Chapter 10

Electricity: Circuits and

Superconductors

Introduction to Energy Technology 1

A. Introduction to Electrification
 Electricity support modern world
 Electricity’s convenience and availability make it very
popular.
 Electricity consumption has the largest rate of growth of any
major E-use sector. Today, over 40% of the E produced for
electricity in US.
 Fig. 10.1 shows US production of electricity from 1950 to
2008 and electricity production vs. GDP. Such increased
electrification required a doubling in electrical-generation
capacity every 10 years. Per capita consumption of electricity
was 6 times higher in 1998 than in 1948.
 Electricity intensity, the ratio of amount of electricity
production over the amount of GDP, has decreased since late
1970s.

Introduction to Energy Technology 2

Fig. 10.1 (a) U.S. production of electricity by type of generation, 1950–2008. (b) U.S.
electricity production versus GDP, 1950–2008. Electricity intensity equals ratio of these two.

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 Things are different in the developing countries. China’s
electricity consumption is rising by 9%/year. With installed
electrical capacity increasing in the past 7 years from 385 GW
in 2003 to 950 GW in 2010, the addition of 6 large1000-MWe
power plant per month is needed to meet demands.
 45% of the electricity for US comes from coal com-bustion.
The percentage of various E sources used for electricity for
other countries may vary, but fossil fuels still contribute the
major sources.
 Independent power producers (IPPs) have no assigned
territory and cannot own transmission facilities. In 2009, they
accounted for about 35% of the total electricity produced in
US.

Introduction to Energy Technology 4

B. Restructuring of the Electric Utility
Industry
 Electric-utility industry undergoing massive
changes
 Historically,
electricity in US has been a highly
regulated business
 Electricity has been generated mainly in central-station power
plants that use chemical, nuclear, or hydro E from the various
sources (coal, natural gas, oil, uranium, hydro) and convert it
into electricity.
 The 1st power plants for supplying electricity went into
operation in 1882 under the direction of Edison. One of these
systems, in New York City, initially serviced 59 customers,
with about 1,300 lamps.

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 Giant utilities serving entire regions, even states, dominated
the power industry. Electric utilities were vertically integrated
in that they owned and operated everything from the turbine
to the transmission lines to the customer meters.
 Investor-owned utilities were granted franchise areas in which
they were given exclusive rights to provide all aspects of
electric service. In exchange for this monopoly control, the
electric utilities were regulated by the states.
 Most of other countries have either public power companies
or highly-regulated structure in utility business.
 De-regulation since 1997
 Beginning in 1997 the electric-utility industry in US change its
operation to allow consumers to buy their electricity from
suppliers other than their local utility in what is becoming a
very competitive market.
 Some of these reforms came about from public unhappiness
with high electricity prices and a growing concern for the
environment.
Introduction to Energy Technology 6
 In 1978, US passed the Public Utility Regulatory Polices Act
(PURPA. The law required utilities to compare the cost of
adding new capacity with the cost of purchasing it from IPPs
using RE or co-generation (producing heat and electricity) and
choose the cheapest option.
 Such legislation allowed the IPPs to grow rapidly. In the past
20 years, they accounted for half of all new additions to
generating capacity. Most of this addition came through
natural-gas, wind, geothermal, biomass, and solar E. Today,
IPPs generate about 1/3 of the electricity in US.
 Now, consumers have the ability to buy their electricity from
suppliers other than their local utility in which is becoming a
very competitive market.
 In this new emerging era, the electricity industry has been
divided into 3 functions: generation, transmission, and
distribution. Presently, only generation is open to competition.
This part represents about 25-40% of your electric bill.

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 Renewable Energy Portfolio Standards (RPS) and
feed-in tariff
 Local governments in US have come to realize that there are
many approaches to increasing the use of RE. One approach
is the imposition of RPS in that state, which require that a
certain percentage of electricity generated must be from RE
resources by a certain date.
 Another approach is the imposition of a feed-in tariff (FIT) a
law that obliges E suppliers to buy electricity produced from
RE resources at a fixed price (often higher than that
generated from fossil-fuel). These legal guarantees ensure
investment security and the support of viable RE
technologies.
 This law is similar to a policy called net metering, in which the
customer gets a credit for electricity generated (e.g. wind or
solar) in excess of demand. A meter records E flow in both
direction. At the end of the month, the customer is billed only
for this net E used.
Introduction to Energy Technology 8
 This is an effective incentive to encourage RE. Sometimes,
the price/kWh the customer receives is more than the utility
charges.
 Other incentives to support RE technology development are
federal and state tax credits given for a part of the installation
cost for a RE system.
 Current status of US electric industry
 Competition is expected to lower the price/kWh of electricity. It
has also opened the door wider for companies selling green
power, or electricity produced from RE sources.
 Increased efficiency from gas turbines and lower natural gas
prices have allowed some electric companies to generate
electricity at about half the price of just a few years ago.

