MODULE III

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SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

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MODULE 3
Satellite Communication

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• Satellite Communication systems- Introduction, Kepler’s laws, orbits,

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orbital effects, orbital perturbations

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• Satellite sub systems- Antennas, Transponders, earth station technology,

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Link calculation.

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• Satellite systems- GEO systems, non-GEO communication systems,

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• Satellite Applications- Global Positioning System, Very Small Aperture

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Terminal system, Direct to Home Satellite Systems
• Refer: of
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• 1.Dennis Roddy, Satellite communication, 4/e, McGraw Hill, 2006

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• 2.Tomasi, Advanced Electronic Communication Systems, 6/e, Pearson,

2015.
Introduction
Overview of Satellite Systems
• Use of satellites in communications systems is very much a fact of everyday life,

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• Many homes are equipped with antennas, or “dishes,” used for reception of

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satellite television.

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• As very large areas of the earth are visible from a satellite, the satellite can form

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the star point of a communications net, simultaneously linking many users who

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may be widely separated geographically.

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• Satellites provide communications links to remote communities in sparsely

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populated areas that are difficult to access by other means.

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• Satellite signals ignore political boundaries as well as geographic ones, which
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may or may not be a desirable feature.
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• Any satellite system is distance insensitive with respect to cost, meaning that it
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costs about the same to provide a satellite communications link over a short
distance as it does over a large distance.
• Satellites are used for remote sensing, examples being the detection of water
pollution and the monitoring and reporting of weather conditions.
Overview of Satellite Systems
Frequency Allocations for Satellite Services:
• Frequency allocation is carried out by the International Telecommunication

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Union (ITU).

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• The world is divided into three regions to facilitate this frequency planning

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• Region 1: Europe, Africa, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia

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• Region 2: North and South America and Greenland

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• Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia, and the southwest Pacific

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• Within these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services.

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• Some of the services provided by satellites are:

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• Fixed satellite service (FSS); This service provides links for existing telephone networks

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and for transmitting television signals to cable companies for distribution over cable

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systems
• Broadcasting satellite service (BSS); These services are mainly for direct broadcast to the
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home, sometimes referred to as direct broadcast satellite (DBS) or as direct-to-home
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(DTH) service.
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• Mobile satellite services ; These satellite services include land mobile, maritime mobile, and
aeronautical mobile
• Navigational satellite services; These services include global positioning systems (GPS)
• Meteorological satellite services; These services often provide a search and rescue service.
Overview of Satellite Systems

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Orbits and laws of Planetary Motion

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• Satellites (spacecraft) orbiting the earth follow the

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same laws that govern the motion of the planets

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around the sun.

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• Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was able to derive

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empirically three laws describing planetary motion.

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• Later, in 1665, Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) derived

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Kepler’s laws from his own laws of mechanics and

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developed the theory of gravitation .

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• Kepler’s laws apply quite generally to any two bodies
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in space which interact through gravitation. The
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more massive of the two bodies is referred to as the
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primary, the other, the secondary or satellite.

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Kepler’s laws
Kepler’s First Law
Kepler’s first law states that the

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path followed by a satellite

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around the primary will be an

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ellipse. An ellipse has two focal
points shown as F1 and F2 in Fig.

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The center of mass of the two-

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body system, termed the

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barycenter, is always centered on

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one of the foci. In our specific
case, because of the enormous
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difference between the masses of
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the earth and the satellite, the
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center of mass coincides with the

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center of the earth, which is

therefore always at one of the
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Kepler’s laws
Kepler’s First Law
The semi major axis of the ellipse is denoted by a, and the semi minor

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axis, by b. The eccentricity e is given by

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𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐
𝒆=

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𝒂

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The eccentricity and the semi major axis are two of the orbital parameters

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specified for satellites or space crafts orbiting the earth. For an elliptical

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orbit, 0 < e < 1. When e = 0, the orbit becomes circular.
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Kepler’s laws
Kepler’s Second Law
Kepler’s second law states that,

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for equal time intervals, a

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satellite will sweep out equal

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areas in its orbital plane, focused

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at the barycenter.

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Assuming the satellite travels

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distances S1 and S2 meters in 1 s,

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then the areas A1 and A2 will be
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equal. The average velocity in
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each case is S1 and S2 m/s, and
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because of the equal area law, it

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follows that the velocity at S2 is

less than that at S1.
Kepler’s laws
Kepler’s Third Law
Kepler’s third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is

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proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the two bodies. The mean

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distance is equal to the semi major axis a. For the artificial satellites orbiting the

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earth, Kepler’s third law can be written in the form


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𝟑
𝒂 = 𝟐
𝒏

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where n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and  is the

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earth’s geocentric gravitational constant.

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=3.986005 x1014 m3/s2

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The above equation applies only to the ideal situation of a satellite orbiting a

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perfectly spherical earth of uniform mass, with no perturbing forces acting, such as
atmospheric drag.
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With n in radians per second, the orbital period in seconds is given by

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𝟐
𝑷=
𝒏
The importance of Kepler’s third law is that it shows there is a fixed relationship
between period and semimajor axis.
Kepler’s laws
Calculate the radius of a circular orbit for which the period is 1 day.

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Solution:

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There are 86,400 seconds in 1 d. So P=86400 second

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Therefore the mean motion is

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n=(𝟐)/P= 7.272 x 10-5 rad/s

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From Kepler’s third law: ge
𝟑.𝟗𝟖𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟓∗𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝟏
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𝒂= [ ] 𝟑 = 42,241 km
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−𝟓
(𝟕.𝟐𝟕𝟐∗𝟏𝟎 ) 𝟐

Since the orbit is circular the semimajor axis is also the radius.
Definitions of Terms for Earth-Orbiting Satellites
• Subsatellite path: This is the path
traced out on the earth’s surface

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directly below the satellite.

