Module 1

Physics: The Basic Science

What this module is about

The study of science has two branches namely, the life sciences and the physical
sciences. The life sciences include biology, zoology and botany. The physical sciences
branch into areas such as geology, astronomy, chemistry and physics. However, physics is
more than part of physical sciences because it does not only deal with matter and energy
but it also deals with the other basic concepts like motion, forces, heat, sound, light,
electricity, magnetism and the composition of atoms.

Science has different fields and yet physics is considered the basic science. Why do
you think so? How does physics help improve our lives? How does physics help produce the
different technologies that are introduced in society? How do physicists come up with the
principles, theories, laws, and inventions, which are instrumental in providing the comforts of
life? Do you want to be clarified on these questions? Then read and work on the activities
presented in this module.

Module 1 includes the following lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Nature of Physics

ƒ Lesson 2 - Physics Connections: Technology and Society
ƒ Lesson 3 - The Physicists: Their Role in Society
ƒ Lesson 4 - Thinking Physics: The Scientific Method

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. describe the nature of physics and explain its relationship to other sciences;
2. relate physics to technology and society;
3. give some contributions of physicists and technologists;
4. use the scientific method to solve problems;
5. perform the activities systematically; and
6. appreciate the roles of physics in the modern world.

1
How to learn from this module

Below are guidelines for you in going about the module:

1. Read and follow instructions very carefully.

2. Answer the pre-test to determine how much you already know about the lessons in
this module.
3. Check your answers against the given answer key at the end of this module.
4. Read each lesson and do the activities that are provided for you.
5. Perform all the activities diligently to help you understand the topic.
6. Take the self-test after each lesson to determine how much you understand the topic.
7. Answer the posttest to measure how much you have gained from the lessons.

Good luck and have fun!

What to do before (Pretest)

A. Select and write in a separate sheet of paper the letter of the best answer.

1. All of the following are physical sciences except

a. physics c. botany
b. chemistry d. astronomy

2. Which of the statements below is a scientific hypothesis?

a. Seawater is denser than freshwater

b. Physics is the study of matter and energy.
c. Atoms are the smallest particles of matter.
d. Albert Einstein is the greatest physicist of the twentieth century.

3. Which step in the scientific method involves giving a tentative answer to the
problem?

a. interpreting data c. predicting

b. formulating hypothesis d. experimenting

2
4. Which of the following is a positive impact of technology on society?

a. pollutes the air c. alters nature

b. improves industry d. changes the values of man

5. Suppose you performed an experiment on specific heat of metals but you

forgot to record the initial temperature of the metal. Which of the following
ways of action would you take?

a. Present data that are not based on the experiment.

b. Start over again as soon as you realize your mistake.
c. Copy the data of the other groups who worked on the same activity.
d. Continue with the experiment to see if the mistake makes any
difference.

6. Which of the following is the application of science?

a. law c. technology
b. theory d. principle

7. To avoid accidents in performing a laboratory activity, you should

a. ignore the scientific method.

b. follow precautionary measures.
c. talk with your friends as you work.
d. skip the procedures that require the use of breakable materials.

8. All of the following statements describe science EXCEPT one. Which is it?

a. It is a logical way of thinking.

b. It seeks to discover the truth about events.
c. It is a body of knowledge that could not be questioned.
d. It is a search for order in many different areas on nature.

Below are the processes of the scientific method. Arrange these steps
chronologically from numbers 9-15.

a. make predictions
b. formulate hypothesis
c. identify and state the problem
d. accept hypothesis or theory conditionally
e. gather observations, facts, and data
f. test predictions by experiments
g. pass all tests / fail all tests completely or partially

3
9. 12. 15.
10. 13.
11. 14.

B. Classify whether each item represents technology or pure science.

16. improvised Boyle’s Law apparatus

17. improved procedure on determining the relative density of solids
18. the density of water is 1 g/cc
19. devices for measuring length
20. mass is the quantity of matter

Key to answers on page 19

Lesson 1 Nature of Physics

As mentioned in the early part of this module, physics falls under physical sciences
and it is more than just a body of laws and facts. It deals with motion, forces, energy, heat,
sound, light, electricity and magnetism, and the composition of atoms. Physics is a unique
activity of each physicist. It is a continuing activity that sometimes leads to discovery. It
discusses the basic nature of matter and the various ways by which different forms of matter
interact with one another.