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Focus on 10.1: Managing E demand
 Utility company have more freedom to manage the power
demand
 Today, due to deregulation, electricity is often bought and sold
wholesale, and the cost can temporarily soar to US$10/kWh.
Everyone’s costs would be much lower if customers had a choice
(or one was made for them) to cut consumption when demand
(and prices) are high.
 Other utilities have managed E demand by installing internet-
controlled thermostats in homes to raise air-conditioning settings
by several degrees when the utilities needs the power.
 Radio-controlled switches have also been installed on air
conditioners that can be activated remotely when the need arises.
 Latest development: use mobile phone with app to remote
control/monitor the appliances at home.
Introduction to Energy Technology 10
C. Electrical Charges and Current
 Charge, current and potential
 Charge
 Charge denote as “+” and “-” one. An electric force exists
between any objects that have a net electric charge.
 Unit of charge: coulomb (c).

 The size of charge of these particles is quite small. It takes

6.25x1018 electrons to have a charge of 1 c.
 Current
 The flow of electrons in a conductor is the electrical current I.
It is expressed in terms of the amount of charge flowing past
a point in a given time.
 Unit of current: Coulomb/second = c/s = A (Amperes). 2 types
of I direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC).

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 DC: the I is always in the same direction.
 AC: the I continuously changes from one direction to another
and back again.
 The frequency of commercial AC in North and South America is
60 Hz (cycle/second), whereas in Europe and most of the rest of
the world, the standard frequency is 50 Hz.
 AC is the type of I produced by our large electrical power
plants and thus is the type in home and office.
 Potential
 As long as net “+” and “-” charges remain on 2 parallel plates,
we say there is a potential difference V between the plates,
and so the flow of charge will be maintained.
 Unit of V : volt, 1 V = 1 J/c.
 Batteries and electrical generators are devices used for
producing V.
 Circuit: for there to be a I between 2 points, there must be a V
between those points and a path between those points
through which the charges can flow.
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D. Batteries and Electric Vehicles
 Battery
E converter
 Battery is an E converter as it transforms chemical E into
electrical E by providing the V between 2 terminals of the
battery.
 A battery has 2 electrodes of different materials, submerged
in a chemical solution called the electrolyte. The unit of the
terminals and electrolyte is called a cell, and a battery is a
combination of cells.
 Small amounts of the compounds making up the electrodes
go into solution in the electrolyte as free ions. These create “-”
and “+” terminals.

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 When 2 terminals are joined together with an external circuit,
electrons can flow from one electrode to the other.
 The electrolyte can be either liquid (e.g. the sulfuric acid in a
car battery) or a moist paste (as in a dry cell).
 The 1st battery was invented by Italian scientist Volta (1745-
1827). His battery consisted of a small plate of zinc and
copper, separated by a piece of cardboard that had been
moistened in a salt solution.
 A common battery today is the lead-acid battery used in car.
Focus on 10.2 describes its operations, and that of a common
dry-cell battery.
 The advantage of lead-acid battery is they can be recharged.
This is done by running an external I through the battery in the
direction opposite to the current flow during regular operation.
It is popular because is can be recharged thousands of time.
It is also low in price and can supply large currents for short
periods.

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Focus on 10.2: Common Batteries
 The lead-acid battery
 This battery consists of 6 cells connected in series. Each cell has
a “+” electrode made of lead dioxide and a “-” electrode made of
pure sponge lead, both immersed in an electrolyte (Fig. 10.5 A).
 “+” electrode: lead dioxide, PbO2
 “-” electrode: pure sponge lead, Pb
 Electrolyte: H2SO4+H2O
 Cell discharge: lead sulfate is deposited on both electrodes,
concentration of H2SO4 decreases
 When build-up on each electrode is so great that Pb and PbO2 are
not available to the electrolyte, the battery is dead.
 The potential difference generated in 2 terminals in each cell is 2
V, so a car with 6 cells connected together yields 12 V.

