Analog Circuits [18EC42]

Module – 4
Op-amp with Negative Feedback and general applications:
Non inverting Amplifiers (Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier):

 The schematic diagram of voltage series feedback or non-inverting amplifier

is as shown in the figure.
 The op-amp is represented using its schematic symbol, including its large
signal voltage gain A, and the feedback circuit is composed of two resistors
R1 and RF.
 The circuit shown in the figure is called as non-inverting amplifier because it
uses feedback, and the input signal is applied to the non-inverting terminal of
the op-amp.
 The important terms of non inverting amplifier of above figure are:
𝑣
 Open-loop voltage gain (or gain without feedback): 𝐴 = 𝑂
𝑣𝑖𝑑
𝑣𝑜
 Closed-loop voltage gain (or gain with feedback): 𝐴𝐹 =
𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑣𝑓
 Gain of the feedback circuit: 𝛽 =
𝑣𝑂
 Negative feedback
 KVL equations for the input loop is
𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣𝑓
Where
𝑣𝑖𝑛 -input voltage
𝑣𝑓 -feedback voltage
𝑣𝑖𝑑 -difference input voltage

1 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

 The difference voltage 𝑣𝑖𝑑 is equal to the input voltage 𝑣𝑖𝑛 minus the
feedback voltage 𝑣𝑓 .
(Or)
 The feedback voltage always opposes the input voltage (or out of phase by
180o with respect to the input voltage); hence the feedback is said to be
negative

Closed loop voltage gain:

Closed-loop voltage gain (or gain with feedback):
𝑣𝑜
𝐴𝐹 =
𝑣𝑖𝑛
The output voltage for the op-amp is
𝑣𝑂 = 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
Where,
A - Large signal voltage gain
𝑣𝑖𝑑 - Difference input voltage
𝑣1 - Voltage at the non inverting input terminal with respect to ground
𝑣2 - Voltage at the inverting input terminal with respect to ground

From the above non-inverting amplifier

𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 𝑉𝑜
𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑓 = since 𝑅𝑖 ≫ 𝑅1
𝑅1 +𝑅𝐹

Therefore, substituting 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 in 𝑣𝑂 equation we get

𝑅1 𝑉𝑜
𝑣𝑂 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑖𝑛 −
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
Rearranging, we get
𝐴 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑣𝑂 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐴𝑅1
Thus
𝑣𝑜 𝐴 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = =
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐴𝑅1
Generally, A is very large (typically 105). Therefore,
𝐴𝑅1 ≫ 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 and 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐴𝑅1 ≅ 𝐴𝑅1
Thus
𝑣𝑜 𝐴 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = = =1+
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑅1 𝑅1

2 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

We know that
𝑣𝑓 𝑅1 𝑣𝑜
 Gain of the feedback circuit: 𝛽 = and 𝑣𝑓 =
𝑣𝑂 𝑅1 +𝑅𝐹

𝑅1 𝑣𝑜
𝑣𝑓 𝑅 + 𝑅𝐹 𝑅1
∴ 𝛽= = 1 =
𝑣𝑂 𝑣𝑂 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
Comparing 𝐴𝐹 and 𝛽 equation, we can conclude that
1
𝐴𝐹 =
𝛽

Finally closed loop voltage gain 𝐴𝐹 can be expressed in terms of open loop gain
A and feedback circuit gain 𝛽 as follows.
𝑣 𝐴 𝑅1 +𝑅𝐹
Rearranging equation 𝐴𝐹 = 𝑜 = by dividing both numerator and
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 +𝑅𝐹 +𝐴𝑅1
denominator by 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 we get

𝐴 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 𝐴𝑅1
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
𝑅1
Using 𝛽 = we get
𝑅1 +𝑅𝐹
𝐴
𝐴𝐹 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽

Input Resistance of non-inverting amplifier:

 Figure shows a voltage series feedback amplifier with op-amp equivalent

circuit.