Another form of study, which falls under physical science, is chemistry. It is a branch
of science, which deals with how matter is put together, to make up the different things that
are around us. On the other hand, biology is a life science, which deals with living
organisms. The interrelationship between physics and biology has given birth to a new field
of study known as biophysics. Similarly, the interrelationship between biology and chemistry
has led to the emergence of biochemistry. The ideas of physics are basic to these fields of
sciences, that is why physics is considered the most basic science, which simply means that
you can understand other sciences better if you understand physics.

In addition, physics helps us develop the different traits of scientists. The

experiments conducted in physics could provide students not only with the needed skills in
operating laboratory equipment but also with the discipline to work systematically.

Finally, the principles and laws of physics have practical applications in the home,
transportation, industry, in communication, in amusements and many others.

4
What you will do
Activity 1.1

Below are examples of technology that operate on the principles, laws and theories of
physics. Identify which of them have practical applications in the following areas: home,
transportation, industry, communication and information technology, and amusement.

Technology Area of Application

Ex. 1. videoke amusement

2. car _______________
3. computer _______________
4. fax machine _______________
5. light-rail transit system (LRT) _______________
6. refrigerator _______________
7. generator _______________
8. TV sets _______________
9. fluorescent lamps _______________
10. air conditioning units _______________

Key to answers on page 20

What you will do

Self-Test 1.1

1. What is physics?
2. Why is physics considered the basic science?
3. What field of study links physics to biology?
4. How does physics relate to chemistry?

Key to answers on page 20

5
Lesson 2 Physics Connections: Technology and Society
We could not deny the fact that we live in a technological society and we live
comfortably because of these products of science. All these technologies were made
possible by breakthroughs in scientific research. But what is the difference between science
and technology? Science is a body of systematized knowledge, which is based on
observations, tests and experiments while technology is an applied science. This means
that if science ideas are put into practice, then that is technology, which could be a gadget,
an instrument, an appliance, or an improved procedure made on the existing product.

Knowledge of physics helps us understand our environment. Many of the things we

do right at home involve physics. Say for example, knowledge of heat and thermodynamics
improves our understanding of the process of cooking and ironing clothes. How do you think
the introduction of pressure cooker in the market affect society and what physics principle is
applied in the operation of the pressure cooker? A pressure cooker allows us to cook food at
a shorter time. This technology has a tight-fitting lid that does not allow steam to escape. As
vapor builds up inside the pressure cooker, pressure on the surface of the liquid is increased
and this results to an increase in the boiling point of water. The increased temperature of
water cooks food faster.

What you will do

Activity 2.1

Fill out the table below to show the connection of physics to technology and society.

Physics Concepts Technology Society

Ex. Radiowaves, cellphone Use as means of
Electronics communication

1. _______________ thermos 2. _______________

3. _______________ car 4. _______________
5. _______________ meterstick 6. _______________

Key to answers on page 20

6
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1

Identify which of the following represents pure science and which are technologies.

1. light travels in a straight line

2. acceleration is the rate of change in velocity
3. construction of hydroelectric power plant
4. the speed of sound is 331.5 m/s at 00 C
5. developing colored pictures

Key to answers on page 20

Physics Appreciation

Knowledge of physics helps us understand our environment. You cannot dissociate

yourself from the world of physics. As even the simple activities we do at home involve
physics. Say for example, we apply the knowledge on heat and thermodynamics in
understanding the process of cooking, ironing clothes, boiling water, and ice making.

Outside our home, all the activities that we do involve the application of physics
principles such as the concept of motion in running an automobile, electricity in the
operation of light-rail transit, the coefficient of expansion and pressure in the construction of
bridges and dams, Bernoulli’s principle in flying an airplane, and the concept of energy
transformation in the roller coaster, radio, television, and other means of modern day
communication.

An understanding of physics is needed in the study of other subject areas like

biophysics, chemical physics, and astrophysics.

Physics helps an individual develop scientific attitudes and solve problem

systematically.

The experiments in physics provide students the needed practice and training in the
manipulation of instruments, which serve as basis for operating more complicated machines
like computers.

One who is skillful in the field of physics can either be a physics teacher, a laboratory
technician, a mechanic, a meteorologist, an engineer, or a science researcher.

7
Thus, the principles and laws of physics are applied practically in all our activities.
Physics is applied in the home, in transportation, communication, amusement, sports, and
industry. Everything you see, hear or feel has links with physics.