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Fig. 10.5 Chemical-to-electrical E converters.

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 Dry-cell battery
 A dry-cell battery (Fig. 10.5 B) uses a various materials for the
“+” terminal and zinc container for the “-” terminal.
 It is called dry-cell is its electrolyte is in wet paste form instead
of liquid one as used in lead-acid battery.
 Very popular in modern day for supply small electronic devices
with various specifications (D, C, A, AA, AAA) for different
capacity.
 “+” electrode: carbon, alkaline
 “-” electrode: zinc can
 Electrolyte: wet paste of ammonium chloride
 As the electrolyte dries out, the cell’s voltage ; the cell wears
out as the zinc is used up.

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Various types of dry-battery, from left to right: a large 4.5-V battery, a D Cell, a C cell, an AA
cell, an AAA cell, an AAAA cell, an A23 battery, a 9-V PP3 battery, and a pair of button cells
(CR2032 & LR44).

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2 characteristics of battery: voltage and discharge
capacity.
 The discharge capacity is equal to the I supplied by the
battery times the number of hours that the battery can supply
that current.
 The E stored in a battery is very small compared to that stored
in more conventional fuels. The lead-acid battery stores 2% of
the E available in 1 gallon of gasoline. It is also very heavy.
 Electric-powered vehicles (EVs)
 Old vehicle and return to the market
 The EVs were even as popular as gasoline powered cars at
the turn of the 20th century. The 1st speeding ticket for a car
was given to an EV-for going 24 km/h. In 1914, there was
20,000 EVs on the road.

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 All of Big Three car companies have been involved with EV
R&D at one time or another. Japan companies (Toyota,
Honda, and Nissan) also actively developing EV.
 Batteries have always been the weak link in the development
of EV. R&D to provide batteries that are lightweight, inexpen-
sive, and capable of thousands of recharges has been very
active but slow (Fig. 10.6). Current R&D in the auto industry is
aimed to have breakthrough in battery technology.
 Nickel metal hydrides (NiMH), nickel-cadmium (NiCd), zinc,
sodium-sulfur, and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are possible
replacements for the lead-acid battery. Potential short life-
times and economic considerations have hurt these alter-
natives, even through their E densities are high (Table 10.1).
 Working principle of EV
 The charge feeds the batteries, which can then supply power
to the motor to move the car.

Introduction to Energy Technology 20

 The speed and power of the motor are regulated by the
controller, which is in turn controlled by the accelerator.

Fig. 10.6 Basic circuit for an electric vehicle. The charger feeds the batteries, which
can then supply power to the motor to move the car. The speed and power of the
motor are regulated by the controller, which is in turn controlled by the accelerator.

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Expensive

Introduction to Energy Technology 22

 EVs have niche uses (e.g. city delivery vans, postal
vans) and a potential for most routine driving where
distance are short and speeds not excessive.
 75% of private cars are driven less than 80 km/day. Although
capital costs are high, operating expense is small
(US$0.012/km) compare to the gasoline car (US$0.02-
0.06/km).
 EVs have limited applications because they do not meet
multiple demands of driving-long distance, power for accele-
ration, long lifetime batteries, low cost, being able to recharge
in extreme temperature. But things are changing.
 Fig. 10.7 shows several approaches to EV.
 Hybrid EV (HEV)
 Toyota (2001) introduced the Prius hybrid. HEV uses a
conventional gasoline engine supplemented by a smaller
battery pack (1 kWh).

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Fig. 10.7 EV — 4 different approaches: (a) Pure battery Nissan Leaf, (b) extended range
Chevy Volt, (c) plug-in hybrid Toyota Prius, (d) fuel cell Honda FCX.
Introduction to Energy Technology 24
 HEV is powered by an electric motor (typically 42 V)-which is
used for speeds upto 40 km/h, as in city driving, when battery
power is most efficient.
 Fuel efficiency of HEV has achieved the best mileage ratings
in history (29 km/L) for highway driving. Over 40 km/h, the
gasoline engine provides additional power to push the car to
highway speeds. When extra acceleration is needed, both
motors provide passing power.
 Power to the DC motor comes from a 144-V NiMH or Li-ion
battery pack. The battery pack never needs recharging by an
outside power source since the motor also acts as a
generator during deceleration and braking.
 Total emissions of hybrids are 65% lower than conventional
gasoline powered cars. More than 100,000 hybrid cars were
sold in 2010, adding to 2 million already on the road.