3 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

 In this circuit Ri is the input resistance (open loop) of the op-amp, and RiF is
the input resistance of the amplifier with feedback.
 The input resistance with feedback is defined as
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑖𝐹 = =
𝑖𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑅𝑖
 From the circuit diagram 𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑅𝑖
𝑣𝑖𝑛
∴ 𝑅𝑖𝐹 =
𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑅𝑖
𝐴
 However, we know that 𝑣𝑂 = 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑑 and 𝑣𝑂 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
1+𝐴𝛽

𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖 𝑣𝑖𝑛

∴ 𝑅𝑖𝐹 = = =
𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑅𝑖 𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑂 𝐴
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑖𝐹 = 𝐴𝑅𝑖 = 𝐴𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽
𝑣𝑂 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝐴𝛽
∴ 𝑅𝑖𝐹 = 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽
 This means that the input resistance of the non-inverting amplifier is
1 + 𝐴𝛽 times that without feedback

Output Resistance of non-inverting amplifier:

 Output resistance is the resistance determined looking back into the feedback
amplifier from the output terminal as show in the figure.
 To find output resistance with feedback RoF:
 Reduce input source 𝑣𝑖𝑛 to zero (i.e short circuit input voltage source)
 Apply external voltage 𝑣𝑂 and then calculate 𝑖.
𝑣𝑂
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝐹 =
𝑖𝑂

4 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

Apply KCL at the output node N, we get

𝑖𝑜 = 𝑖𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
Since input impedance of op-amp is very high that is
𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝑖 ≫ 𝑅𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑎 ≫ 𝑖𝑏
∴ 𝑖𝑜 ≅ 𝑖𝑎
Applying KVL at the output loop :
𝑣𝑜 − 𝑅𝑜 𝑖𝑜 − 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 0

𝑣𝑜 − 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑑
𝑖𝑜 =
𝑅𝑜
𝑅 𝑉
We know that 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 0 and 𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑓 = 1 𝑜
𝑅1 +𝑅𝐹

𝑅1 𝑉𝑜
𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0 − = −𝛽𝑣𝑜
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹

Therefore,
𝑣𝑜 − 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜 − 𝐴 −𝛽𝑉𝑜 𝑣𝑜 + 𝐴𝛽𝑣𝑜
𝑖𝑜 = = =
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜
Rearranging above equation we get
𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝐹 = =
𝑖𝑜 1 + 𝐴𝛽
1
This result shows that the output resistance of non-inverting amplifier is
1+𝐴𝛽
times RO of the op-amp.

Bandwidth with feedback for non-inverting amplifier:

The bandwidth of an amplifier is defined as the band (range) of frequencies for
which the gain remains constant.
Let Unity gain bandwidth (UGB) is the frequency at which the gain equals 1 is
related as:
𝑈𝐺𝐵 = 𝐴 𝑓𝑜
Where,
A - open- loop voltage gain
𝑓𝑜 - break frequency of an op-amp

And also for amplifier with feedback

𝑈𝐺𝐵 = 𝐴𝐹 𝑓𝐹
Where,

5 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

𝐴𝐹 - Closed-loop voltage gain

𝑓𝐹 - Bandwidth with feed back

Equating UGB for with and without feedback we get

𝐴𝐹 𝑓𝐹 = 𝐴 𝑓𝑜
𝐴 𝑓𝑜
∴ 𝑓𝐹 =
𝐴𝐹
𝐴
We know that 𝐴𝐹 =
1+𝐴𝛽
𝐴 𝑓𝑜
𝑓𝐹 =
𝐴 1 + 𝐴𝛽
Hence
𝑓𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜 1 + 𝐴𝛽
This equation indicates that the bandwidth of the non-inverting amplifier with
feedback, 𝑓𝐹 , is equal to its bandwidth without feedback, 𝑓𝑜 , times 1 + 𝐴𝛽.

6 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

Inverting amplifier (Voltage Shunt feedback amplifier):

 Figure shows the voltage-shunt feedback amplifier using an op-amp.

 The input voltage drives the inverting terminal, and amplified
 Inverted output voltage signal is applied to the inverting input via the
feedback resistor RF.
 Non inverting terminal is grounded, and the feedback circuit has only one
resistor RF.
 Resistor R1 is connected in series with the input signal source 𝑣𝑖𝑛 .