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• Apogee : The point farthest from

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earth. (ha)

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• Perigee: The point of closest

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approach to earth.(hp)

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• Line of apsides : The line joining the

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perigee and apogee through the
center of the earth. (la) of
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• Inclination: The angle between the

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orbital plane and the earth’s

equatorial plane(i).
Definitions of Terms for Earth-Orbiting Satellites
• Ascending node: The point where the orbit
crosses the equatorial plane going from

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south to north.

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• Descending node: The point where the

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orbit crosses the equatorial plane going

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from north to south.

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• Line of nodes: The line joining the

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ascending and descending nodes through

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the center of the earth.

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• Prograde orbit: An orbit in which the

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satellite moves in the same direction as the
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earth’s rotation and is also known as a
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direct orbit.
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• Retrograde orbit: An orbit in which the

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satellite moves in a direction counter to the

earth’s rotation.
Definitions of Terms for Earth-Orbiting Satellites
• Argument of perigee: The angle from ascending node to perigee, measured
in the orbital plane at the earth’s center, in the direction of satellite motion.

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• Mean anomaly: Mean anomaly M gives an average value of the angular

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position of the satellite with reference to the perigee.

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• True anomaly: The true anomaly is the angle from perigee to the satellite

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position, measured at the earth’s center.

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Types of Orbits
• Most of the satellites are Orbital satellites or Nonsynchronous satellites.
• Nonsynchronous satellites rotate around Earth in an elliptical or circular pattern

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• In a circular orbit, the speed or rotation is constant.

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• In elliptical orbits the speed depends on the height the satellite is above Earth.

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• Prograde orbit: An orbit in which the satellite moves in the same direction as the

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earth’s rotation and is also known as a direct orbit.

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• Retrograde orbit: An orbit in which the satellite moves in a direction counter to

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the earth’s rotation.

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• All satellites rotate around Earth in an orbit that forms a plane that passes
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through the center of gravity of Earth called the geocenter.
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• Three orbits that a satellite can follow as it rotates around Earth

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• Inclined,
• Equatorial,
• Polar.
Types of Orbits
• Inclined orbits are virtually all orbits except those that travel directly above
the equator or directly over the North and South Poles.

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• An equatorial orbit is when the satellite rotates in an orbit directly above

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the equator, usually in a circular path. With an equatorial orbit, the angle of

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inclination is 0°, and there are no ascending or descending nodes and,

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hence, no line of nodes. All geosynchronous satellites are in equatorial

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orbits.

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• Polar orbit is when the satellite rotates in a path that takes it over the

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North and South Poles in an orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
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• Geosynchronous satellites orbit Earth above the equator with the same
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angular velocity as Earth. Hence, geosynchronous (sometimes called

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stationary or geostationary) satellites appear to remain in a fixed location

above one spot on Earth’s surface. Geosynchronous orbits are circular;
therefore, the speed of rotation is constant throughout the orbit.
Types of Orbits
• Orbits based on Satellite Elevation :Satellites are generally classified as
having either a low earth orbit (LEO), medium earth orbit (MEO), or

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geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO) based on the elevation.

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• LEO orbits: Most LEO satellites operate in the 1.0-GHz to 2.5-GHz

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frequency range. Motorola’s satellite-based mobile-telephone system,
Iridium is a LEO system utilizing a 66-satellite constellation orbiting

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approximately 480 miles above Earth’s surface. The main advantage of LEO

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satellites is that the path loss between earth stations and space vehicles is

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much lower than for satellites revolving in medium- or high-altitude orbits.

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Less path loss equates to lower transmit powers, smaller antennas, and less

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weight. ge
• MEO Orbits: MEO satellites operate in the 1.2-GHz to 1.66-GHz frequency
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band and orbit between 6000 miles and 12,000 miles above Earth. The
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Department of Defense’s satellite based global positioning system,

NAVSTAR, is a MEO system with a constellation of 21 working satellites
and six spares orbiting approximately 9500 miles above Earth.
Types of Orbits
• GEO Orbits: Geosynchronous satellites are high-altitude earth-orbit
satellites operating primarily in the 2-GHz to 18-GHz frequency spectrum

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with orbits 22,300 miles above Earth’s surface. Most commercial

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communications satellites are in geosynchronous orbit. Geosynchronous or

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geostationary satellites are those that orbit in a circular pattern with an

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angular velocity equal to that of Earth. Geostationary satellites have an

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orbital time of approximately 24 hours, the same as Earth; thus,

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geosynchronous satellites appear to be stationary, as they remain in a fixed

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position in respect to a given point on Earth.

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Orbit Perturbations
• The Keplerian orbit is ideal in the sense that it assumes that the earth is a uniform
spherical mass

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• The only force acting is the centrifugal force resulting from satellite motion balancing

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the gravitational pull of the earth.

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• In practice, other forces which can be significant are the gravitational forces of the sun

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and the moon and atmospheric drag.

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• The gravitational pulls of sun and moon have negligible effect on low-orbiting satellites,

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but they do affect satellites in the geostationary orbit.

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• Atmospheric drag, has negligible effect on geostationary satellites but does affect low
orbiting earth satellites below about 1000 km.
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Orbit Perturbations
1. Effects of a nonspherical earth

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For a spherical earth of uniform mass, Kepler’s third law gives the nominal mean motion n0 as

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

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𝒏𝟎 =

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𝒂𝟑

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The 0 subscript is included as a reminder that this result applies for a perfectly spherical earth of uniform

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mass. However, it is known that the earth is not perfectly spherical, there being an equatorial bulge and a

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flattening at the poles, a shape described as an oblate spheroid. When the earth’s oblateness is taken into

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account, the mean motion, denoted in this case by symbol n, is modified to

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K1 is a constant which evaluates to 66,063.1704 km2. and i is the inclination.

The earth’s oblateness has negligible effect on the semimajor axis a, and if a is known, the mean motion is
readily calculated.
Effects of a nonspherical earth….