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The Toyota Prius C (left) and Lexus RX400h (right). The former is a cheaper version of Prius,
while the latter is a SUV that gets 31 mpg city and 27 mpg highway driving . (Its battery pack
has a 288 V nominal voltage, boosted to 650 V by the boost converter.)

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 Plug-in EV (PEV)
 The next step beyond the hybrid is the plug-in EVs. One
example is the Chevy Volt, which released in 2010. This car is
a hybrid but runs only on its electric motor.
 After the battery’s charge drops below a certain level, a small
gasoline engine comes on to recharge the battery’s during
travel. The Volt’s range can be over 480 km before it must
stop to fill up the gasoline tank or plug in to recharge.
 The batteries are Li-ion and can be recharged from a 120-V
outlet in about 10 hours (or 4 hours at 240 V). On all EVs, the
Volt gets 39 km/L, and overall 25 km/L the best in the
business.
 Another approach is the Nissan Leaf that runs only on its
electric motor and has no gasoline engine. The Leaf is able to
travel up to 160 km on its Li-ion batteries, which take 8 hours
to recharge at 240 V. Its battery pack is about 24 kWh
(compared to 1 kWh for the Prius battery pack).

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 Gas mileage of EV
 The cost per km of running an EV depends upon various
conditions, as it does with a conventional car: speed, traffic,
temperature, etc.
 For a mid-size conventional car with 35 mpg and gasoline at
US$4/gal, the cost is (400￠/gal) x (1/35 mpg)=11￠/mile.
 The Leaf has a Li-ion battery that holds 24 kWh. If the
average range on this charge is 100 miles, then the fuel cost
at 9￠/kWh is (9￠/kWh) x(24 kWh)=2.2 ￠/mile.
 This depends upon various conditions, but PEV seem to have
about 5 times the mileage of comparable conventional car.

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E. Ohm’s Law
 Electrical circuit
 Circuit and related quantities
 With a voltage source and a continuous path through which
charge can flow, an electrical circuit is formed. Consider the
magnitude of the electrical current between 2 points across
which there is a V.
 To formulate an expression for current, consider the analogy
of water flowing down a hill through a pipe. The amount of
water in a certain time (current) is proportional to the
gravitational potential difference between 2 ends of the pipe
and the size of the pipe.
 The water flowrate is inversely proportional to the pipe’s
resistance. So as with electric current.

Introduction to Energy Technology 29

 The electrical resistance R is a property of the types of
material and its size-both length and diameter. The larger the
cross-sectional area of a wire, the smaller will be its resist-
ance. The longer the length of a wire, the greater its
resistance.
 The electrical current flows in the circuit need to overcome the
electrical resistance. R, V, and I are related in a circuits by the
relationship called Ohm’s law
V
I or V  IR
R
 Unit of electrical resistance: ohms Ω
 The resistance of metals increases with an increase in .
 Note that for there to be a current in a circuit, we need both a
V and a complete path for the electrons.

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F. Superconductivity
 Discovery of high temperature superconductors
 Discover superconductivity from 1911 to 1987
 In 1911 Dutch physicist HeiKe Kamerlingh-Onnee discovered
that the electrical resistance of mercury and other metals
abruptly dropped to zero at < 4 K, the of liquid helium (Fig.
10.9).
 Advances over the next 50 years led to the discovery of super
-conducting states in other metals at higher (up to 20 K).
 In 1986, two physicists in Switzerland (K. A. Muller and J. G.
Bednorz) announced the creation of a new class of
superconducting materials-ceramics-able to superconduct at
much higher T (35 K).

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Fig. 10.9 Resistance vs. T for a
superconductor. The resistance is Fig. 10.10 Demonstration of magnetic levitation. A
like that of a normal metal for higher magnet “floats” above a superconductor, which is
T but drops to zero at the critical T. in a bath of liquid nitrogen at 77 K (−196oC).

