“Everyone who understands the subject will

agree that even the basis on which the

scientific explanation of nature rests is
intelligible only to those who have learned at
least the elements of the differential and
integral calculus, as well as analytical
geometry. “

... Felix Klein ...

THE IDEA OF INTEGRAL

The Fundamentals

NM Espartinez, MSAEn
Faculty, DABE, BUCAF, Guinobatan, Albay

2019
CHAPTER 1
DATA ANALYSIS
Integration: The Fundamentals
“You can have data without information, but you cannot have information without data...” Daniel Keys Moran

Calculus is the study of how things change. It provides a background for modeling systems in which
there is change, and a way to infer the predictions of such models.

Broadly speaking, there are two big inquiries in calculus:

1. How can we explain the way that something is changing?

2. How can we explain the accumulation of a changing quantity?

The first we handle with differential calculus, which describes the rate of change
of a function at any instant. Graphically, this looks like the slope of the line that
is tangent to the function at that instant. So, it’s all about derivatives (the study
of continuous change) – from limit concepts building up to differentiation.

The second query is about the calculus of integration. It especially includes the
study of Integral Calculus (as a certain method or system of
calculation/reasoning). Graphically, this looks like the area beneath the graph of
a function.

In this this chapter, students shall be:

 familiar with the fundamental concepts and applications of integration

 able to develop and to understand the mathematical concepts that provide a foundation for
the mathematics encountered in this course.
 be able to work at their own level thereby developing confidence in mathematics and general
problem solving.
 able to interpret and solve application-based integration problems about indefinite integrals

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Lesson 1: The Idea of Integral

In this first chapter, you will learn about the mathematical review that can be
used for the introduction of the key ideas about its foundational concepts
and to be able to work through introductory examples by solving application-
based integration problems.

Integration (or anti-differentiation), is really just the reverse of differentiation. Hence, this discusses
the definition, some rules and techniques for finding indefinite
integrals, as well as a few examples. This also includes the
basic properties of the integrals that are usually applied
through the use of the rules of integration.

We have learned that differentiation is the process of finding

the derivative or differential of a given function. Clearly, we
expect its inverse to be the process of finding the function
whose derivative or differential is given. The inverse of
differentiation is integration, thus, many of the important
applications of calculus depend on this operation.

1.1 The Integral as the Anti-derivative

Integral Calculus is that branch of mathematics concerned with the theory and application of
integrals and integration (as in the determination of lengths, areas, and volumes and in the
solution of differential equations).

In essence, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus ties both fields of calculus – the differential
and integral calculus. This theorem connects the function 𝒇(𝒙) and its antiderivative 𝑭(𝒙).
In other words, 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) . So:

The Indefinite Integral:

A function 𝐹 is called an antiderivative (also an indefinite integral) of a function

𝑓 in the interval 𝐼 if 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every value of 𝑥 in the interval 𝐼.
Mathematically, it is shown as:

This is read as: The indefinite integral of f(x) with respect to x is F(x) + C.

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If 𝐹 is a particular antiderivative of 𝑓 on an interval 𝐼, then every antiderivative of 𝑓 on 𝐼 is given
by 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶, where 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant. All the antiderivatives of 𝑓 on 𝐼 can be obtained by
particularly assigning values for 𝑐. If the antiderivative of the function on 𝐼 exists, we can say the
function is integrable over the interval 𝐼.

The C is called the constant of integration. It is just an undetermined constant attached onto the
antiderivative. You might remember from the rules of differentiation that the derivative of any
constant is simply 0. This is why we write + 𝐶 because there is no way of knowing ahead of time
what the constant term in the original function really was. We now want to ask what function
𝑓(𝑥) have we differentiated to obtained this indefinite integral.

So, the process of finding the antiderivative of a given function is called antidifferentiation or
integration. The anti-derivative is an operation that undoes differentiation. Since the derivative
of a constant is 0, the anti-derivative gives an answer that says nothing about constant terms.
The rules for differentiation each give rise to information on calculating anti-derivatives.