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The orbital period taking into account the earth’s oblateness is termed the anomalistic

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period. The mean motion specified in the NASA bulletins is the reciprocal of the

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anomalistic period. The anomalistic period is

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𝟐
𝑷𝑨 = s

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𝒏

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where n is in radians per second.

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If the known quantity is n one can solve Equation for n, keeping in mind that n0 is also a function of a. a can

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be found by finding the root of the following equation

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Effects of a nonspherical earth….

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Example :

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A satellite is orbiting in the equatorial plane with a period from perigee to perigee of 12 h. Given that the

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eccentricity is 0.002, calculate the semimajor axis. The earth’s equatorial radius is 6378.1414 km.

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Answer: Given data:

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e = 0.002; i =0°; P = 12 h, K1 = 66063.1704 km2; aE =6378.1414 km; = 3.986005 x 1014 m3/s2

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𝟐

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The mean motion is: 𝒏 = = 1.454 x 10-4 s-1

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𝑷
Assuming this is the same as n0, Kepler’s third law gives

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 𝟏
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𝒂 = ( 𝟐 ) 𝟑 = 𝟐𝟔𝟔𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒎
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𝒏
Effects of a nonspherical earth….

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The oblateness of the earth also produces two rotations of the orbital plane both of which depend on the

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mean motion n, the semimajor axis a, and the eccentricity e.

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• The first of these, known as regression of the nodes, is where the nodes appear to slide along the equator.

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In effect, the line of nodes, which is in the equatorial plane, rotates about the center of the earth. Thus Ω,
the right ascension of the ascending node, shifts its position.

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• The second effect is rotation of apsides in the orbital plane. This line rotates in the orbital plane, resulting

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in the argument of perigee changing with time.

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• These factors can be grouped into one factor K given by

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• The rate of change of  with respect to time is
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• The rate of change of the argument of perigee with time is

Orbit Perturbations
2. Atmospheric drag
• For near-earth satellites, below about 1000 km, the effects of atmospheric

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drag are significant. Because the drag is greatest at the perigee, the drag acts

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to reduce the velocity at this point, with the result that the satellite does

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not reach the same apogee height on successive revolutions. The result is

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that the semimajor axis and the eccentricity are both reduced. Drag does

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not noticeably change the other orbital parameters, including perigee

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height. An approximate expression for the change of major axis is

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GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITES
• Geosynchronous satellites orbit Earth above the equator with the same angular
velocity as Earth.

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• Hence, geosynchronous (sometimes called stationary or geostationary) satellites

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appear to remain in a fixed location above one spot on Earth’s surface.

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• Since a geosynchronous satellite appears to remain in a fixed location, no special

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antenna tracking equipment is necessary—earth station antennas are simply

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pointed at the satellite.

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• Geosynchronous orbits are circular; therefore, the speed of rotation is constant

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throughout the orbit. There is only one geosynchronous earth orbit; however, it is
occupied by a large number of satellites.

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• Ideally, geosynchronous satellites should remain stationary above a chosen
location over the equator in an equatorial orbit; however, the sun and the moon
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exert gravitational forces, solar winds sweep past Earth, and Earth is not perfectly
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spherical.
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• Therefore, these unbalanced forces cause geosynchronous satellites to drift slowly

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away from their assigned locations in a figure-eight excursion with a 24-hour

period that follows a wandering path slightly above and below the equatorial
plane. This occurs in a special type of inclined orbit sometimes called a stationary
inclined orbit.
GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITES
• Ground controllers must periodically adjust satellite positions to counteract
these forces. The process of maneuvering a satellite within a preassigned

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window is called station keeping.

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• Requirements for satellites in geostationary orbits:

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1. Geosynchronous satellites must have a 0° angle of inclination (i.e., the satellite vehicle

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must be orbiting directly above Earth’s equatorial plane).

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2. The satellite must also be orbiting in the same direction as Earth’s rotation

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(eastward—toward the morning sun) with the same angular (rotational) velocity—

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one revolution per day.

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3. The semi major axis of a geosynchronous earth orbit is the distance from a satellite

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revolving in the geosynchronous orbit to the center of Earth. Using Kepler’s third law,
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the semi major axis ‘a’ can be calculated as a= 42164km. Hence, geosynchronous earth-
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orbit satellites revolve around Earth in a circular pattern directly above the equator
42,164 km from the center of Earth.
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4. Because Earth’s equatorial radius is approximately 6378 km, the height above mean sea
level (h) of a satellite in a geosynchronous orbit around Earth is h = 42,164 km - 6378
km =35,786 km or approximately 22,300 miles above Earth’s surface.
GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITES
Geosynchronous Satellite Orbital Velocity
• The circumference (C) of a geosynchronous orbit is

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C = 2π(42,164 km)= 264,790 km

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• Therefore, the velocity (v) of a geosynchronous satellite is

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𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟕𝟗𝟎𝒌𝒎
𝒗 = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟑𝟑𝐤𝐦𝐩𝐡 = 𝟔𝟖𝟒𝟎𝐦𝐩𝐡

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𝟐𝟒𝒉𝒓

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Round-Trip Time Delay of Geosynchronous Satellites

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• The round-trip propagation delay between a satellite and an earth station located

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directly below it is

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t= d/c =(2x35,768 km2 )/3 x 105 km/s = 238 ms
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• Including the time delay within the earth station and satellite equipment, it takes more
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than a quarter of a second for an electromagnetic wave to travel from an earth station to
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a satellite and back when the earth station is located at a point on Earth directly below
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the satellite. For earth stations located at more distant locations, the propagation delay
is even more substantial and can be significant with two-way telephone conversations or
data transmissions.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITES
ADVANTAGES

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• Geosynchronous satellites remain almost stationary in respect to a given earth

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station. Consequently, expensive tracking equipment is not required at the

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earth stations.

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• Geosynchronous satellites are available to all earth stations within their

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shadow 100% of the time. The shadow of a satellite includes all the earth

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stations that have a line-of-sight path to it and lie within the radiation pattern

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of the satellite’s antennas.

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• There is no need to switch from one geosynchronous satellite to another as
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they orbit overhead. Consequently, there are no transmission breaks due to
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switching times.
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• The effects of Doppler shift are negligible.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITES

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DISADVANTAGES

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• Geosynchronous satellites require sophisticated and heavy propulsion devices

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onboard to keep them in a fixed orbit.

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• High-altitude geosynchronous satellites introduce much longer propagation

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delays. The round-trip propagation delay between two earth stations through a

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geosynchronous satellite is between 500 ms and 600 ms.

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• Geosynchronous satellites require higher transmit powers and more sensitive

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receivers because of the longer distances and greater path losses.
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• High-precision spacemanship is required to place a geosynchronous satellite into
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orbit and to keep it there.

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Satellite Subsystems
The major operations which take place in a satellite
communication system are orbit controlling, altitude of

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satellite, monitoring and controlling of other subsystems.

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A satellite communications system can be broadly

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divided into two segments

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• a ground segment and

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• a space segment.

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Accordingly there will be two types of subsystems

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namely, space segment subsystems and earth segment

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subsystems.

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The space segment will obviously include the satellites,
but it also includes the ground facilities needed to keep
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the satellites operational. ge
The earth segment will include the units needed to
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facilitate tracking, telemetry, and command (TT&C).

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The communication takes place between space segment

subsystems and earth segment subsystems through
communication links.
Satellite Subsystems
Space Segment Subsystems
The subsystems present in space segment are called as space segment subsystems.

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The space segment subsystems are

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• Attitude and Orbit Control -AOC Subsystem

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• Tracking, telemetry, and command- TTCM Subsystem

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• Power and Antenna Subsystems

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• Transponders

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Earth Segment Subsystems

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The subsystems present in the ground segment have the ability to access the
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satellite repeater in order to provide the communication between the users. Earth
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segment is also called as ground segment.
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Earth segment performs mainly two functions. These are transmission of a signal
to the satellite and reception of signal from the satellite. Earth stations are the
major subsystems that are present in earth segment.
Satellite Subsystems
Space Segment

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Attitude and Orbit Control -AOC Subsystem

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Satellite may deviate from its orbit due to the gravitational forces from sun, moon

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and other planets. These forces change cyclically over a 24-hour period, since the

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satellite moves around the earth. Attitude and Orbit Control (AOC) subsystem

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consists of rocket motors, which are capable of placing the satellite into the right

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orbit, whenever it is deviated from the respective orbit. AOC subsystem is helpful

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in order to make the antennas, which are of narrow beam type points towards

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earth.

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AOC subsystem consists of two parts.
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• Attitude Control Subsystem

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• Orbit Control Subsystem

Satellite Subsystems
Attitude Control Subsystem

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The attitude of a satellite refers to its orientation in space. Attitude control

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is necessary, to ensure that directional antennas point in the proper directions.

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Attitude control subsystem takes care of the orientation of satellite in its

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respective orbit. The two methods to ensure that the satellite that is stable in the

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orbit are

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• Spinning satellite stabilization

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• Momentum wheel stabilization (Three axes method)
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Satellite Subsystems
Spin stabilization: This type of
stabilization may be achieved with

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cylindrical satellites. The satellite is

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constructed so that it is mechanically

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balanced about one particular axis and

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is then set spinning around this axis.

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The body of the satellite rotates

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around its spin axis at 30 to 100 rpm in

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order to produce a gyroscopic force.

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Due to this, the spin axis gets

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stabilized and the satellite will point
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in the same direction. Satellites are of
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this type are called as spinners. For

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geostationary satellites, the spin axis is

adjusted to be parallel to the N-S axis
of the earth, as illustrated in Figure.
Satellite Subsystems
Momentum wheel stabilization (Three
axes method)

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In this method, the satellite can be

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stabilized by using one or more

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momentum wheels. This method is called

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as three-axis method. The advantage of

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this method is that the orientation of the

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satellite in three axes will be controlled

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and there is no need of rotating the

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satellite’s main body.
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The three axes which define a
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satellite’s attitude are its roll, pitch, and

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yaw (RPY) axes. These are shown relative

to the earth in Figure. All three axes pass
through the center of gravity of the
satellite.
Satellite Subsystems
Momentum wheel stabilization (Three axes method)

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Roll axis is considered in the direction in which the satellite moves in

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orbital plane.

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Yaw axis is considered in the direction towards earth.

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Pitch axis is considered in the direction, which is perpendicular to orbital

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plane.

er
ne
In this method, each axis contains two gas jets. They will provide the

gi
En
rotation in both directions of the three axes. The first gas jet will be operated for
some period of time, when there is a requirement of satellite’s motion in a
of
particular axis direction. The second gas jet will be operated for same period of
ge
time, when the satellite reaches to the desired position. So, the second gas jet
lle
Co

will stop the motion of satellite in that axis direction.

Satellite Subsystems
Orbit Control Subsystem

la
In addition to having its attitude controlled, it is important that a

a
th
geostationary satellite be kept in its correct orbital slot. Orbit control

er
subsystem is useful in order to bring the satellite into its correct orbit, whenever

Ch
the satellite gets deviated from its orbit. The equatorial ellipticity of the earth

g
causes geostationary satellites to drift slowly along the orbit. The procedure

in
er
applied to bring the satellite back into the correct orbit are called Station

ne
keeping maneuvers.

gi
En
The TTCM subsystem present at earth station monitors the position of

of
satellite. If there is any change in satellite orbit, then it sends a signal regarding
ge
the correction to Orbit control subsystem. Then, it will resolve that issue by
lle

bringing the satellite into the correct orbit.

Co

In this way, the AOC subsystem takes care of the satellite position in the
right orbit and at right altitude during entire life span of the satellite in space.
Satellite Subsystems
Tracking, telemetry, and command- TTCM Subsystem
Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM) subsystem is present in

la
a
both satellite and earth station.

th
er
Telemetry, or telemetering, means measurement at a distance. Mainly, the following

Ch
operations take place in ‘Telemetry’.
• Generation of an electrical signal, which is proportional to the quantity to be

g
in
measured.

er
ne
• Encoding the electrical signal.

gi
• Transmitting this code to a distant earth station.

En
Data which are transmitted as telemetry signals include
of
• attitude information from sun and earth sensors;
ge
lle

• environmental information such as the magnetic field intensity and direction,

Co

• the frequency of meteorite impact

• spacecraft information such as temperatures, power supply voltages, and stored-fuel
pressure.
Satellite Subsystems
Tracking, telemetry, and command- TTCM Subsystem
Telemetry and command may be thought of as complementary functions. The

la
a
telemetry subsystem transmits information about the satellite to the earth station,

th
while the command subsystem receives command signals from the earth station, in

er
response to telemetered information. The command subsystem demodulates and

Ch
decodes the command signals and routes these to the appropriate equipment needed

g
to execute the necessary action.

in
er
In general, control codes are converted into command words. These command

ne
words are sent in the form of TDM frames. Initially, the validity of command words

gi
are checked by the satellite. After this, these command words are sent back to earth

En
station. Here, these command words are checked once again. If the earth station also

of
receives the same (correct) command word, then it sends an execute instruction to
satellite. Then it executes that command.
ge
lle
Tracking of the satellite is accomplished by having the satellite transmit beacon
Co

signals which are received at the TT&C earth stations. The tracking subsystem that is
present in an earth station keeps tracking of satellite, when it is released from last
stage of Launch vehicle. It performs the functions like, locating of satellite in its initial
orbit and transfer orbit.
Satellite Subsystems
Power Systems

la
The satellite present in an orbit should be operated continuously during

a
th
its life span. So, the satellite requires internal power in order to operate various

er
electronic systems and communications payload that are present in it. The vital

Ch
subsystem, which provides the power required for working of a satellite are

g
mainly, the solar cells (or panels) and rechargeable batteries. Solar cells generate

in
er
very less power. So, in order to generate more power, group of cells or solar

ne
arrays are used. Two types of solar arrays used are Cylindrical solar arrays and

gi
Solar sails.

En
of
During eclipse time, it is difficult to get the power from sun light. So, in
ge
that situation the other subsystems get power from rechargeable batteries.
lle

These batteries provide power to other subsystems during launching of satellite.

Co

In general, these batteries charge due to excess current, which is generated by

solar cells in the presence of sun light.
Satellite Subsystems
Antenna Subsystems

la
Antennas for use in satellite communications can be classified into earth

a
th
station antennas and satellite or spacecraft antennas.

er
Ch
Satellite antennas perform two types of functions. Those are receiving of signals,
which are coming from earth station and transmitting signals to one or more

g
in
earth stations based on the requirement. In other words, the satellite antennas

er
receive uplink signals and transmit downlink signals.

ne
gi
The main four types of Satellite Antennas are

En
• Wire Antennas
of
ge
• Horn Antennas
lle

• Array Antennas
Co

• Reflector Antennas
Satellite Subsystems
Antenna Subsystems
• Wire Antennas are the basic antennas. Eg: Mono pole and dipole antennas. These are

la
a
used in very high frequencies in order to provide the communication for TTCM

th
er
subsystem. Wire antennas are Omni-directional antennas suitable for covering the

Ch
range of access and to provide signal strength in all directions.

g
• Horn Antenna is an example of aperture antenna. It is used in satellites in order to

in
er
cover more area on earth. Horn antennas are used in microwave frequency range. The

ne
same feed horn can be used for both transmitting and receiving the signals. A device

gi
named duplexer, which separates these two signals.

En
• Array Antennas are used in satellites to form multiple beams from single aperture.

of
Beam shaping can be achieved by using an array of basic elements. The elements are
ge
arranged so that their radiation patterns provide mutual reinforcement in certain
lle

directions and cancellation in others

Co

• Reflector Antennas provide a focusing mechanism which concentrates the energy in

a given direction. These are highly directional antennas. So, Parabolic reflectors
increase the gain of antennas in satellite communication system.
Satellite Subsystems
Transponders

la
The subsystem, which provides the connecting link between transmitting

a
th
and receiving antennas of a satellite is known as Transponder. It is one of the

er
most important subsystem of space segment subsystems. A transponder is the

Ch
series of interconnected units which forms a single communications channel.

g
in
Transponder performs the functions of both transmitter and receiver

er
(Responder) in a satellite. Hence, the word ‘Transponder’ is obtained by the

ne
gi
combining few letters of two words, Transmitter (Trans) and Responder

En
(ponder).

of
Transponder performs mainly two functions of amplifying the received
ge
input signal and translating the frequency of the received signal. Different
lle

frequency values are chosen for both uplink and down link in order to avoid the
Co

interference between the transmitted and received signals.