Closed loop voltage gain:

The closed loop voltage gain AF of the inverting amplifier can be obtained by:
Apply KCL at the input node 𝑣2 we get
𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝐹 + 𝑖𝐵
Since Ri is very large, the input bias current IB is negligibly small.
Hence
𝑖𝑖𝑛 ≅ 𝑖𝐹
𝑣𝑖𝑛 −𝑣2 𝑣2 −𝑣𝑜
From the circuit diagram 𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝐹 = substitute in above
𝑅1 𝑅𝐹
equation we get
𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣2 𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑜
=
𝑅1 𝑅𝐹

We Know that
𝑣𝑂 = 𝐴 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
𝑣𝑂
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 =
𝐴
Since 𝑣1 = 0𝑣
𝑣𝑂
𝑣2 = −
𝐴

7 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]
𝑣𝑂 𝑣𝑖𝑛 −𝑣2 𝑣2 −𝑣𝑜
Substituting the value of 𝑣2 = − in = and rearranging, we get
𝐴 𝑅1 𝑅𝐹

𝑣𝑂 𝑣
𝑣𝑖𝑛 − − − 𝑂 − 𝑣𝑜
𝐴 = 𝐴
𝑅1 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛 + 𝑣𝑂 −𝑣𝑂 − 𝐴𝑣𝑂
=
𝐴𝑅1 𝐴𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛 + 𝑣𝑂 𝑅𝐹 = −𝑣𝑂 − 𝐴𝑣𝑂 𝑅1
𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑣𝑂 𝑅𝐹 = −𝑣𝑂 𝑅1 − 𝐴𝑣𝑂 𝑅1
𝑣𝑂 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑣𝑂 𝑅1 + 𝐴𝑣𝑂 𝑅1 = − 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐹
𝑣𝑂 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅1 + 𝐴𝑅1 = − 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐹
𝑣𝑂 𝐴𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = =− (𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡)
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅1 + 𝐴𝑅1
 The negative in the above equation indicates that the input and output signals
are out of phase by 1800 .
 Since the internal gain A of the op-amp is very large, 𝐴𝑅1 ≫ 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅1 .
Hence 𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅1 + 𝐴𝑅1 ≅ 𝐴𝑅1
 Therefore the above 𝐴𝐹 equation can be rewritten as
𝑣𝑂 𝐴𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = =− =
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑣𝑂 𝑅𝐹
∴ 𝐴𝐹 = = − (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
This equation shows that the gain of the inverting amplifier is set by selecting a
ratio of feedback resistance RF to the input resistance R1.

Input Resistance with feedback:

8 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

 The equivalent circuit to find the input resistance of the inverting amplifier is
to use Millers theorem.
 The feedback resistor RF; that is, split RF into its two miller components as
shown in the figure.
In the above circuit, the input resistance with feedback RiF is then
𝑅𝐹
𝑅𝑖𝐹 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑖 (𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡)
1+𝐴
Since 𝑅𝑖 and A are very large
𝑅𝐹
𝑅𝑖 ≅ 0Ω
1+𝐴
Hence
𝑅𝑖𝐹 = 𝑅1 (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)

Output Resistance with feedback:

 The output resistance with feedback RoF is the resistance measured at the
output terminal of the feedback amplifier.
𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝐹 = =
𝑖𝑜 1 + 𝐴𝛽
 Derivation same as non-inverting amplifier

Bandwidth with feedback:

 The gain Bandwidth product of a single break frequency op-amp is always
constant.
𝑓𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜 1 + 𝐴𝛽

9 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

SUMMING, SCALING AND AVERAGING AMPLIFIERS:

Inverting Configuration:

 Figure shows the inverting configuration with three inputs 𝑉𝑎 , 𝑉𝑏 , and 𝑉𝑐 .

 Depending on the relationship between the feedback resistor RF and the input
resistors Ra, Rb, and Rc, the circuit can be used as a summing amplifer, a
scaling amplifier, or an averaging amplifier.
 To calculate output voltage VO of the inverting configuration
 Apply KCL at node V2 we get
𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐹
 Since input resistance Ri and open loop voltage gain A are ideally
infinite, Bias current 𝐼𝐵 = 0𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ≅ 0𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
 From the circuit diagram 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑎 , 𝐼𝑏 = 𝑏 , 𝐼𝑐 = 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐹 = − 𝑂
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝐹

𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑂
∴ + + =−
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑂 = −𝑅𝐹 + +
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂 = − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑐
Inverting Configuration as a Summing Amplifier:
 In the above circuit diagram, if 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅 then the above output
voltage equation gives
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂 = − 𝑉 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑅 𝑎