1.2 The Basic Integration Rules

 The Definition of an Integral: ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙 + 𝑪

 Constant Rule: If 𝑥 is any real number, then the indefinite integral of 𝑘 with respect to 𝑥
is: ∫ 𝒌 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒌𝒙 + 𝑪

Just like with derivatives, constants can be pulled out of an integral, so that what
remains can be integrated. In essence, constant multiples just get carried along for the
ride, not changing the integral.

 Coefficient Rule. It says that if the integrand contains a constant factor, that may be
written before the integral sign.

Given any real number coefficient 𝑎 and integrable function 𝑓, then:

∫ 𝒂 𝒇(𝒙 )𝒅𝒙 = 𝒂 ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙

 Sum and Difference Rule. It states that if the integrand consists of a sum of terms,
each term may be integrated separately.

For integrable functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, then: ∫[𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) ± 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙)]𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒇𝟏 𝒅𝒙 ± ∫ 𝒇𝟐 𝒅𝒙

So, integrals can be separated at addition or subtraction. Again, just as with derivatives,
we can split up a function into its terms (pieces that are added/subtracted together) and
handle each term separately.

 Power Rule. For any real number 𝑛, where 𝑛 ≠ −1, the indefinite integral 𝑥 𝑛 is:
𝒏
𝒙𝒏+𝟏
∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = +𝑪
𝒏+𝟏

In differential calculus, you learned how to differentiate functions like 𝑥 3 : pull the power
down in front, and subtract one from the exponent:

𝑑 3
(𝑥 ) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐
𝑑𝑥

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Therefore, to take the antiderivative of a power function, reverse the process by adding
one to the exponent and dividing by that new exponent:
3𝑥 3
∫ 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝑪
3

Notice that we included +𝐶 at the end of this answer. Whenever we anti-differentiate, we

account for this by adding the arbitrary constant C.

This reverse power rule works for any power function (including functions that may not
initially look like power functions, like:
1
√𝑥 = 𝑥 1/2 𝑜𝑟 3 = 𝑥 −3
𝑥
1
With one notable exception, the function: 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

1 𝑥0
If we try to integrate it using the power rule: ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑥 0

Since this answer includes division by zero, it is not valid. This is actually the limitation of
the power rule, that for this rule to work, the power should not be 𝑛 = −1. Therefore, we
have to handle this case separately, in the later topics of this course.

However, this reverse power rule gives us the ability to integrate a broad class of
functions.

Example:

1. Evaluate: ∫(𝟓𝒙 + 𝟗)𝒅𝒙

5𝑥 2 𝟓
SOL: ∫(𝟓𝒙 + 𝟗)𝒅𝒙 = 5 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 9 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = + 9𝑥 + 𝐶 ≈ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒙 + 𝑪
2 𝟐

2. Integrate: ∫(𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒 − 𝟗𝒙𝟐 + √𝒙

1/2
SOL: ∫(10𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 2 + √𝑥 = 10 ∫ 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 − 9 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
10𝑥 5 9𝑥 3 𝑥 2 𝟐
= − + + 𝐶 = 𝟐𝒙𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟑/𝟐 + 𝑪
5 3 3 𝟑
2
𝟓𝒙𝟑 +𝟐
2. Integrate: ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝟓𝒙𝟓/𝟑
𝟓𝒙𝟑 +𝟐 5𝑥 3
SOL: ∫ 𝟓/𝟑 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 5/3 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑥 −5/3 𝑑𝑥
𝟓𝒙 5𝑥

Note that for the first integrand, 5 can be cancelled out while the variable term, we should
apply the law of exponent for quotient, which states that having the same base, subtract the
5 9−5
exponent, as shown: 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 4/3
7 2
4 5 −
𝟓𝒙𝟑 +𝟐 𝑥3 2𝑥 3
So, ∫ 𝟓 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 𝟐 ∫ 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 = 7 + 2
𝟓𝒙𝟑 3
−
3

3 7 3 2 3 7 2 𝟑 𝟑
= 𝑥 3 − ൬ ൰ 2𝑥 −3 + 𝐶 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 −3 + 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝒙𝟕/𝟑 − 𝟐/𝟑 + 𝑪
7 2 7 𝟕 𝒙

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Not listed in the properties above were integrals of products and quotients. The reason for this is
simple. Just like with derivatives each of the following rules will NOT work.

With derivatives, we had a product rule and a quotient rule to deal with these cases. However,
with integrals there are no such rules. When faced with a product and quotient in an integral we
will have a variety of ways of dealing with it depending on just what the integrand is. Again, this
will be tackled in the later topics of this course.

In this section we keep evaluating the same indefinite integral in all of our examples. The point
of this section is not to do indefinite integrals, but instead to get us familiar with the notation and
some of the basic ideas and properties of indefinite integrals.

1.2 Basic Theorems of Calculus and the Chain Rule

There is a very common phenomenon that you will meet in many integrations in which two
answers are both correct, but differ widely in appearance; and that, it will always be possible to
show that they differ at most by a constant, however improbable this may seem at first sight. It
would be very helpful if you remember this simple tip:

Helpful tip:

Differentiation and antidifferentiation are reverse processes. Hence:

 In differentiation, given the function, look for its derivative.
 In integration, given the derivative of the function, look for the function.

One simple theorem you must remember is that

If 2 functions differ by a constant, they have the same derivative.

or
If two functions having the same derivatives, they differ only by a constant.

For example, given the following cases:

1. ∫(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒) 𝒅𝒙

First method: Applying the sum and difference rule:

𝟑𝒙𝟐
∫(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟑 ∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 + 𝟒 ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝑪
𝟐

Second method: Applying power formula

Here, we take the integrand as one, so, (3𝑥 + 4) = (3𝑥 + 4)1 . There’s an additional
step for you to do. Check if the integrand contains the correct differential of the
function given:

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∫(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒) 𝒅𝒙

Let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 4 where 𝑛 = 1 𝑑𝑢 = 3 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑜 = 𝟑 𝒅𝒙

Notice that there is an unwanted factor 3 in the 𝑑𝑢. So the next step is to correct first
the differential of your integrand.

Write the corrected differential inside the integrand, and place the reciprocal of the
unwanted factor (which is 1/3) before the integral sign, as shown:

1 𝟏 (𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒)𝟐 𝟏
∫(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒) 𝒅𝒙 = ∫(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒)(𝟑𝒅𝒙) = ( ) + 𝑪 = (𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒)𝟐 + 𝑪
3 𝟑 𝟐 𝟔

Take note that when you start integrating the above integrand, you disregard the
corrected differential, concentrate on the function and apply appropriate method of
integration. In this case, the power formula.

To check the veracity of the theorem stated above, expand your answer (using
binomial expansion) in the second method and compare it to the answer of the first
method.

1 1 𝟑
(3𝑥 + 4)2 = (9𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 + 16) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟒
6 6 𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
To compare: 1st method: 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝑪 2nd method: 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟒 + 𝑪
𝟐 𝟐

As observed, the 1st and 2nd solutions differ only by a

constant, therefore, they have the same derivative.

To check your answer, use derivative:

𝑑 3 3
First method: ( 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥) = (2𝑥) + 4 = 3𝑥 + 4
𝑑𝑥 2 2

𝑑 1 1 𝑑 1
Second method: [ (3𝑥 + 4)2 ] = [2(3𝑥 + 4) (3𝑥 + 4)] = [2(3𝑥 + 4) (3 + 0)] =
𝑑𝑥 6 6 𝑑𝑥 6
1
[6(3𝑥 + 4)] = (3𝑥 + 4)
6

𝒙𝟓
2. ∫(𝒙𝟒 − √𝟐) 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 − √2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − √𝟐𝒙 + 𝑪
𝟓

◙ The Chain Rule in Integration

The Chain Rule is sometimes called the Composite Functions Rule or Function of a Function
Rule.

Differentiation. Recall that the Chain Rule is used to differentiate composite functions such as
(2𝑥 2 + 3)11 , 𝑙𝑛(3𝑥 + 1), etc. If we observe carefully the answers we obtain when we use the
chain rule, we can learn to recognize when a function has this form, and so discover how to
integrate such functions.

Remember that: if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥)

so that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), which is a composite function;

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then 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑢 · 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑥.

Using function notation, this can be written as 𝒅𝒚/𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇′(𝒈(𝒙)) · 𝒈′(𝒙).

In this expression, 𝒇′(𝒈(𝒙)) is another way of writing 𝒅𝒚/𝒅𝒖 where 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) and
𝒈′(𝒙) is another way of writing 𝒅𝒖/𝒅𝒙 where 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥).

This last form is the one you should learn to recognise.

Integration. The next step is to learn to recognize when a function has the forms 𝒇′(𝒈(𝒙)) ·
𝒈′(𝒙), that is, when it is the derivative of a composite function.

Look back at each of the integration statements above. In every case, the function being
integrated is the product of two functions: one is a composite function, and the other is the
derivative of the “inner function” in the composite. You can think of it as “the derivative of what’s
inside the brackets”. Note that in some cases, this derivative is a constant.

For example, consider ∫(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝟐 𝒅𝒙)

We can write (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏) as a composite function

2 is the derivative of (2𝑥 + 1), the derivative of “what’s inside the bracket” of (2𝑥 + 1)

This is in the form:∫ 𝒇′(𝒈(𝒙)) · 𝒈′(𝒙). Simply put, ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙

the differential of (2x+1) which is 2 dx

the function (2x+1)

Using the chain rule in reverse, since (𝑓(𝑔 (𝑥))) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ∙ 𝑔′(𝑥), we have

∫ 𝒇′ (𝒈(𝒙)) · 𝒈′ (𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒈(𝒙)) + 𝑪

So, the complete solution using power formula:

∫(2𝑥 + 1) ∙ 2𝑑𝑥 = ∫(2𝑥 + 1)1 ∙ 2𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1; 𝑛 = 1; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑(2𝑥 + 1) = (2 + 0)𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑑𝑥

(2𝑥+1)2
Therefore, ∫(2𝑥 + 1) ∙ 2𝑑𝑥 = ∫(2𝑥 + 1)1 ∙ 2𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
2

◙ The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Mathematically, the fundamental theorem of Calculus states that:

𝒃 𝒃
𝐈𝐟 𝑭(𝒙) = ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙, 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝑭′ (𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒃) − 𝑭(𝒂)
𝒂 𝒂

The fundamental theorem of calculus is a theorem that links the concept of differentiating a
function with the concept of integrating a function. ... This implies the existence of antiderivatives
for continuous functions.

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It establishes the relationship between the derivative and the integral. It just says that the rate of
change of the area under the curve up to a point 𝑥, equals the height of the area at that point.
This theorem helps us to find definite integrals. This is how we begin to evaluate integrals, by
working backwards from known derivatives.

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DIRECTION: Integrate the following:

1. ∫ 𝑥 5 (2𝑥 3 − 3)𝑑𝑥
1 4
2. ∫ √𝑥( 𝑥 3 + √2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
5

𝑡 4 +2𝑡 2 −3
3. ∫ 𝑑𝑡
√𝑡

4. ∫(5𝑤 2 + 3)𝑑𝑤 Solve in 2 ways

2
5. ∫(√𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 4 + 3) 𝑑𝑥

2𝑥+7𝑥 3 −10
6. ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

7. ∫(1 − 3𝑡)5 𝑑𝑡

1⁄
5
2
8. ∫ ( 1 ) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥+ )5
2

9. ∫[(𝑦 + 3𝑦)2 𝑦 −2 ] 𝑑𝑥

10. ∫[(6𝑥 + 3𝑧) 𝑥]𝑑𝑥

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Basics of Integration. From HarleyMath.com retrieved from http://hartleymath.com/calculus2/basic-integrals

https://ximera.osu.edu/mooculus/calculus1/firstFundamentalTheoremOfCalculus/digInFirstFundamentalThe
oremOfCalculus

https://vimeo.com/99167414

https://www.slideshare.net/JelaiAujero/indefinite-integral

http://sydney.edu.au/stuserv/documents/maths_learning_centre/chainrulereverse.pdf

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