is a short sample from the 5S e-learning course by Convergence Training. It covers the second S–
straighten–and demonstrates putting things in their place and marking their location.

3S Shine (Seiso)–Also Known as Sweep or Sanitize

After unnecessary items have been removed and necessary items have been straightened, then clean
up the workplace. Don’t just do this once. Instead, set up a daily cleaning routine.

One benefit of daily cleaning is you can use it as an opportunity to inspect the work area and machines
for wear and damage.

4S Standardize (Seiketsu)
Once you’ve sorted, straightened, and shined, it’s time to standardize. This means identifying best practices
to keep things as you’ve got them now and creating consistent procedures for which jobs are done
efficiently. Include sort, straighten, and shine in people’s job responsibilities so they’ll be done consistently.

5S Sustain (Shitsuke)
The final element of 5S is to sustain the practice–meaning, keep it going. Signs, posters, meetings, and
other methods of communication can help keep the 5S method and practices fresh and make sure things
don’t spiral out of hand again. Remember it’s not easy to change a company’s culture, and people may
have a tendency to slip back to the old ways if you don’t keep the 5S message fresh in their minds.

Adding Safety to 5S: Lean 6S

Adding safety to 5S can be as simple as remembering to keep safety in mind at each of the 5S steps.

During the Sort phase, you can use red tags for items that need to be removed and put yellow tags on
EHS hazards. The red-tagged items go to a central holding spot, and there someone decides what to do
with them. The yellow-tagged items are evaluated separately to see if any safety (or any EHS issues, really)
need to be addressed.

When you’re Straightening, you can organize items not just to maximize efficiency, but with an eye toward
safety as well. For example, don’t just put things in place to maximize worker productivity, but you can
also consider safety/EHS issues such as ergonomic strain for workers at this point.

And during the Shine phase, you can add EHS concerns to a cleaning checklist for workers to perform. For
example, when you’re cleaning and tidying you can also check to make sure chemical containers are
securely closed.

Or, you can think of Safety as a separate step–after Sort, Straighten, and Shine, and before Standardize
and Sustain. So, after you’ve Sorted, Straightened, and Shined, make a separate round of inspections for
safety issues. Then, when you Standardize and Sustain, you can keep the safety issues in mind as well as
efficiency issues.

https://www.convergencetraining.com/blog/5s-plus-safety-6s-safety

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