Carnegie Mellon

C Boot Camp

Feb 26, 2017

Ray
Axel
Jerry
Carnegie Mellon

Agenda

■ C Basics
■ Debugging Tools / Demo
■ Appendix
C Standard Library
getopt
stdio.h
stdlib.h
string.h
Carnegie Mellon

C Basics Handout

ssh <andrewid>@shark.ics.cs.cmu.edu
cd ~/private
wget http://cs.cmu.edu/~213/activities/cbootcamp.tar.gz
tar xvpf cbootcamp.tar.gz
cd cbootcamp
make

■ Contains useful, self-contained C examples

■ Slides relating to these examples will have the file
names in the top-right corner!
Carnegie Mellon

C Basics
■ The minimum you must know to do well in this class
■ You have seen these concepts before
■ Make sure you remember them.

■ Summary:
■ Pointers/Arrays/Structs/Casting
■ Memory Management
■ Function pointers/Generic Types
■ Strings
■ GrabBag (Macros, typedefs, header guards/files, etc)
Carnegie Mellon

Pointers
■ Stores address of a value in memory
■ e.g. int*, char*, int**, etc
■ Access the value by dereferencing (e.g. *a).
Can be used to read or write a value to given address
■ Dereferencing NULL causes undefined behavior
(usually a segfault)
■ Pointer to type A references a block of sizeof(A) bytes
■ Get the address of a value in memory with the ‘&’
operator
■ Pointers can be aliased, or pointed to same address
Carnegie Mellon

Call by Value vs Call by Reference ./passing_args

■ Call-by-value: Changes made to arguments passed to a function
aren’t reflected in the calling function
■ Call-by-reference: Changes made to arguments passed to a
function are reflected in the calling function
■ C is a call-by-value language
■ To cause changes to values outside the function, use pointers
■ Do not assign the pointer to a different value (that won’t be reflected!)
■ Instead, dereference the pointer and assign a value to that address

void swap(int* a, int* b) { int x = 42;

int temp = *a; int y = 54;
*a = *b; swap(&x, &y);
*b = temp; printf(“%d\n”, x); // 54
} printf(“%d\n”, y); // 42
Carnegie Mellon

Pointer Arithmetic ./pointer_arith

■ Can add/subtract from an address to get a new address
■ Only perform when absolutely necessary (i.e., malloclab)
■ Result depends on the pointer type

■ A+i, where A is a pointer = 0x100, i is an int

■ int* A: A+i = 0x100 + sizeof(int) * i = 0x100 + 4 * i
■ char* A: A+i = 0x100 + sizeof(char) * i = 0x100 + 1 * i
■ int** A: A+i = 0x100 + sizeof(int*) * i = 0x100 + 8 * i

■ Rule of thumb: explicitly cast pointer to avoid confusion

■ Prefer ((char*)(A) + i) to (A + i), even if A has type char*
Carnegie Mellon

Structs ./structs
■ Collection of values placed under one name in a single
block of memory
■ Can put structs, arrays in other structs
■ Given a struct instance, access the fields using the ‘.’
operator
■ Given a struct pointer, access the fields using the ‘->’
operator
struct inner_s { struct outer_s { outer_s out_inst;
int i; char ar[10]; out_inst.ar[0] = ‘a’;
char c; struct inner_s in; out_inst.in.i = 42;
}; }; outer_s* out_ptr = &out_inst;
out_ptr->in.c = ‘b’;
Carnegie Mellon

Arrays/Strings
■ Arrays: fixed-size collection of elements of the same type
■ Can allocate on the stack or on the heap
■ int A[10]; // A is array of 10 int’s on the stack
■ int* A = calloc(10, sizeof(int)); // A is array of 10
int’s on the heap

■ Strings: Null-character (‘\0’) terminated character arrays

■ Null-character tells us where the string ends
■ All standard C library functions on strings assume null-termination.
Carnegie Mellon

Casting
■ Can convert a variable to a different type
■ Integer Casting:
■ Signed <-> Unsigned: Keep Bits - Re-Interpret
■ Small -> Large: Sign-Extend MSB
■ Cautions:
■ Cast Explicitly: int x = (int) y instead of int x = y
■ Casting Down: Truncates data
■ Cast Up: Upcasting and dereferencing a pointer causes undefined
memory access
■

■ Rules for Casting Between Integer Types

Carnegie Mellon

Malloc, Free, Calloc

■ Handle dynamic memory allocation on HEAP
■ void* malloc (size_t size):
■ allocate block of memory of size bytes
■ does not initialize memory
■ void* calloc (size_t num, size_t size):
■ allocate block of memory for array of num elements, each size bytes long
■ initializes memory to zero
■ void free(void* ptr):
■ frees memory block, previously allocated by malloc, calloc, realloc, pointed
by ptr
■ use exactly once for each pointer you allocate
■ size argument:
■ should be computed using the sizeof operator
■ sizeof: takes a type and gives you its size
■ e.g., sizeof(int), sizeof(int*)
Carnegie Mellon

mem_mgmt.c
Memory Management Rules
./mem_valgrind.sh
■ malloc what you free, free what you malloc
■ client should free memory allocated by client code
■ library should free memory allocated by library code
■ Number mallocs = Number frees
■ Number mallocs > Number Frees: definitely a memory leak
■ Number mallocs < Number Frees: definitely a double free
■ Free a malloc’ed block exactly once
■ Should not dereference a freed memory block
■ Only malloc when necessary
■ Persistent, variable sized data structures
■ Concurrent accesses (we’ll get there later in the semester)
Carnegie Mellon

