Compare and Contrast

Process in Plants and

Animals: Regulation of
Body Fluids
Two types of animals based on the osmolarity of
their body fluids in relation to the environment:
• Osmoconformers – allow the osmolarity of their
body fluids to match that of the environment;
include most marine invertebrates with body
fluids that are generally hyperosmotic to their
surroundings
•Osmoregulators – keep the osmolarity of body
fluids different from that of the environment;
these include most marine vertebrates, birds,
mammals
Three types of nitrogenous wastes excreted by
animals:
1. Ammonia – the primary nitrogenous waste
for aquatic invertebrates, teleosts, and larval
amphibians
A. It is readily soluble in water but is also
highly toxic
B. It can be excreted from the body only
in dilute solutions.
Three types of nitrogenous wastes excreted by
animals:
2. Urea – produced by mammals, most
amphibians, some reptiles, some marine fishes,
and some terrestrial invertebrates
A. It is formed by combining ammonia with
bicarbonate ion (HCO3 ̄) and converting the
product into urea
B. It is about 100,000x less toxic than
ammonia
Three types of nitrogenous wastes excreted by
animals:
3. Uric acid – excreted by birds, insects, and
terrestrial reptiles
A. It is largely insoluble in water and it is
excreted as a semisolid paste or precipitate
with very little water loss
Excretory systems in invertebrates
I. Cell surface or cell membrane – allows
passage of wastes in unicellular organisms

II. Contractile vacuole – a specialized

cytoplasmic organelle in many freshwater
protists (e.g. Paramecium) that expels excess
water out of the cell to prevent lysis
Excretory systems in invertebrates
III. Protonephridia or Flame Bulb System –
network of tubules that lack internal openings but
have external openings at the body surface called
nephridiopores such as in the flatworm, Dugesia.
A. The smallest branches of the tubule
network end with a large cell called a flame bulb
or cell
B. Water and solutes in body fluids enter the
flame cell and get filtered
Figure 44.11

Nucleus
of cap cell
Flame Cilia
bulb

Interstitial
Tubule fluid flow
Tubules of Opening in
protonephridia body wall
Tubule
cell
Excretory systems in invertebrates
IV. Metanephridia – the excretory tubule of most
annelids and adult mollusks;
A. The tubular network has a funnel-like internal
opening called a nephrostome that collects body
fluids
B. The bladder stores the nitrogenous wastes as
urine and later on excreted from the body surface
via the nephridiophore
Figure 44.12

Coelom Capillary
network

Components of a
metanephridium:
Collecting tubule

Internal opening

Bladder
External opening
Excretory systems in invertebrates

V. Malpighian Tubules – the excretory tubules

of insects and other terrestrial arthropods
attached to their digestive tract (midgut);
A. The tubules have ends that are
immersed in the hemolymph (circulatory
fluid) while the distal ends empty into the
gut
Figure 44.13
Digestive tract

Rectum
Hindgut
Intestine

Midgut Malpighian
(stomach) tubules
Salt, water, and
Feces To anus
nitrogenous
and urine
wastes

Malpighian
tubule
Rectum
Reabsorption

HEMOLYMPH
Characterize the mammalian urinary or excretory
system
I. The mammalian urinary system consists
of two kidneys, each with a ureter, a tube
leading to a urinary bladder (for storage),
with an open channel called urethra
leading to the body surface.
Figure 44.14-a

Excretory Organs Kidney Structure Nephron Types

Cortical Juxtamedullary
Renal nephron nephron
Posterior cortex
vena cava Renal
medulla
Renal artery
Renal Kidney
artery
and vein Renal vein
Renal
cortex
Aorta
Ureter Ureter
Renal
Urinary medulla
bladder
Urethra Renal pelvis
Figure 44.14-b
Nephron Organization
Afferent arteriole
from renal artery Glomerulus
Bowman’s
capsule
Proximal
tubule

Peritubular
Distal
capillaries
tubule

Efferent
arteriole
from
glomerulus

Branch of
renal vein
Descending
limb
Loop
Vasa
of
Collecting recta

200 m
Henle
duct
Ascending
limb Blood vessels from a human
kidney. Arterioles and peritubular
capillaries appear pink; glomeruli
appear yellow.
Figure 44.14a