Satellite Subsystems
Transponders

la
Block diagram of a transponder is shown below. This is same as an RF to RF

a
th
repeater

er
Ch
g
in
er
ne
gi
En
of
ge
lle
Co
Satellite Subsystems
Transponders

la
Basically, there are two types of transponders. These are Bent pipe

a
th
transponders and Regenerative transponders. Bent pipe transponder is also

er
called as repeater and conventional transponder. It performs conventional

Ch
amplification and frequency translation functions. It is suitable for both analog

g
and digital signals. Regenerative transponder performs in addition to these two

in
er
functions, the demodulation of RF carrier to baseband, and regeneration of

ne
signals and modulation. Regenerative transponder is also known as Processing

gi
transponder. It is suitable only for digital signals. The main advantages of

En
Regenerative transponders are improvement in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and
of
better flexibility in implementation.
ge
lle
Co
Satellite Subsystems
Earth Segment

la
Earth Stations

a
th
er
The earth segment of a satellite communications system consists of the

Ch
transmit and receive earth stations. The simplest of these are the home TV

g
receive-only (TVRO) systems, and the most complex are the terminal stations

in
er
used for international communications networks. The earth segment also

ne
includes the earth stations which are on ships at sea, and commercial and

gi
military land and aeronautical mobile stations. Earth stations receive and

En
transmit video, voice and data signals in the analog or digital form.

of
Design of an Earth station depends on the location of earth station on
ge
lle
land, on ships in sea and on aircraft, type of service provided, frequency bands
Co

utilization, transmitter, receiver and antenna characteristics.

The four main elements of an earth station are transmitter, receiver, antenna
and tracking subsystem.
Satellite Subsystems
Earth Stations

la
The block diagram of an earth station is shown below.

a
th
er
Ch
g
in
er
ne
gi
En
of
ge
lle
Co
Satellite Subsystems
Earth Stations

la
Transmitter: The digital information enters at base band equipment of earth

a
station from terrestrial network. Encoder includes error correction bits in order

th
er
to minimize the bit error rate. In satellite communication, the Intermediate

Ch
Frequency (IF) can be chosen as 70 MHz by using a transponder having
bandwidth of 36 MHz. The Up converter performs the frequency conversion of

g
in
modulated signal to higher frequency. This signal is amplified by using High

er
power amplifier. The earth station antenna transmits this signal.

ne
gi
Receiver : During reception, the earth station antenna receives downlink signal

En
which is a low-level modulated RF signal. To amplify this weak received signal,
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) is used. Hence there is an improvement in Signal to
of
Noise Ratio (SNR). The RF signal is down converted to the Intermediate
ge
Frequency (IF) value of 70 MHz as demodulation is easier at these intermediate
lle

frequencies. The function of the decoder is just opposite to that of encoder. The
Co

decoder produces an error free digital information by removing error correction

bits and correcting the bit positions if any. This digital data is given to base
band equipment for further processing and then delivered to the terrestrial
network.
Satellite Subsystems
Earth Stations

la
Earth Station Antenna: The major parts of Earth station Antenna are feed system

a
th
and Antenna reflector. Earth station antennas are suitable for both transmitting

er
and receiving electromagnetic waves. Parabolic reflectors are used as the main

Ch
antenna in earth stations. The gain of these reflectors is high. They have the ability

g
in
of focusing a parallel beam into a point at the focus, where the feed system is

er
located.

ne
gi
Tracking Subsystem: The Tracking subsystem keeps track with the satellite and

En
make sure that the beam comes towards it in the right direction to establish the

of
communication. The Tracking system present in the earth station performs mainly
ge
two functions of satellite acquisition and tracking of satellite. Tracking can be
lle

performed as automatic tracking, manual tracking & programmed tracking.

Co
Satellite Subsystems
Earth Stations
The block diagram of a redundant earth station is shown below. Redundancy means

la
that certain units are duplicated. A duplicate, or redundant, unit is automatically

a
th
switched into a circuit to replace a corresponding unit that has failed. Redundant units

er
are shown by dashed lines.

Ch
g
in
er
ne
gi
En
of
ge
lle
Co
Link Budget Calculations
• Essentially, a satellite system consists of three basic sections: an uplink, a
satellite transponder, and a downlink.

ala
th
• The performance of a satellite communication system is evaluated by

er
identifying the various gains and losses incurred in transmission.

Ch
• The uplink and downlink parameters are first considered separately, then

g
in
the overall performance is determined by combining them in the

er
ne
appropriate manner.

gi
En
• Link equations are used to separately analyze the uplink and downlink

of
sections of a single radio-frequency carrier satellite system. The link-power
ge
budget calculations basically relate two quantities, the transmit power and
lle

the receive power, and show in detail how the difference between these
Co

two powers is accounted for.

• The first step in the calculations is to determine the losses for clear weather
or clear-sky conditions.
Co
lle
Satellite Uplink Model

ge
of
En
gi
ne
er
in
g
Ch
er
th
a la
Co
lle
ge
Satellite Downlink Model

of
En
gi
ne
er
in
g
Ch
er
th
a la
Link Budget Calculations
• Equivalent (Effective) Isotropic Radiated Power: A key parameter in link-budget calculations is the
Equivalent or Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, conventionally denoted as EIRP. The [EIRP] may be

la
thought of as the power input to one end of the transmission link, and the problem is to find the power

a
th
received at the other end. Losses will occur along the way, some of which are constant.

er
Ch
• EIRP = Pin x At

g
in
Where Pin = antenna input power (watts) , At = transmit antenna gain (unitless ratio)

er
• Expressed as a log, EIRP(dBW) = Pin(dBW) + At(dB)

ne
gi
• In respect to the transmitter output,

En
of
Pin = Pt - Lbo - Lbf
ge
• Thus, EIRP = Pt - Lbo - Lbf + At
lle

• Lbo = back-off losses of HPA (decibels)

Co

• Lbf = total branching and feeder loss (decibels)

• Pt= saturated amplifier output power (dBW per watt)
Link Budget Calculations
Losses to be considered:
• Back-off loss = The amount the output level is backed off from rated levels

la
a
is equivalent to a loss and is appropriately called back-off loss (Lbo).

th
er
• Branching and feeder loss = Losses will occur in the connection between the

Ch
receive antenna and the receiver power. Such losses will occur in the

g
in
connecting waveguides, filters, and couplers (decibels).This is the

er
branching and feeder loss (Lbf).

ne
gi
• Antenna misalignment losses (LA)=Losses that may result at the antenna

En
from misalignment of the polarization direction
of
• Free space path loss =Power loss resulting from the spreading of the signal
ge
𝟒𝐃
lle

in space (Lp).[ 𝐋𝐩 = (  )𝟐 ]
Co

• Atmospheric and ionospheric losses = Losses by absorption due to

Atmospheric gases (Lu)
Link Budget Calculations
Carrier–to–Noise Density Ratio
C/N0 is the average wideband carrier power-to-noise density ratio.

la
a
th
The wideband carrier power is the combined power of the carrier and its

er
associated sidebands.