10 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

 The above equation shows that output voltage is equal to the negative sum of
𝑅
all the inputs times the gain of the circuit 𝐹 ; hence the circuit is called a
𝑅
summing amplifier.
 When the gain of the circuit is 1, that is, 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅𝐹 , the output
voltage is equal to the negative sum of all input voltages. Thus
𝑉𝑂 = − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
Inverting Configuration as a Scaling or weighted amplifier:
 If each input voltage is amplified by a different factor or weighted differently
at the output then the above inverting amplifier is called as scaling or
weighted amplifier.
 In the above circuit diagram, if 𝑅𝑎 ≠ 𝑅𝑏 ≠ 𝑅𝑐 then the above output voltage
equation gives
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂 = − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑐
Where

𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
≠ ≠
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐
Inverting Configuration as a Average Circuit:
 The above inverting amplifier circuit can be used as an averaging circuit, in
which the output voltage is equal to the average of all the input voltages.
 This is accomplished by
i. using all input resistor of equal value,𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅
ii. The gain by which each input is amplified must be equal to 1over the
𝑅 1
number of inputs; that is, 𝐹 = , where n is number of inputs.
𝑅 𝑛
𝑅 1
 Thus for a three input inverting amplifier, n=3, and 𝐹 = , therefore the
𝑅 3
output voltage of three input inverting amplifier becomes
𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑂 = −
3

11 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

Non-Inverting Configuration:

 The above circuits show the three input non inverting amplifier.
 If input voltage sources and resistors are connected to the non-inverting
terminal as shown in the figure, the circuit can be used either as a summing
or averaging amplifiers by selecting appropriate values of resistors.
 To find the output voltage of the circuit we shall apply superposition
theorem at the terminal V1.
𝑅 2 𝑅 2 𝑅 2
∴ 𝑉1 = 𝑣𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏 + 𝑣
𝑅+𝑅 2 𝑅+𝑅 2 𝑅+𝑅 2 𝑐

Rearranging the above equation we get

𝑣𝑎 𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏 + 𝑣𝑐
𝑉1 = + + =
3 3 3 3
Hence the output voltage of the above circuit is
𝑅𝐹
𝑣𝑜 = 1 + 𝑉
𝑅1 1
𝑅𝐹 𝑣𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏 + 𝑣𝑐
𝑣𝑜 = 1 +
𝑅1 3
Non-Inverting Configuration as an averaging amplifier:
 The above equation shows that the output voltage is equal to the average of
𝑅
all the input voltages times the gain of the circuit 1 + 𝐹 .
𝑅1
 Hence the above circuit is called as averaging amplifier.
Non-Inverting Configuration as a summing amplifier:
 The above non-inverting amplifier can be used as summing amplifier, if

12 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]
𝑅𝐹
1+ = 𝑛 , where n is number of inputs.
𝑅1

𝑅𝐹
 That is for three input non inverting amplifier 1 + =3
𝑅1
 Therefore the output voltage becomes
𝑣𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏 + 𝑣𝑐
𝑣𝑜 = 3 × = 𝑣𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏 + 𝑣𝑐
3

Differential configuration:
 Using a basic differential configuration, a subtractor and a summing
amplifier can constructed

A Subtractor:

 A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor as shown in the

figure.
 Scaling amplifier: In the above circuit if input signals are scaled to the
desired values by selecting appropriate values for the external resistors.
 A subtractor: If all external resistors are equal, then the gain of the amplifier
is equal to 1.
 The circuit has two input Va and Vb, by using superposition theorem in the
above circuit
o Condition 1: When 𝑉𝑏 = 0𝑣, the configuration becomes an inverting
amplifier, hence the output voltage due to 𝑉𝑎 only is

𝑅𝐹 𝑉𝑎
𝑉𝑜𝑎 = −
𝑅1

If 𝑅𝐹 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅 then 𝑉𝑜𝑎 = −𝑉𝑎

13 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

o Condition 2: When 𝑉𝑎 = 0𝑣, the configuration is a non-inverting

amplifier having a voltage divider network composed of 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 at
the non-inverting terminal. Therefore voltage at the non inverting
terminal

𝑅3 𝑉𝑏
𝑉1 =
𝑅2 + 𝑅3

And the output due to 𝑉𝑏 is

𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑜𝑏 = 1 + 𝑉
𝑅1 1

That is

𝑅𝐹 𝑅3 𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑜𝑏 = 1 +
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Since 𝑅𝐹 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅

𝑉𝑜𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏

Thus applying superposition theorem the net output voltage is

𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜𝑎 + 𝑉𝑜𝑏

∴ 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎

Thus the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 is equal to the voltage applied to the non-inverting
terminal minus voltage applied to the inverting terminal; hence the circuit is
called a subtractor.