Excretory Organs

Posterior
vena cava

Renal Kidney
artery
and vein

Aorta
Ureter

Urinary
bladder
Urethra
Figure 44.14b

Kidney Structure

Renal
cortex
Renal
medulla
Renal
artery

Renal
vein

Ureter

Renal pelvis
Figure 44.14c

Nephron Types

Cortical Juxtamedullary
nephron nephron

Renal
cortex

Renal
medulla
Characterize the mammalian urinary or excretory
system
II. The kidneys serve as specialized organs for osmoregulation and
excretion; they are composed of the following:
A. Renal capsule – the outer coat of connective tissue;
B. Cortex – the zone near the capsule consisting of blood vessels
and nephrons;
C. Medulla – inner zone also consisting of blood vessels and
nephrons;
D. Nephrons – the functional units of the kidney where urine is
formed;
E. Renal pelvis – central cavity in the kidney where urine coming
from the nephrons is channeled before going to the ureter.
Compare and
Contrast Process in
Plants and Animals:
Immune Systems
Two types of immune system:

1. Innate
2. Adaptive
Innate Immune Response
•Innate immunity is present before any exposure
to pathogens and is effective from the time of
birth
•It involves nonspecific responses to pathogens
•Innate immunity consists of external barriers
plus internal cellular and chemical defenses
Innate Immune Response
I. Barrier defenses like the skin, mucous membranes
and secretions. In humans and in most vertebrates, the
skin with other ectodermal derivatives is the first line of
defense against infection.
II. Internal defenses of the innate immune response
consist of phagocytic cells, natural killer cells,
antimicrobial proteins (interferons; the complement
system) and the inflammatory response (that involves
histamines, mast cells and cytokines).
Adaptive Immune Response

• Adaptive immunity, or acquired

immunity, develops after exposure to
agents such as microbes, toxins, or
other foreign substances
• It involves a very specific response to
pathogens (for vertebrates only)
Adaptive Immune Response
The adaptive immune response is made possible because of:
I. The Humoral response- production and secretion of
antibodies or immunoglobulins against specific antigens
(any foreign body/structure- pollen, bacteria, virus, dust).
II. Cell mediated response- occurs when cytotoxic cells
defend the body against infection. The development of B
and T cells, memory cells and plasma cells are important
aspects of cell mediated immune mechanism.
Figure 43.2
Pathogens
(such as bacteria,
fungi, and viruses)

INNATE IMMUNITY Barrier defenses:

(all animals) Skin
• Recognition of traits shared Mucous membranes
by broad ranges of Secretions
pathogens, using a small Internal defenses:
set of receptors Phagocytic cells
• Rapid response Natural killer cells
Antimicrobial proteins
Inflammatory response

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY Humoral response:

(vertebrates only) Antibodies defend against
• Recognition of traits infection in body fluids.
specific to particular
pathogens, using a vast Cell-mediated response:
array of receptors Cytotoxic cells defend
against infection in body cells.
• Slower response
B-cells
I. B cells are white blood cells that develop and mature
in the bone marrow.
II. B cells are activated when they encounter antigen in
the lymph nodes.
III. Activated B cells produce antibodies, proteins that
recognize and bind to specific parts of the pathogen,
called antigens. Each B cell produces only one antibody
which recognizes only one kind of antigen (specificity)
Figure 43.10a

Antigen Antibody
receptor

B cell

Antigen Epitope

Pathogen
(a) B cell antigen receptors and antibodies
Figure 43.10b

Antibody C

Antibody A
Antibody B

Antigen

(b) Antigen receptor specificity

Antibodies
A. IgM is the first antibody produced. It coats the pathogen and
promotes endocytosis by macrophages.
B. IgG is a major antibody produced. It activates the other parts of
the immune response and leads to neutralization and destruction
of pathogen.
C. IgA is the important antibody for the mucosal immune response.
It prevents pathogens from crossing the epithelium and entering
the blood stream.
D. IgE activates mast cells and leads to the production of histamine,
which is why it is also associated with allergic reactions.
E. IgD serves as receptors for antigens.
T-cells
A. T cells are white blood cells that are produced
in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus.
B. T cells are activated when they encounter
antigens in the lymph nodes.
C. However, unlike B cells, T cells need to
recognize an antigen in the context of
selfmolecules called major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) molecules.
T-cells
A. Cytotoxic T cells recognize virus-infected cells
and kill them.
B. Helper T cells secrete proteins that help other
immune cells (B cells, macrophages, etc.) survive
and perform their function.
C. Regulatory T cells control the immune response
by turning it off. This prevents the immune system
from harming the body.