Ch
The noise density is the thermal noise present in a normalized 1-Hz

g
in
bandwidth.

er
ne
Mathematically, C/N0 is

gi
En
Where K = Boltzmann’s constant (joules/per kelvin)

of
Te = equivalent noise temperature (kelvin)
ge
lle

Expressed in dB,
Co
Link Equations
Uplink Equation

la
a
th
er
Ch
g
in
er
ne
gi
En
of
ge
lle
Co
Link Budget Calculations
• HPA- high-power amplifier;
• Pt- HPA output power;

la
• Lbo- back-off loss;

a
th
• Lf - feeder loss;

er
• Lb - branching loss;

Ch
• At- transmit antenna gain;

g
•

in
Pr - total radiated power = Pt – Lbo- Lb - Lf

er
• EIRP- effective isotropic radiated power =Pr Ar

ne
• Lu- additional uplink losses due to atmosphere

gi
En
• Lp, Free space path loss;
• Ar -receive antenna gain
•
of
G/Te- gain-to-equivalent noise ratio;
ge
•
lle
Ld, additional downlink losses due to atmosphere;
Co

• C/Te, carrier-to-equivalent noise ratio;

• C/N0, carrier-to-noise density ratio;
• Eb/N0, energy of bit-to-noise density ratio;
• C/N, carrier-to-noise ratio
Link Budget Calculations
To derive the Link equation:
• The carrier to noise ratio in dB is given by

la
𝑪
• [ ] = 𝑷𝑹 − [𝑷𝑵 ] where PR= Received power, PN –Total noise power at the receiver in dB

a
𝑵

th
• PR= EIRP x GR (with all the losses considered)

er
• Therefore, [PR]= [EIRP]+[GR]-[Losses] in dB.

Ch
• PN= kTN BN ,where TN is the equivalent noise temperature and BN is the equivalent noise bandwidth and

g
in
k=1.38x10-23

er
𝑪
• Now [ ] = 𝑷𝑹 − 𝑷𝑵 = 𝑬𝑰𝑹𝑷 + 𝑮𝑹 − 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 − 𝒌 − 𝑻𝑵 − [𝑩𝑵 ]

ne
𝑵

gi
𝑮
• So GR and TN can be combined to form the G/T ratio as [ ] = 𝑮𝑹 − [𝑻𝑵 ]

En
𝑻
𝑪 𝑮
• Now [ ] = 𝑬𝑰𝑹𝑷 + − 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 − 𝒌 − [𝑩𝑵 ]

of
𝑵 𝑻
• Spectral noise density N0= PN/BN =kTN or PN= N0 BN
ge
lle
𝑪 𝑪 𝑪
• [ ]= = [ ] − [𝑩𝑵 ]
𝑵 𝑵𝟎 𝑩𝑵 𝑵𝟎
Co

𝑪 𝑮
• That is = 𝑬𝑰𝑹𝑷 + − 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 − 𝒌
𝑵𝟎 𝑻
• This is the link equation where EIRP= PT AT (earth station transmitter) for uplink and
• EIRP= PT AT (satellite transmitter) for downlink.
Link Equations
Uplink Equation Down link Equation

la
a
th
er
Ch
g
Expressed as a log, Expressed as a log,

in
er
ne
gi
En
of
ge
lle
Co
Link Budget
A link budget identifies the system parameters and is used to determine the
projected C/N and Eb/N0 ratios at both the satellite and earth station receivers
for a given modulation scheme and desired P(e).

la
a
th
Uplink C/ N0 is calculated as

er
Ch
g
in
er
ne
gi
Downlink C/N0 is calculated as

En
of
ge
lle
Co

Eb/No is calculated as
Where fb is the bit rate
Link Budget Calculation Example

la
a
th
er
Ch
g
in
er
ne
gi
En
of
ge
lle
Co
Solution :
Uplink budget Downlink budget

la
𝑪 𝑮

a
𝑪 𝑮

th
= 𝑬𝑰𝑹𝑷 + − 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 − 𝒌 = 𝑬𝑰𝑹𝑷 + − 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 − 𝒌

er
𝑵𝟎 𝑻 𝑵𝟎 𝑻

Ch
[EIRP]=[PT]+[AT]=33dB + 64 dB [EIRP]=[PT]+[AT]=10dB + 30.8 dB

g
in
C/N0= 33 + 64 + -5.3 - 3 -4 - 0.6 - 206.5 -10 C/N0= 10 + 30.8 + 37.7- 0.1 -0.5- 0.4 – 205.6

er
log (1.38x10-23) = 106.2 dB -10 log (1.38x10-23) = 100.5 dB

ne
gi
En
of
Eb/N0= 106.2- 10 log (120x106) =25.4 dB.
ge Eb/N0= 100.5- 10 log (120x106) =19.7 dB.
lle
Co
Specialized Satellite Applications
Direct to Home (DTH) application
Planned broadcasting directly to home TV receivers takes place in the

la
a
th
Ku (12-GHz) band. This service is known as direct broadcast satellite (DBS)

er
service.

Ch
Comparatively large satellite receiving dishes ranging in diameter

g
in
from about 6 ft to about 10 ft, are used to receive downlink TV signals at C

er
ne
band (4 GHz). A single mesh type reflector may be used which focuses the

gi
signals into a dual feed horn. Much of television programming originates as

En
first generation signals, also known as master broadcast quality signals.
of
These are transmitted via satellite in the C band to the network headend
ge
stations, where they are retransmitted as compressed digital signals to cable
lle

and direct broadcast satellite providers. To take full advantage of C-band

Co

reception the home antenna has to be steerable to receive from different

satellites, usually by means of a polar mount.
Direct to Home (DTH) application
Block diagram for a home terminal DBS
reception is shown.

ala
th
er
Ch
g
in
er
ne
gi
En
of
ge
lle
Co
Specialized Satellite Applications
Direct to Home (DTH) application
The outdoor unit consists of a receiving antenna feeding directly into a low-noise

la
a
amplifier/converter combination. A parabolic reflector is generally used, with the

th
er
receiving horn mounted at the focus. A common design is to have the focus

Ch
directly in front of the reflector, but for better interference rejection, an offset feed

g
may be used. A polarizer that may be switched to the desired polarization from

in
the indoor control unit is required at the receiving horn. The receiving horn feeds

er
ne
into a low-noise converter (LNC) or possibly a combination unit consisting of a

gi
low-noise amplifier (LNA) followed by a converter. The LNA provides gain for the

En
broadband 12-GHz signal and then converts the signal to a lower frequency range

of
so that a low-cost coaxial cable can be used as feeder to the indoor unit.
ge
lle
The indoor unit receives a wideband signal covering the range 950 to 1450 MHz.
Co

This is amplified and passed to a tracking filter which selects the desired channel.
The selected channel is again down converted, this time from the 950- to 1450-
MHz range to a fixed intermediate frequency, usually 70 MHz. the tuner selects
the channel and the carrier is demodulated for display of video on the monitor.
Specialized Satellite Applications
VSAT –Very Small aperture Terminal
This is a satellite communications system that serves home and business users. A

la
very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is a small telecommunication earth station that

a
th
receives and transmits real-time data via satellite. A VSAT transmits narrow and

er
broadband signals to orbital satellites. The data from the satellites is then transmitted to

Ch
different hubs in other locations around the globe. The distinguishing feature of a VSAT
system is that the earth-station antennas are typically less than 2.4 m in diameter . Typical

g
in
user groups include banking and financial institutions, airline and hotel booking agencies,

er
and large retail stores with geographically dispersed outlets.

ne
The basic structure of a VSAT network consists of a hub station which provides a

gi
En
broadcast facility to all the VSATs in the network and the VSATs themselves which access
the satellite in some form of multiple access mode. The hub station is operated by the

of
service provider, and it may be shared among a number of users. Each user organization
ge
has exclusive access to its own VSAT network. Time division multiplex is the normal
lle

downlink mode of transmission from hub to the VSATs, and the transmission can be
Co

broadcast for reception by all the VSATs in a network, or address coding can be used to
direct messages to selected VSATs. Access the other way, from the VSATs to the hub, is
more complicated
Specialized Satellite Applications
VSAT –Very Small aperture Terminal
The traffic in a VSAT network is mostly data transfer of a bursty

la
nature. VSATs can make requests for channel allocation. VSAT systems

a
th
operate in a star configuration, which means that the connection of one

er
Ch
VSAT to another must be made through the hub. Most VSAT systems

g
operate in the Ku band, although there are some C-band systems in

in
er
existence. The major shortcomings of present-day VSAT systems are the high

ne
initial costs, the tendency toward optimizing systems for large networks and

gi
the lack of direct VSAT-to-VSAT links. Technological improvements,

En
especially in the areas of microwave technology and digital signal processing
of
will result in VSAT systems in which most, if not all, of these shortcomings
ge
lle
will be overcome.
Co
Specialized Satellite Applications
GPS- Global Positioning System
GPS, which stands for Global Positioning System, is a radio navigation

la
system that allows land, sea, and airborne users to determine their exact

a
th
location, velocity, and time 24 hours a day, in all weather conditions,

er
Ch
anywhere in the world. In the GPS system, a constellation of 24 satellites

g
circles the earth in near-circular inclined orbits. By receiving signals from at

in
er
least four of these satellites, the receiver position (latitude, longitude, and

ne
altitude) can be determined accurately. The GPS system uses one-way

gi
transmissions, from satellites to users, so that the user does not require a

En
transmitter, only a GPS receiver. The only quantity the receiver has to be able
of
to measure is time, from which propagation delay, and hence the range to
ge
lle
each satellite, can be determined. Each satellite broadcasts its ephemeris
Co

(which is a table of the orbital elements) from which its position can be
calculated. Knowing the range to three of the satellites and their positions, it
is possible to compute the position of the observer.
Specialized Satellite Applications
GPS- Global Positioning System
The geocentric-equatorial coordinate system is used with the GPS system, where it is called
the earth-centered, earth-fixed (ECEF) coordinate system. The GPS constellation consists of 24

la
satellites in six near-circular orbits, at an altitude of approximately 20,000 km. The ascending

a
nodes of the orbits are separated by 60°, and the inclination of each orbit is 55°. The four satellites

th
in each orbit are irregularly spaced.

er
Ch
The standard timekeeper is an atomic standard, maintained at the U.S. Naval Observatory,
and the resulting time is known as GPS time. Each satellite carries its own atomic clock.

g
in
Advantages of GPS:

er
• GPS satellite based navigation system is an important tool for military, civil and commercial

ne
users.

gi
• Vehicle tracking systems GPS-based navigation systems can provide us with turn by turn

En
directions

of
• Very high speed ge
Disadvantages of GPS:
lle

• GPS satellite signals are too weak when compared to phone signals, so it doesn’t work as well
Co

indoors, underwater, under trees, etc.

• The highest accuracy requires line-of-sight from the receiver to the satellite.
• GPS accuracy depends on sufficient received signal quality. GPS signal gets affected due to
multipath interference.