What you will do

Activity 2.2

Cut some pictures from newspapers and magazines, which show applications of
physics. Discuss each picture briefly.

Key to answers on page 21

What you will do

Self-Test 2.2

Classify whether the following technologies/events/processes of physics apply to the

home, transportation, industry, sports, amusement or communication.

Technology / Process / Event Area

1. boat transportation
2. gym ____________
3. hydroelectric power plant ____________
4. radio ____________
5. melting ____________

Key to answers on page 21

8
Lesson 3 The Physicists: Their Role in Society

Do you want to know who are the people behind the development of physics? What
do you think are the different traits these people exhibit while working on their
inventions/discoveries? The succeeding discussion will give you answers to these queries.

1. He studied the behavior of falling bodies and

formulated laws covering the behavior of
these objects.

Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642)

2. He discovered that the planets move in an

elliptical orbit. The laws of Kepler are used in
calculating the flight paths of today’s space
vehicle.

Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630)

3. He formulated Boyle’s law, which states that

at constant temperature the volume of gas is
inversely proportional to pressure.

Robert Boyle
(1627-1691)

4. He formulated the laws of motion and the

universal law of gravitation.

Sir Isaac Newton

(1642-1727)

5. He is noted for his experiments on

electricity. His renowned kite experiment to
study lightning led him to the invention of the
lightning rod.

Benjamin Franklin
(1706-1790)

9
6. His invention was the generator, which
worked on the principle that magnets can be
used to produce electric current.

Michael Faraday
(1791-1867)

7. He worked on electromagnetism and made

important contributions to the development
of the kinetic theory of gases.

James Maxwell
(1831-1870)

8. He discovered x-rays in 1895. Studies on

radioactivity led to the development of
nuclear physics.

Wilhelm Roentgen
(1845-1923)

9. He discovered radioactivity in 1896. Just like

Roentgen’s discovery, his study led to the
development of nuclear physics.

Henri Becquerel
(1851-1908)

10. A German physicist who formulated the

quantum theory, which is the basis of
quantum mechanics.

Max Planck
(1858-1947)

10
11. He formulated the theory of relativity and his
famous equation, E = mc2.

Albert Einstein
(1879-1955)
Getting to know our Filipino scientists

1. Arturo Alcaraz was responsible for the discovery of geothermal energy in the country.

2. Melecio Magno worked as an atmospheric physicist. He studied how the principles of

physics are applied to the study of weather elements. Further, he explained how the
laws of thermodynamics explain the different phase changes.

3. Christopher Bernido provided the rationale for the unification of the four fundamental
interactions of elementary particles.
4. Henry Ramos is famous for his first plasma experimental device, which can produce
gases that can be manipulated for the generation of energy.

5. Benjamin Almeda is known as the Thomas Edison of the Philippines. He invented the
automatic cooler and the electric grinder.

6. Gregorio Zara is the inventor of an aircraft engine using alcohol as fuel with an
airplane propeller that is made of local materials. He also invented the video
telephone.

7. Aluminada dela Rosa conducted a study on the use of agriculture cellulose waste
materials for energy production. Her study won her the third prize in the 1982 NSTA-
DOST most outstanding research award.

8. Linda Posadas researched on the applications of lasers in communications,

medicine, defense, architecture, space, science and entertainment.

Do you want to be one of these physicists/scientists? Do you ever know that the
success of science has more to do with the attitudes common to scientists? What do you
think are these traits? These scientific attitudes are as follows.

• Curiosity A scientist is a curious person. He/She asks

questions as to the causes of some events, which
are not yet known; he/she keeps on reading to find
information.

11
• Open-mindedness A scientist is an open-minded person who
considers suggestions and accepts criticism,
shares ideas with others, and considers several
possibilities when investigating a problem.

• Questioning Attitude A scientist questions the inconsistencies in

statements and conclusions, and makes decisions
after collecting all-important facts. Also, a scientist
challenges the validity of unsupported statements.

• Respect for Evidence A scientist is one who checks consistency of

observations, considers and evaluates ideas
presented by others, and consults available data
before drawing a conclusion.

• Believing in Cause-and-Effect A scientist believes that for every effect there is a

Relationship corresponding cause and accepts a statement as
fact only if supported by evidence.

• Honesty A scientist reports the data truthfully, gives

comments as situations demand, and
acknowledges the work done by others.

• Humility A scientist shows awareness of one’s shortcomings

and indicates willingness to ask help from someone
who can assist him/her.