14 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER:

Fig: Block diagram of an Instrumentation system

 An instrumentation system is used to measure the output signal produced by

a transducer and often to control the physical signal producing it.
 The figure shows the block diagram of a simplified instrumentation system.
 An input stage is composed of pre amplifier and some sort of transducer,
depending on the physical quantity to be measured.
 The output stage may use devices such as meters, oscilloscopes, charts or
magnetic recorders.
 The connecting lines between the blocks represent transmission lines, used
especially when the transducer is at room temperature is at remote test site
monitoring hazardous conditions such as high temperature or liquid levels of
flammable chemicals.
 The signal source of the instrumentation amplifier is the output of the
transducer.
 The instrumentation amplifier is used to amplify the low level output signal
of the transducer so that it can drive a indicators or display.
 The instrumentation amplifier is intended for precise, low-level signal
amplification where noise, low thermal low and time drifts, high input
resistance, and accurate closed-loop gain are required.

15 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER USING TRANSDUCER BRIDGE:

 A figure shows a simplified differential instrumentation amplifier using a

transducer bridge.
 A resistive transducer bridge whose resistance changes as a function of some
physical energy is connected in one arm of the bridge with a small circle
around it and is denoted by 𝑅𝑇 ± ∆𝑅 , 𝑅𝑇 is the resistance of the
transducer and ∆𝑅 the change in resistance 𝑅𝑇 .
 The bridge in the circuit of the figure is dc excited but could be ac excited as
well.
 For the balanced bridge at some reference condition
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎
Where
𝑅 𝑉 𝑅 𝑉
𝑉𝑏 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑐 and 𝑉𝑎 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑐
𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴 +𝑅𝑇

𝑅𝐵 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐴 𝑉𝑑𝑐
=
𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑇
That is
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝑇
=
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐴
o Generally RA, RB, and RC are selected so that they are equal in value tp
the transducer resistance 𝑅𝑇 at some reference condition.
o The reference condition is the specific value of the physical quantity
under measurement at which the bridge is balanced.
16 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga
Analog Circuits [18EC42]

o The bridge is balanced initially at a desired reference condition.

o However, as the physical quantity measured changes, the resistance of
the transducer also changes, which causes the bridge to unbalance
𝑉𝑎 ≠ 𝑉𝑏 .
o The output voltage of the bridge can be expressed as a function of the
change in resistance of the transducer.
o Let the change in resistance of the transducer be ∆𝑅.
o Since RB and RC are fixed resistors, the voltage Vb is constant.
o However, voltage Va varies as a function of the change in transducer
resistance.
o Therefore, according to the voltage divider rule
𝑅𝐴 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑅 𝑉
𝑉𝑎 = and 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑐
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑇 +∆𝑅 𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐶

o Consequently, the voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 across the output terminals of the

bridge is
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
𝑅𝐴 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐵 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = −
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑇 + ∆𝑅 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
o However if 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅, then
∆𝑅 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑎𝑏 =
2 2𝑅 + ∆𝑅
 The output voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 of the bridge is then applied to the differential
instrumentation amplifier composed of three op-amps.
 The voltage followers preceding the basic differential amplifier help to
eliminate loading of the bridge circuit.
 The gain of the differential amplifier is − 𝑅𝐹 𝑅1 ; therefore, the output
of the circuit is
𝑅𝐹 ∆𝑅 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 − = −
𝑅1 2 2𝑅 + ∆𝑅 𝑅1
 Generally, the change in resistance of the transducer ∆𝑅 is very small,
hence 2𝑅 + ∆𝑅 ≅ 2𝑅, Thus, the output voltage is
𝑅𝐹 ∆𝑅
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉
𝑅1 4𝑅 𝑑𝑐
 The above equation indicates that VO is directly proportional to the
change in resistance ∆𝑅 of the transducer.
 Since the change in resistance is caused by change in physical energy, a
meter can be connected to the output can be calibrated in terms of the
units that of physical energy.

17 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

COMPARATORS:
 A Comparator, as its name implies, compares a signal voltage on one input
of an op-amp with a known voltage called the reference voltage on the other
input.