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 The existence of a superconducting state at high allowed
the material to be cooled with cheap liquid N2 (at 77 K).
 Today, ceramic superconductors of copper-oxide compounds
at 0oC (273 K) have been achieved in the laboratory.
Physics research continues trying to understand the basic
mechanism responsible for a variety of unconven-tional
classes of high- superconductors.
 Potential applications of superconductor
 Many applications that can come from high-
superconductivity, including magnetically levitated trains
(MAGLEV), high-voltage transmission lines with no electrical
resistance, and high-speed, miniaturized electronic computer
chips.
 The possible use of superconductors in electric power system
will be for underground high-voltage transmission lines. At this
time, about 10% of the electricity carried by transmission lines
is lost as heat because of the wire’s resistance.

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 Because of the refrigeration required for superconductivity,
the cables would have to be underground. However,
underground transmission lines are very expensive (10-20
times than overhead lines).
 Possible utility of using superconducting coils to store
electricity: such coils can be charged during off-peak hours by
using power from baseload generators, and then discharged
during peak demand. The conductor coals are envisioned as
large circles 800 m in diameter and buried underground.
 Superconducting material also excludes magnetic fields from
its inter, which can lead to levitation. When a magnet is
placed near a superconductor, the magnet hovers in the air.
 MAGLEV (see Fig. 10.11, Focus on 8.4) can use
superconducting materials with electromagnets on the track.
 Superconductivity is a fragile process that depends on more
than just the material . High I and strong magnetic fields that
occur in transmission lines can cause the material to return to
its non-superconducting state.
Introduction to Energy Technology 34
Fig. 10.11 Magnetically levitated (MAGLEV) trains, such as this one in Japan, might
eventually make use of superconductors. Speeds in excess of 576 km/h have been
achieved on a test track.

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 Full-scale demonstration of underground high-voltage
transmission lines are now being tested.
 One new high- superconducting wire under development
consists of thin strips of tape upon which the superconducting
compound is deposited as a thin film layer.
 Whether we build MAGLEV train or use superconducting
transmission lines depends not so much on the E savings
might make possible but on whether such high-cost options
are in the public interest.

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G. Elementary Circuits
 A simple electrical circuit
 Basic layout of simple circuit
 A circuit uses a source of V connected via wires to different
device (called load) to convert the electrical E to other forms
of E, e.g., heat and light and work (as in motor).
 Each electrical device has its individual R and each device
can be combined in a circuit either series or parallel.
 Series connections
 The devices can be connected in series (Fig. 10.12 (a)); for
this situation, the same current flows through each one
(I=const.). As more devices are added to the circuit, Rtotal .
Rtotal is the sum of R of the individual devices.
 If one device burns out, you have an “open circuit” and none
of the remaining devices will receive electricity since there is
no closed path through which charge can flow.
Introduction to Energy Technology 37
Fig. 10.12 (a) A circuit containing resistors in series. As more devices are added, the total R
↑, and so the current ↓. (b) A circuit containing resistors in parallel. As more devices are
added, the total R ↓. However, the current through each device (I1, I2, etc.) remains the
same.

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 Parallel connections
 The resistors arrange in parallel, as shown in Fig. 12.12 (b).
This is how circuit in your home are wired.
 In this arrangement, the incoming I divides between the
devices. The V across each resistor is the same (V=const.).
 Rtotal of the parallel circuit decreases as more devices are
added. As the total or equivalent R of a parallel circuit , Itotal .
 If a circuit has too many devices connected in parallel, and all
are operate at the same time, there is a fire hazard because
of excessive heating of wire from the large Itotal current. As
protection from overheating that could cause an electrical fire,
a fuse or circuit breaker is used in series with the source.

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H. Electrical Power
 Electricity convert to work
 The electrical E in a circuit is either converted into
work (as in a motor) or dissipated as heat E (as in a
resistor).
 Fig. 10.13 shows the schematic of electrical E converts to
work or heat.
 The electrical power: the rate of electrical E
P = IV
 Unit of power: 1 W = 1 V×1 A
 The rate of electrical E is converted into heat is related to R of
the device
P = IV = (IR)I = I2R

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 To prevent the overheating of wire, household circuits use
heavy copper wires. As R of the wire is small, the I that is
flowing is determined by R of the appliance or load. Thus,
heat dissipation I2R in the wire itself is kept small by having a
small R.
 In your home’s electrical circuits, the appliances are put in
parallel (Fig. 10.14). The max. power that can be delivered in
one circuit with 20-amp fuse is 120 V x 20 A = 2,400 W.