• Patience and Determination A scientist carries out investigations in spite of

limited time, keeps working in spite of several
failures, and remains firm even in the face of
criticisms.

• Resourcefulness and Creativity A scientist makes optimum use of equipment and

suggests substitutes for material that are not
available in the school or in the community.

• Intellectual Responsibility A scientist performs assigned tasks dutifully, shows

willingness to do extra work if necessary, and
accepts failures if any are made during an
investigation.

Try to develop the above scientific attitudes and who knows you will be the Albert
Einstein of the Philippines someday.

12
What you will do
Activity 3.1

Match column A with column B.

A. Scientists B. Contributions

1. Sir Isaac Newton a. Invented the lightning rod

2. Albert Einstein b. Law of universal gravitation
3. Michael Faraday c. PV = K
4. Robert Boyle d. E = mc2
5. Galileo Galilei e. Invented the generator
6. Henry Ramos f. Plasma experiment device
7. Linda Posadas g. Thomas Edison of the Philippines
8. Gregorio Zara h. Discovered geothermal energy in the Philippines
9. Benjamin Almeda i. Inventor of aircraft engine
10. Arturo Alcaraz j. Research on applications of laser
k. Studied the behavior of falling bodies

Key to answers on page 21

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1

Write the letter of the best answer for numbers 1-2.

1. A student demonstrates honesty when he

a. recognizes conclusions as tentative.
b. looks for inconsistencies in statements.
c. reports the data truthfully.
d. challenges the validity of unsupported statements.

2. A person exhibits open-mindedness when he

a. discusses his ideas with others.
b. agrees with the ideas presented by others.
c. evaluates ideas, which do not agree with his/her ideas.
d. asks others to provide evidences to support their arguments.

3-5. Give at least three scientific attitudes and describe each trait.

Key to answers on page 21

13
Lesson 4 Thinking Physics: The Scientific Method
We know that some scientific concepts were discovered by accident, which we call
serendipity. However, most of these science ideas are the results of carefully planned
investigation by scientists. Scientists solve scientific problems through a systematic
approach.

Below are the processes of the scientific method applied to every scientific
investigations.

Identify and state the problem

Gather observations, facts and data

Formulate hypothesis

Make predictions

Test predictions by Revise hypothesis

experiments or theory

Pass all Fail tests completely

tests or partially

Accept hypothesis or theory

conditionally; set additional tests
and data

Fig. 4.1 An Outline of the Scientific Method

Several important points should be remembered about the scientific method:

1. Science does not demand that we have no ideas when we engage on the processes
of the scientific method, only that we be ready to change those ideas if the evidence
forces us.

14
2. Scientists can and have started their work by making extensive observations, but
they can also start with a theory and test it. It makes no difference where you enter
the cycle because the scientific process takes you all the way round.

3. Scientific results must be reproducible.

4. The cycle is continuous, it has no end. Science does not provide final answers; nor is
it a search for ultimate truth.

5. Finally, the steps of scientific method shouldn’t be thought of as a kind of rigid

cookbook style set of steps to follow.

To give you a specific situation where the problem is solved scientifically, consider
the case below:

The electric fan in your classroom is out of order. You tried investigating why it does
not work. Observations on the wiring, on the chord, the plug and the outlet were done. You
formulated a hypothesis on why it does not function. Series of testing were conducted to
prove your hypothesis. Finally, you were able to find out that the main cause is a defective
outlet. In this situation, you have followed a series of steps in solving the problem. Do you
think you have followed the steps of scientific method?

What you will do

Activity 4.1

Cite a given problem where you can apply the steps of scientific method.

Key to answers on page 22

What you will do

Self-Test 4.1

What are the steps of scientific method and describe each step.

Key to answers on page 22

15
Let’s summarize

1. Physics is considered the basic science because physics could explain science ideas
in both chemistry and biology, which simply means that other sciences could be
understood better if you understand physics.

2. Principles and laws of physics are applied in the home, in transportation, industry,
communication, amusement, and information technology.