BASIC COMPARATOR:

Non-inverting Comparator and its input and output waveforms:

Fig: Non-Inverting Comparator

Fig: Input and output waveforms when if Fig: Input and output waveforms
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = +𝑣𝑒 when if 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = −𝑣𝑒

 The above circuit diagram shows an op-amp used as a comparator.

18 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

 A fixed reference voltage Vref of 1V is applied to the (-) input, and the
other time varying signal voltage Vin is applied to the (+) input. Because
of this arrangement the circuit is called the non-inverting comparator.
 If the reference voltage Vref is positive 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = +𝑣𝑒 with respect to
ground, with a sinusoidal signal applied to the (+) input, the output
waveform will be as shown in figure
o When Vin is less than Vref (Vin < Vref), the output voltage VO is at –
Vsat ≅ −𝑉𝐸𝐸 because the voltage at the (-) input is higher than
that at the (+) input.
o When Vin is greater than Vref (Vin > Vref), the output voltage VO is at
+Vsat ≅ −𝑉𝐶𝐶 because the voltage at the (-) input is lesser than
that at the (+) input.
 If the reference voltage Vref is negative 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = −𝑣𝑒 with respect to
ground, with a sinusoidal signal applied to the (+) input, the output
waveform will be as shown in figure
o When Vin is less than Vref (Vin < Vref), the output voltage VO is at –
Vsat ≅ −𝑉𝐸𝐸 because the voltage at the (-) input is higher than
that at the (+) input.
o When Vin is greater than Vref (Vin > Vref), the output voltage VO is at
+Vsat ≅ −𝑉𝐶𝐶 because the voltage at the (-) input is lesser than
that at the (+) input.
 The Comparator is a type of analog-to-digital converter.
 At any given time the VO waveform shows whether Vin is greter or less
than Vref.
 The comparator is also sometimes called a voltage-level detector
because, for a desired value of Vref, the voltage level of the input Vin can
be detected.

19 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR:

Fig (a): Zero Crossing Detector

 One of the application of comparator is the zero crossing detector or sine

wave to Square wave Converter.
 The basic comparator can be used as a zero crossing detector by setting V ref
is set to Zero (Vref = 0V).
 Figure (a) shows the inverting comparator used as a zero crossing detector.
 Figure (b) shows the output voltage waveform which shows when and in
what direction an input signal Vin passes through zero in the positive
direction.
 Conversely, when Vin passes through zero in the negative direction, the
output VO switches and saturates positively.

20 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

SCHMITT TRIGGER:

Fig (a): Inverting Schmitt Trigger

Fig (b): Input and Output waveforms Fig: VO versus Vin plot of the
hysteris
 The above figure (a) shows the circuit diagram of the Schmitt trigger.
 The input voltage Vin triggers the output voltage VO every time it exceeds
certain voltage levels called the upper threshold voltage Vut and lower
threshold voltage Vlt, as shown in the figure (b).
 The threshold voltages (Vut and Vlt) are obtained by using the voltage divider
circuit R1 and R2, where the voltage across R1 is fed back to the positive
terminal (+) of the input.
 The voltage across R1 is a variable reference threshold voltage that depends
on the value and polarity of the output voltage VO.
 When VO =+Vsat, the voltage across R1 is called the upper threshold voltage,
Vut.

21 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Analog Circuits [18EC42]

o When the input is slightly more positive than Vut the ouput voltage VO
will switch from +Vsat to –Vsat.
o As long as Vin< +Vut, VO is at +Vsat, using voltage divider rule,
𝑅1
𝑉𝑢𝑡 = +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

 When VO =-Vsat, the voltage across R1 is called the lower threshold voltage,
Vlt.
o When the input is slightly more positive than Vut the ouput voltage VO
will switch from -Vsat to +Vsat.
o As long as Vin> +Vut, VO is at -Vsat, using voltage divider rule,
𝑅1
𝑉𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

 In the circuit diagram ROM≅R1||R2 is used to minimize the offset problems.

 Figure (b) shows the output waveform of the Schmitt trigger is a square
wave when the input wave is sine wave.
 Figure (c) shows plot of the hysteresis voltage, the hysteresis voltage is equal
to the difference between Vut and Vlt.

𝑉ℎ𝑦 = 𝑉𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑙𝑡

𝑅1 𝑅1
= +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 − −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1
= +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 − −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1
2𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

22 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga