Power series

A series of the form

∑∞ 𝑛 2 3
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑥 + ⋯ where the coefficients 𝑎0 ,
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ,…are constants, is called a power series about x = 0. Here x = 0 is called the
center of the power series.

Similarly, a series of the form ∑∞ 𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) = 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑎1 (𝑥 − 𝑎) +
𝑎2 (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 +… is also called the power series about x = a and x = a is called the
center of power series.

Radius, center and interval of convergence: In the power series expansion, if

there exists a positive number r such that the series converges for |𝑥| < 𝑟 and
diverges for |𝑥| > 𝑟, then the r is called the radius of the convergence. The series
may or may not be convergence at the end points. A region at which a series
converges Is called the region of convergence and it is also denoted by ROC. The
region of convergence may be one of the following intervals.

(i) (r, r)
(ii) (r, r]
(iii) [r, r)
(iv) [r, r]
Ex 2.6

A discuss the convergence of the following series.

(1) 1 + 22 𝑥 + 32 𝑥 2 + 42 𝑥 3 + ⋯

Solution:

General term(𝑢𝑛 ) = 𝑛2 𝑥 𝑛−1 then 𝑢𝑛+1 = (𝑛 + 1)2𝑥 𝑛

By ratio test

𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)2𝑥 𝑛
lim = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 𝑥 𝑛−1
1
𝑛2 (1+𝑛)2 𝑥𝑛 𝑥
= lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 𝑥 𝑛

1
(1+ )2 𝑥
𝑛
= lim
𝑛→∞ 1

=𝑥

We know that, by ratio test it is convergent for |𝑥| < 1and it is divergent for |𝑥| >
1. Further test is needed for |𝑥| = 1.

|𝑥| = 1 implies that 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = −1.

Now, put 𝑥 = 1in given power series, we get

1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + ⋯

General term(𝑢𝑛 ) = 𝑛2

lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim 𝑛2 = ∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

It is divergent.

Again, put 𝑥 = −1 in given series. We get

1 − 4 + 9 − 16 + ⋯

Which is alternating series but each term is not numerically less than preceding

𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛2

lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim 𝑛2 = ∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

Which is also divergent. Hence given series is convergent for |𝑥| < 1and it is
divergent for |𝑥| ≥ 1.

B) Find the interval, centre and radius of convergence.

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
14) 𝑥 − + − +⋯
2 3 4

𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
Solution: Here, general term |𝑢𝑛 | = and |𝑢𝑛+1| =
𝑛 𝑛+1
By ratio test

𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛+1
lim | | = lim 𝑛 +𝑛 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑥
𝑛
𝑥 𝑛+1. 𝑛
= lim
𝑛→∞ (𝑛 + 1)𝑥 𝑛

𝑥 𝑛 .𝑥.𝑛
= lim 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛(1+𝑛).𝑥𝑛

=𝑥

It is convergent for |𝑥| < 1and it is divergent for |𝑥| > 1. Further test is needed
for |𝑥| = 1.

|𝑥| = 1 implies that 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = −1.

Now, put 𝑥 = 1in given power series, we get

1 1 1
1− + − +⋯
2 3 4
Which is alternating series. The terms are alternately positive and negative. Each
term is numerically less than preceding term. The general term is
1
𝑢𝑛 =
𝑛
1
lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim =0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

By Leibnitz’s theorem it is convergent.

Again, put 𝑥 = −1 in given series. We get

1 1 1
−1 − − − −⋯
2 3 4
1 1 1
= −(1 + + + +⋯)
2 3 4
Which is divergent by p-test (p = 1).

Hence

Interval of convergence =(−1,1]

−1+1
Center of convergence = =0
2

Radius of convergence = 1
𝑥2 𝑥3
(15) 1 + 𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!

𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
Solution: 𝑢𝑛 = and 𝑢𝑛+1 =
𝑛! (𝑛+1)!

𝑥𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑛+1)!
Now lim = lim 𝑥𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛→∞
𝑛!

𝑥 𝑛 . 𝑥. 𝑛!
= lim
𝑛→∞ (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑥 𝑛

𝑥
= lim
𝑛→∞ (𝑛 + 1)

=0<1

Which is convergent for all values of x.

Interval of convergence (−∞, ∞)

Center = 0 and radius tends to infinity.

𝑛2 .𝑥𝑛
(19) ∑∞
𝑛=0 2𝑛

𝑛2 .𝑥 𝑛 (𝑛+1)2 𝑥 𝑛+1
Solution: 𝑢𝑛 = and 𝑢𝑛+1 =
2𝑛 2𝑛+1

By ratio test
(𝑛 + 1)2 . 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛+1 2𝑛+1
lim = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 𝑥 𝑛
2𝑛
(𝑛+1)2 .𝑥𝑛+1 .2𝑛
= lim
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛+1 .𝑛2 𝑥𝑛

𝑥
=
2
𝑥 𝑥
We know that it is convergent for | | < 1 𝑖𝑒 |𝑥| < 2 and it is divergent for | | >
2 2
𝑥
1 𝑖𝑒 |𝑥| > 2. . Further test is needed for | | = 1.
2

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
| | = 1 implies that = 1 → 𝑥 = 2 and = −1 → 𝑥 = −2.
2 2 2

Now, put 𝑥 = 2 in given series.

𝑛2 .𝑥 𝑛 𝑛2 .2𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=0 = ∑∞
𝑛=0
2𝑛 2𝑛

= ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛
2

= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + ⋯

𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛2

lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim 𝑛2 = ∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

It is divergent.

Again put x = -2
𝑛2 .𝑥 𝑛 𝑛2 .(−2)𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=0 = ∑∞
𝑛=0
2𝑛 2𝑛

= ∑∞ 𝑛 2
𝑛=0(−1) 𝑛

= −1 + 4 − 9 + 16 − ⋯

Which is alternating series but each term is not less than preceding term.
We have

𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛2

lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim 𝑛2 = ∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

It is divergent.

Interval of convergence = (−2, 2)

Center = 0

Radius = 2
(𝑛+1)(𝑥−4)𝑛
(22) ∑∞
𝑛=0 10𝑛

(𝑛+1)(𝑥−4)𝑛
Solution: 𝑢𝑛 =
10𝑛

(𝑛 + 2)(𝑥 − 4)𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛+1 =
10𝑛+1
Now

𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 2)(𝑥 − 4)𝑛+1 10𝑛

lim = lim .
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 10𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)𝑛
(𝑛+2)(𝑥−4)𝑛 (𝑥−4)10𝑛
= lim
𝑛→∞ 10𝑛 .10.(𝑛+1)(𝑥−4)𝑛

𝑥−4
=
10

𝑥−4 𝑥−4
It is convergent for | | < 1 and divergent for | | > 1. Further test is needed
10 10
𝑥−4
for | | = 1.
10

𝑥−4 𝑥−4 𝑥−4

| | = 1, it implies that = 1 and = −1
10 10 10

𝑥−4 𝑥−4
Then, = 1 → 𝑥 = 14 and = −1 → 𝑥 = −6
10 10

Put 𝑥 = 14 in given series, we get

(𝑛+1)(𝑥−4)𝑛 (𝑛+1)(14−4)𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=0 = ∑∞
𝑛=0
10𝑛 10𝑛
∞

= ∑(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=0

= 1 +2+ 3+ 4+ 5…

𝑢𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)

lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim (𝑛 + 1) = ∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

It is divergent. Again put 𝑥 = −6, we get

∞ ∞
(𝑛 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)(−6 − 4)𝑛
∑ =∑
10𝑛 10𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞
(𝑛 + 1)(−10)𝑛
=∑
10𝑛
𝑛=0
∞

= ∑(𝑛 + 1) (−1)𝑛
𝑛=0

=1−2+3−5+6−⋯

It is alternating series but 𝑢𝑛+1 > 𝑢𝑛 . So Leibnitz’s theorem is not applicable.

𝑢𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)

lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim (𝑛 + 1) = ∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

It is also divergent.

Interval of convergence = (−6, 14)

−6+14
Center of convergence= =4
2

14−(−6)
Radius of convergence = = 10
2
(−1)𝑛 (2𝑥−1)𝑛
(28) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛6𝑛

(2𝑥−1)𝑛 (2𝑥−1)𝑛+1
Solution: |𝑢𝑛 | = and |𝑢𝑛+1| =
𝑛6𝑛 (𝑛+1)6𝑛+1

𝑢𝑛+1 (2𝑥 − 1)𝑛+1 𝑛6𝑛

lim | | = lim .
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ (𝑛 + 1)6𝑛+1 (2𝑥 − 1)𝑛

(2𝑥 − 1)𝑛 (2𝑥 − 1). 𝑛6𝑛

= lim
𝑛→∞ (𝑛 + 1)6𝑛 . 6(2𝑥 − 1)𝑛

2𝑥 − 1
=
6
2𝑥−1 2𝑥−1
By ratio test, it is convergent for | | < 1 and divergent for for | | > 1.
6 6
2𝑥−1
Further test is needed for | | = 1.
6

2𝑥−1 2𝑥−1 2𝑥−1

| | = 1, it implies that = 1 and = −1
6 6 6

2𝑥−1 7 2𝑥−1 5
Then, = 1 → 𝑥 = and = −1 → 𝑥 = −
6 2 6 2

7
Now, put 𝑥 = in given series.
2

∞ ∞ 7
(−1)𝑛 (2𝑥 − 1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛 (2. − 1)𝑛
∑ =∑ 2
𝑛6 𝑛 𝑛6 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛
=∑
𝑛
𝑛=1

1 1 1
= −1 + − + −⋯
2 3 4
Which is alternating series and 𝑢𝑛+1 < 𝑢𝑛 . General term is
1
𝑢𝑛 =
𝑛
1
lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

=0
5
By Leibnitz’s theorem it is convergent series. Again put 𝑥 = −
2

∞ ∞ −5
(−1)𝑛 (2𝑥 − 1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛 (2. − 1)𝑛
∑ =∑ 2
𝑛6𝑛 𝑛6𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞
1
=∑
𝑛
𝑛=1

1 1 1
=1+ + + +⋯
2 3 4
Which is divergent by p-test (p = 1)
5 7
Hence, Interval of convergence = (− , ]
2 2
−5 7
+ 1
2 2
Center of convergence = = = 0.5
2 2
7 −5
−( 2 ) 12
2
Radius of convergence = = =3
2 4