Stack vs Heap vs Data

■ Local variables and function arguments are placed on the
stack
■ deallocated after the variable leaves scope
■ do not return a pointer to a stack-allocated variable!
■ do not reference the address of a variable outside its scope!
■ Memory blocks allocated by calls to malloc/calloc are
placed on the heap
■ Globals, constants are placed in data section
■ Example:
■ // a is a pointer on the stack to a memory block on the heap
■ int* a = malloc(sizeof(int));
Carnegie Mellon

Typedefs ./typedefs
■ Creates an alias type name for a different type
■ Useful to simplify names of complex data types
■ Be careful when typedef-ing away pointers!
struct list_node {
int x;
};

typedef int pixel;

typedef struct list_node* node;
typedef int (*cmp)(int e1, int e2); // you won’t use this in 213

pixel x; // int type

node foo; // struct list_node* type
cmp int_cmp; // int (*cmp)(int e1, int e2) type
Carnegie Mellon

Macros ./macros
■ A way to replace a name with its macro definition
■ No function call overhead, type neutral
■ Think “find and replace” like in a text editor
■ Uses:
■ defining constants (INT_MAX, ARRAY_SIZE)
■ defining simple operations (MAX(a, b))
■ 122-style contracts (REQUIRES, ENSURES)
■ Warnings:
■ Use parentheses around arguments/expressions, to avoid problems after
substitution
■ Do not pass expressions with side effects as arguments to macros

#define INT_MAX 0x7FFFFFFFF

#define MAX(A, B) ((A) > (B) ? (A) : (B))
#define REQUIRES(COND) assert(COND)
#define WORD_SIZE 4
#define NEXT_WORD(a) ((char*)(a) + WORD_SIZE)
Carnegie Mellon

Generic Types
■ void* type is C’s provision for generic types
■ Raw pointer to some memory location (unknown type)
■ Can’t dereference a void* (what is type void?)
■ Must cast void* to another type in order to dereference it
■ Can cast back and forth between void* and other pointer
types
// stack usage:
// stack implementation:
int x = 42; int y = 54;
typedef void* elem;
stack S = stack_new():
push(S, &x);
stack stack_new();
push(S, &y);
void push(stack S, elem e);
int a = *(int*)pop(S);
elem pop(stack S);
int b = *(int*)pop(S);
Carnegie Mellon

Header Files
■ Includes C declarations and macro definitions to be shared
across multiple files
■ Only include function prototypes/macros; implementation code goes in .c file!
■ Usage: #include <header.h>
■ #include <lib> for standard libraries (eg #include <string.h>)
■ #include “file” for your source files (eg #include “header.h”)
■ Never include .c files (bad practice)
// list.h // list.c // stacks.h
struct list_node { #include “list.h” #include “list.h”
int data; struct stack_head {
struct list_node* next; node new_list() { node top;
}; // implementation node bottom;
typedef struct list_node* node; } };
typedef struct stack_head* stack
node new_list(); void add_node(int e, node l) {
void add_node(int e, node l); // implementation stack new_stack();
} void push(int e, stack S);
Carnegie Mellon

Header Guards
■ Double-inclusion problem: include same header file twice
//grandfather.h //father.h //child.h
#include “grandfather.h” #include “father.h”
#include “grandfather.h”

Error: child.h includes grandfather.h twice

■ Solution: header guard ensures single inclusion

//grandfather.h //father.h //child.h
#ifndef GRANDFATHER_H #ifndef FATHER_H #include “father.h”
#define GRANDFATHER_H #define FATHER_H #include “grandfather.h”

#endif #endif

Okay: child.h only includes grandfather.h once

Carnegie Mellon

Debugging
GDB, Valgrind
Carnegie Mellon

GDB
■ No longer stepping through assembly!
Some GDB commands are different:
■ si / si → step / next
■ break file.c:line_num
■ disas → list
■ print <any_var_name> (in current frame)

■ Use TUI mode (layout src)

■ Nice display for viewing source/executing
commands
■ Buggy, so only use TUI mode to step
through lines (no continue / finish)
Carnegie Mellon

Valgrind
■ Find memory errors, detect memory leaks
■ Common errors:
■ Illegal read/write errors
■ Use of uninitialized values
■ Illegal frees
■ Overlapping source/destination addresses
■ Typical solutions
■ Did you allocate enough memory?
■ Did you accidentally free stack
variables/something twice?
■ Did you initialize all your variables?
■ Did use something that you just free’d?
■ --leak-check=full
■ Memcheck gives details for each
definitely/possibly lost memory block (where it
was allocated
Carnegie Mellon

Appendix
Carnegie Mellon

C Program Memory Layout

Carnegie Mellon

Variable Declarations & Qualifiers

■ Global Variables:
■ Defined outside functions, seen by all files
■ Use “extern” keyword to use a global variable defined in another file
■ Const Variables:
■ For variables that won’t change
■ Data stored in read-only data section
■ Static Variables:
■ For locals, keeps value between invocations
■ USE SPARINGLY
■ Note: static has a different meaning when referring to functions
■ Volatile Variables:
■ Compiler will not make assumptions about current value, useful for
asynchronous reads/writes, i.e. interrupts
■ “volatile” == “subject to change at any time”
Carnegie Mellon

C Libraries
Carnegie Mellon

string.h: Common String/Array Methods

■ One the most useful libraries available to
you
■ Used heavily in shell/proxy labs
■ Important usage details regarding
arguments:
■ prefixes: str -> strings, mem -> arbitrary
memory blocks.
■ ensure that all strings are ‘\0’ terminated!
■ ensure that dest is large enough to store src!
■ ensure that src actually contains n bytes!
■ ensure that src/dest don’t overlap!
Carnegie Mellon

string.h: Common String/Array Methods

■ Copying:
■ void *memcpy (void *dest, void *src, size_t n): copy n bytes of
src into dest, return dest
■ char *strcpy(char *dest, char *src): copy src string into dest,
return dest. Make sure dest is large enough to contain src.
■ Concatenation:
■ char *strncat (char *dest, char *src, size_t n): append copy
of src to end of dest reading at most n bytes, return dest
■ char *strcat (char *dest, char *src) works for arbitrary length
strings, but has the safety issues you’ve seen in attacklab
Carnegie Mellon

string.h: Common String/Array Methods (Continued)

■ Comparison:
■ int strncmp (char *str1, char *str2, size_t n): compare at
most n bytes of str1, str2 by character (based on ASCII value of each
character, then string length), return comparison result
str1 < str2: -1,
str1 == str2: 0,
str1 > str2: 1
■ int strcmp(char *str1, char *str2): compare str1 to str2. Make sure
each string is long enough to be safely compared.
Carnegie Mellon

string.h: Common String/Array Methods (Continued)

■ Searching:
■ char *strstr (char *str1, char *str2): return pointer to
first occurrence of str2 in str1, else NULL
■ char *strtok (char *str, char *delimiters): tokenize
str according to delimiter characters provided in delimiters.
return the one token for each strtok call, using str = NULL
■ Other:
■ size_t strlen (const char *str): returns length of the
string (up to, but not including the ‘\0’ character)
■ void *memset (void *ptr, int val, size_t n): set first n
bytes of memory block addressed by ptr to val
For setting bytes only. Don’t use it to set or initialize int arrays,
for example.
Carnegie Mellon

stdlib.h: General Purpose Functions

■ Dynamic memory allocation:
■ malloc, calloc, free
■ String conversion:
■ int atoi(char *str) : parse string into integral value (return 0 if not parsed)
■ System Calls:
■ void exit(int status) : terminate calling process, return status to parent process
■ void abort() : aborts process abnormally
■ Searching/Sorting:
■ provide array, array size, element size, comparator (function pointer)
■ bsearch: returns pointer to matching element in the array
■ qsort: sorts the array destructively
■ Integer arithmetic:
■ int abs(int n) : returns absolute value of n
■ Types:
■ size_t: unsigned integral type (store size of any object)
Carnegie Mellon

stdio.h
■ Another really useful
library.
■ Used heavily in
cache/shell/proxy labs
■ Used for:
■ argument parsing
■ file handling
■ input/output
■ printf, a fan favorite, comes
from this library!
Carnegie Mellon

stdio.h: Common I/O Methods

■ FILE *fopen (char *filename, char *mode): open the file with
specified filename in specified mode (read, write, append, etc), associate
it with stream identified by returned file pointer
■ int fscanf (FILE *stream, char *format, ...): read data
from the stream, store it according to the parameter format at the
memory locations pointed at by additional arguments.
■ int fclose (FILE *stream): close the file associated with stream
■ int fprintf (FILE *stream, char *format, ... ): write the
C string pointed at by format to the stream, using any additional
arguments to fill in format specifiers.
Carnegie Mellon

Getopt
■ Need to include unistd.h to use int main(int argc, char **argv)
■ Used to parse command-line {
arguments. int opt, x;
■ Typically called in a loop to /* looping over arguments */
retrieve arguments while((opt=getopt(argc,argv,“x:"))>0){
■ Switch statement used to handle switch(opt) {
options case 'x':
■ colon indicates required argument
x = atoi(optarg);
■ optarg is set to value of option
argument break;
■ Returns -1 when no more default:
arguments present printf(“wrong argument\n");
■ See recitation 6 slides for more break;
examples }
}
}
Carnegie Mellon

Note about Library Functions

■ These functions can return error codes
■ malloc could fail
■ int x;
if ((x = malloc(sizeof(int))) == NULL)
printf(“Malloc failed!!!\n”);
■ a file couldn’t be opened
■ a string may be incorrectly parsed
■ Remember to check for the error cases and handle the
errors accordingly
■ may have to terminate the program (eg malloc fails)
■ may be able to recover (user entered bad input)