Fig. 10.13 Electrical energy goes into work or heat.

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Fig. 10.14 Parallel connections in a household circuit. (Wiring connections are
shown by a ●.)

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I. Pricing Electrical E Use
 Charge method
 The E used is the power (in W) expended times the
period of use (in hours): kilowatt-hours (kWh).
 The important item is not the wattage rating itself but the
power consumption times the average kWh used annually.
 E conservation in the residential sector can be practiced
through judicious appliance purchases. Life-cycle costs (initial
cost + maintenance + E costs) should be taken into account.
 A detailed breakdown of annual use for different appliances is
presented in Table 10.2.

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Introduction to Energy Technology 44
A new system of setting electricity rates and
increasing system efficiency is time-of-use pricing.
 This method charges customers according to what time of day
they use electricity; the cheapest rates are for the use of
electricity during off-peak hours, e.g. 9 PM to 7 AM. Higher-
than-standard rates apply during times of peak load.
 Electricity demand for the day shows peak load periods in the
morning and early evening (Fig. 11.20).
 Leveling the demand curve reduces the need for less efficient
and more costly plants that are needed just to meet peak-load
demand. In a deregulated electricity market, tight supplies
during high demand mean very high prices/kWh.
 Time-of-use metering is done with special meters (smart
meter). Computers and electronic controls can be used to turn
on appliances when the demand is low and electricity is less
expensive.

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 Some companies are experimenting with 2-way
communication between home and utility that will permit
optimum E use by allowing the utility to turn off your air
conditioning, for example, for a short time period.
 Appliance and lighting device
 Appliance typically make up finite percentage of the home E
bill. Heating and cooling can contributed large amount of the
cost.
 Life-cycle costs (initial cost + maintenance + E costs) should
be taken into account. The initial cost of such an E-efficient
appliance might be larger, but E cost should be less in total
lifetime.
 In US, it is required by law that appliance manufacturers must
display E cost information on most major appliance. This
helps the consumer conserve E and reduce household costs
(Fig. 10.15).

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Fig. 10.15 Sticker displaying E Figure 10.16 E-efficient light bulbs with standard
costs for an appliance, a bases: (a) screw-type CFL, (b) U-shaped CFL, (c)
dishwasher in this case. LED floodlight, and (d) halogen bulb.

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 E-efficient light bulbs can save electrical E use. Fluorescent
lights are four times more efficient than conventional
incandescent, although their adoption in homes was slow
because many people did not like their flicker, shape,
coolness/color, or high initial cost.
 Compact fluorescent light (CFL) has a bent tube inside a
globe (Fig. 10.16), with the ballast in the base. Phosphors that
coat the insides of the tubes correct the color and produce
warm, soft light that is very close to that of incandescent.
 These CFLs deliver the same amount of light as a 75-W bulb
but use only 25% E and last upto 9 times longer. Payback
time is less than a year for average use.
 New incandescent light bulb are available that use 30-50%
less E, are brighter, and can last 3 times longer. These
tungsten-halogen lamps first came in use as car headlights.

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 The tungsten filament is encased in an inner capsule that
contains halogen gas, which slows filament wear and
increases efficiency.
 Other bulbs becoming popular are those using light-emitting-
diode (LED). LED lights use special solid state chips that
produce light when a voltage is applied. A series of chips that
provide difference colors is required to yield white light.
 LED is more durable then CFLs (4-5 times longer) and more
efficient (consume roughly 1/3 electricity), but they do cost
more (2-4 times more expensive).

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J. Fuel Cells
 Fuel cell: a potential power converter in future
 The fuel cell is a unique power converter that is
efficient, nonpolluting, and flexible. It combines a fuel
(H2 or natural gas) with O2 by an electrochemical
process to produce electricity.
 Fuel cells are being developed to power passenger vehicles,
commercial buildings, homes and even 3C devices e.g.
notebooks.
 They are clean, highly reliable, and offer a unique opportunity
for E independence.
 It was invented more than 100 years ago, but it came of age
in the 1970s when it was first used on space missions.

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 Today, there is a strong renewed interest in the fuel cell. Its
large power-to-weight ratio, compactness, and reliability (no
moving parts) make it a popular power source for such uses
as vehicle propulsion and commercial and residential small-
scale electric facilities.
 However, the high cost of fuel cells and unknowns about their
lifetimes have hindered their commercialization. The present
price of US$ 4,000-5,000/kW might be reduced by 1/3 by
using mass-production techniques.
 The fuel cell is similar to a battery, providing direct current
through an electrochemical process. However, a battery uses
up the materials that are stored at the electrodes, whereas in
fuel cell the chemical reactants (H2, O2) are fed to the
electrodes on demands.
 The 2 chemical reactants in a fuel cell are H2 and O2, which
are fed into the cell through porous electrodes (Fig. 10.17).

Introduction to Energy Technology 51

Fig. 10.17 Cross section of a fuel cell. The 2 porous carbon electrodes are immersed in
the electrolyte. Other fuels can be used.

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 Working principle of the fuel cell
 The fuel cell reaction can be thought of as a very slow H2 gas
combustion process. In fuel cell, the electrons are transferred
slowly to O2 via an external circuit.
 At the anode H2 atoms are stripped of their electrons and enter
into the electrolyte. At the cathode, H2 ions combine with O2
atoms and electrons to form water and heat. The electrons
flow through an external circuit connecting the electrodes. The
net result is the reaction of O2 and H2 to form water.
6 different types of fuel cells are in R&D stages.
 Table 10.3 lists characteristics of these 5 types of fuel cells.
The proton exchange membrane, the molten carbonate cell,
and solid-oxide ceramic cells are all in the demonstration
stage. The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) has been
operated in a commercial size of 200-kW and tested with an
11-MW unit. The alkaline cell has been used by NASA for
space mission in the 1960s.

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 PAFC is the 1st generation of fuel cell. It is used for stationary
power generation since the units are large and heavy but they
can be used to power large vehicles (city bus). It is 85%
efficient when used to co-generation but less efficient for
electricity alone (37-42%). This is slightly more efficient than
combustion-based power plants.

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 Polymer electrolyte member fuel cell (PEMFC) delivers higher
power density and is lower in weight compared to other types.
They requires only H2/O2 to operate and do not require
corrosive electrolytes. PEMFC is suitable for use in passenger
vehicles. A significant barrier to their use is the need to use a
heavy container to store H2 as a compressed gas onboard.
 Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) uses a solution of potassium
hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and a variety of non-
precious metals as the catalyst as the anode and cathode.
 Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) uses an electrolyte of
molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in porous,
chemically inert ceramic Li aluminum oxide. These cells
operate at high , and do not require an external reformer to
convert fuels to H2. In addition, they are not prone to CO2
poisoning.
 Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) uses the methanol as the
fuel, which has a higher E density than H2, is mixed with
steam and fed directly to the electrodes. This type has the
potential to be used as the power of the product of 3C.
Introduction to Energy Technology 55
 Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) uses a hard, nonporous ceramic
compound as the electrolyte, allowing solid construction. It
operates at high and like MCFC does not require an
external reformer. Both high- types require a long startup
time, making them more suitable for stationary functions.
 Demonstration and potential application
 The fuel stack is the heart of the system. Singly, each cell
produces only a low voltage and small current. Thus, fuel cells
use layers of cells to produce the desired voltage and current
needed.
 PEMFC and DMFC are suitable for consumer electronic
devices. One company has developed a small, lightweight
disposable fuel cell power pack, which can recharge a digital
camera or a cell phone as much as 15 times more than other
portable rechargers on the market.

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 The costs of fuel cells are not yet competitive with
conventional power technologies. At US$30/kW they cannot
compare to the car ICE, which cost about US$25/kW.
 Durability of fuel cells has not been established. To be
competitive, they must operate for 5,000 hours at the same
as that of car engines. The size and weight of present fuel cell
systems is a deterrent to use in conventional vehicles.
 The fuel cells have many benefits. First, Its efficiency can be
as high as 50-60%. Second, Its nonpolluting nature means it
can be located in cities where the power is needed. Such
electrical power plants really simple and can be constructed
quickly from factory-made modules. Third, a variety of fuels
can be used, including natural gas, H2, methanol, and biogas.
 Fuel cells are finding many uses in stationary facilities, mainly
business. They are best use if they operate continuously, so a
continuous demand for electricity and heat is desired.

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 The Mail Processing Center in Anchorage, Alaska is a good
example (Fig. 10.18).
 Many units are about 200 kW. Fuel cells for homes are
relatively new. A 5-10 kW unit might meet all the needs of a
home except during peak demand.

Fig. 10.18 The largest power system (1 MW) uses the fuel cell in the U.S.
Introduction to Energy Technology 58
 The fuel cell can be used to power an electrical drive motor.
Many buses are now running on fuel cells worldwide. Many of
these buses are hybrid/electric and use Li-ion batteries for E
storage.
 Another environmental advantage is that these buses operate
in congested areas where pollution is a problem. 50 fuel-cell
buses shuttled athletes around during the 2010 Asia games in
China. The Canadian company Ballard has delivered many
fuel-cell buses to urban areas.
 Fuel cell car developed by Honda
 Honda has introduced an electric car powered by a PEMFC-
the FCX Clarity. This car operated on H2, it is twice as efficient
as ICE. Costs are comparable to those of conventional cars,
and the net release GHGs can be less for fuel cell cars than
for gasoline cars, depending on how H2 is produced.

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 Like conventional cars, they can be fueled in minutes. If the
fuel is H2 gas stored at high pressures, a range of 400 km is
possible using 35-gallon tank.
 Metal hydrides can also be used to store H2 gas, reducing the
volume by a factor of 3 for that needed to hold enough gas to
provide a range of 400 km; however, they are expensive.
 Batteries are used to provide help during times of peak
demand. Regenerative braking-generating power when
slowing down-is used to recharge the batteries.
 Some car manufacturers are considering the use of a
processing system to make H2 directly onboard from gasoline
of methanol; however, overall efficiencies drop.

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Focus on 10.4: Hydrogen Economy
 H2 is the one of few non-polluting-fuels available. But it is
not free
 It costs many times more than regular gasoline, and might
produce more emissions than the internal combustion engine
(ICE) .
 H2 does not occur naturally on earth, so it must be produced from
other E sources. The 2 major processes used for H2 production
(steam reforming, electrolysis of water), the steam reforming is
much cheaper than the electrolysis method. It remain the primary
way to produce the quantities of H2 used today.
 Splitting water by electricity to H2 has no advantage over the use
of fossil fuel directly.

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 One kg of H2 has the equivalent E of 1 gallon of regular gasoline.
Because H2 is a gas, it takes 4 times the volume to produce the
same amount of E. This necessitates the use of a reinforced fuel
tanks-adding weight to the vehicle.
 Where as fuel cell is about twice as efficient as an ICE, to obtain
the same range, H2 can take up a large volume. Storage will be
as compressed gas, liquefied H2 at -240oC, or in metal hydrides.
 When H2 is used as a fuel, the primary byproduct is water and
heat. No CO2 is directly emitted as with other petroleum-based
fuels.
 In a comparison of well-to-wheel efficiencies, ICEs are about 16-
17%, H2 fuel cell vehicles (with H2 from steam reforming) are
about 21%.

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 Hydrogen economy is a hypothetical economy in which
the E needed for motive power (for automobiles and
other vehicle types) or electricity (for stationary
applications) is derived from reacting H2 with O2.
 The hydrogen economic is
referred to the infrastructure of
H2 supply and application, its
goal is to replace the current
infrastructure of hydrocarbon
economy.
 It will probably still takes 30-50
years for the large scale of
replacement of the fossil-fuel
economics.

Element of hydrogen economic: from Wikipedia

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 Future scenario
 Hydro-carbon economy: a term stressing that in the current world
economy the E used mostly comes from 3 hydrocarbons:
petroleum, coal, and natural gas.
 Low-carbon economy: a term that refers to an economy which
has a minimal output of GHG emissions into the biosphere, but
specifically refers to the CO2.
 Comparing to the hydrogen economy, the low-carbon economy is
more realistic and able to achieve its goal under current
technology. More information can be obtained through the web.

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