3. Technology is an application of science.

4. The following scientists contributed much to the development of physics:

ƒ Galileo Galilei
ƒ Johannes Kepler
ƒ Robert Boyle
ƒ Sir Isaac Newton
ƒ Benjamin Franklin
ƒ Michael Faraday
ƒ James Maxwell
ƒ William Roentgen
ƒ Henri Becquerel
ƒ Max Planck
ƒ Albert Einstein

5. The Filipino scientists who did a lot in the development of physics in the Philippines
are as follows:

ƒ Melecio S. Magno
ƒ Christopher Bernido
ƒ Henry Ramos
ƒ Benjamin G. Almeda
ƒ Gregorio Zara
ƒ Aluminada Dela Rosa
ƒ Linda S. Posadas

6. The following are the scientific attributes which are exhibited by scientists:

ƒ Curiosity
ƒ Open Mindedness
ƒ Questioning Attitude
ƒ Respect for Evidence
ƒ Believing in Cause-and-Effect Relationship

16
ƒ Honesty
ƒ Humility
ƒ Patience and Determination
ƒ Resourcefulness and Creativity
ƒ Intellectual Responsibility

7. Scientists worked on their investigations / experiments following the steps of the

scientific method which are as follows:

ƒ Identify and state the problem.

ƒ Gather observations, facts, and data.
ƒ Formulate hypothesis.
ƒ Make predictions.
ƒ Test predictions by experiments.
ƒ Accept hypothesis or theory conditionally; set additional tests and data.

Posttest

Write only the letter of the best answer.

1. Which of the following fields of study is a physical science?

a. biology c. zoology
b. botany d. physics

2. When you perform an experiment, what is the next step to do after defining a
problem?

a. gather relevant data c. test the hypothesis

b. formulate the hypothesis d. formulate a conclusion

3. Jose saw big crabs crawling on the sand. He wondered where they came from so he
started investigating. What scientific attitude did Jose show?

a. open-mindedness c. curiosity
b. resourcefulness d. patience

17
4. All of the following are positive effects of technology on society EXCEPT one. Which
is it?

a. improves industry c. gives comfort to man

b. pollutes the environment d. makes work easier

5. Which of the statements below is a scientific hypothesis?

a. Energy is the capacity to do work.

b. Physics deals with matter and energy.
c. The higher the temperature of the substance the faster its molecules move.
d. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

6. Which of the following steps involves giving an educative guess to the problem?

a. making predictions c. stating the problem

b. gathering observations d. formulating hypothesis

Arrange the different processes of the scientific method chronologically from

numbers 7-13.

a. Formulate hypothesis.
b. Make predictions.
c. Accept hypothesis or theory conditionally.
d. Identify and state the problem.
e. Gather observations, facts, and data.
f. Pass all tests / fails completely or partially.
g. Test predictions by experiments.

7. 11.
8. 12.
9. 13.
10.

14. Who formulated the laws of motion?

a. Sir Isaac Newton c. Albert Einstein

b. Robert Boyle d. Benjamin Franklin

15. Who was responsible for the discovery of geothermal energy in the country?

a. Melecio S. Magno c. Arturo P. Alcaraz

b. Christopher Bernido d. Henry Ramos

18
Give 5 scientific attitudes that scientists possesses (16-20):

16. 19.
17. 20.
18.

Key to answers on page 22

Key to Answers

Pretest

A.
1. c
2. c
3. b
4. b
5. b
6. c
7. b
8. c
9. c
10. e
11. b
12. a
13. f
14. g
15. d

B.
16. technology
17. technology
18. pure science
19. technology
20. pure science

19
Lesson 1

Activity 1.1

1. videoke – amusement
2. car – transportation
3. computer – information technology
4. fax machine – communication
5. LRT – transportation
6. refrigerator – home
7. generator – industry, home
8. TV set – home
9. fluorescent lamps – home, industry
10. air conditioning unit – home, industry

Self-Test 1.1

1. Physics deals with matter and energy.

2. Physics is considered the basic science because the principles, laws and theories of
physics are needed in understanding other fields of sciences like chemistry, biology,
geology and astronomy.
3. Biophysics
4. Physics deals with matter and energy while chemistry also deals with matter
specifically the interaction between the atoms and the properties of the substances.

Lesson 2

Activity 2.1

1. It reduces the loss of heat by conduction, convection and radiation.

2. Humans need hot water for mixing hot water with milk or coffee.
3. Motion
4. People need cars to travel longer distances at the shortest possible time. It is a
means of transportation.
5. Measurement
6. People need meterstick for measuring the length precisely and accurately.

Self-Test 2.1

1. pure science
2. pure science
3. technology
4. pure science
5. technology

20
Activity 2.2

Example: Picture of moving electric fan. In this picture, transformation of energy is

shown from electrical energy to mechanical energy and heat.

Note:Students’ collection of pictures may vary.

Self-Test 2.2

1. boat – transportation
2. gym – sports
3. hydroelectric power plant – industry
4. radio – communication
5. melting - industry

Lesson 3

Activity 3.1

1. b
2. d
3. e
4. c
5. k
6. f
7. j
8. i
9. g
10. h

Self-Test 3.1

1. c
2. a
3. Resourceful and Creative. He suggests a substitute for materials that are not
available in the school or in the community.
4. Humble. He does not belittle others whom he thinks do not meet his standards.
5. Responsible. He performs his assigned tasks dutifully; shows willingness to do extra
work if necessary.

Note: Students’ answer may vary for items 3-5.

21
Lesson 4

Activity 4.1

Ex. My grade in physics in the second grading period is much lower than the first
grading. I would like to improve my class standing in the subject so I decided to list down the
possible reasons of getting low grades in physics. I came up with the following possible
reasons:
a. I spend so much time watching TV at night.
b. I only spend a little time studying physics compared with the time spent in
other subjects.
c. I do not answer my assignment in physics regularly.

Then I tried to reduce the number of hours watching TV program, answered

assignment promptly and have spent more time studying physics than in other subjects.
Finally, when all these ways were tried in a month, I have noticed that my grade improved.
Thus, I have found out that improving one’s study habit is a way of getting a good grade in
the subject.

Posttest

1. d
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. c
6. d
7. d
8. e
9. a
10. b
11. g
12. f
13. c
14. a
15. c
16. curiosity
17. open-mindedness
18. questioning attitude
19. humility
20. resourcefulness and creativity

Note: Students may have varied answers for item numbers 16-20.

-End of Module-

22
References

Hewitt, P.G. (1997). Conceptual physics. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.

Navasa, D. and Valdez, B.J. (2001). Physics. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House, Inc.

Salmorin, L.M. and Florido, A. (2004). Physics IV. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.

See Tho Weng Fong (1995). Science for secondary schools. Singapore: Longman Singapore Publishers.

Taffel, A. (1992). Physics: Its methods and meanings. USA: Prentice Hall Publishers.

Tan, M.(2001). TIMSS-LIKE test items in science and mathematics. DOST-SEI, UPNISMED, Pundasyon Para
sa mga Guro ng Agham at Matematika, Ink.

Tillery, B.W. (1999). Physical science. Singapore: WCB McGraw-Hill.

23
Module 2
Energy in Society

What this module is about

Physics is a physical science, focusing on matter and energy. In biology and
chemistry, energy is also discussed but to a very limited extent. It is in physics that we get a
detailed information about energy.

We should be aware of the important role of energy in our lives. Can you imagine
what life would be like if there were no hydroelectric power plants and no geothermal power
plants to generate electricity? Do you think we could reach distant places if crude oil was not
introduced in the market? We learned how to harness energy for our benefit. What do you
think are the benefits that we get from energy? While energy is very beneficial to us, we
must not forget that it can also cause harm. What do you think are the bad effects of energy
on the environment? How do you explain the idea that the total mass-energy in the universe
is constant? Reading and doing the activities in Module 2 could answer all these queries.

Enjoy reading!

Module 2 includes the following lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Energy: Its Role in the Development of Human Society

ƒ Lesson 2 - Energy Conservation: An Answer to Energy Crisis
ƒ Lesson 3 - Fossil Fuels and the Environment
ƒ Lesson 4 - The Relationship between Matter and Energy

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. explain the role of energy in human development;

2. discuss energy and its role in the following areas: home, transportation economy,
information and communication technology, and environment;
3. discuss the different forms of energy and the law of conservation of energy as
applied in transportation, economy, information and communication technology,
and, environment and at home;
4. explain energy resources and their relation to energy crisis;

1
5. enumerate the environmental effects of the production and use of fossil fuels;
6. list the ways of conserving oil;
7. discuss the effects of energy in the environment; and
8. explain the meaning of E= mc2.

How to learn from this module

Below are guidelines for you in going about the module:

1. Read and follow instructions very carefully.

2. Answer the pre-test to determine how much you already know about the lessons
in this module.
3. Check your answers against the given answer key at the end of this module.
4. Read each lesson and do the activities that are provided for you.
5. Perform all the activities diligently to help you understand the topic.
6. Take the self-test after each lesson to determine how much you understand the
topic.
7. Answer the posttest to measure how much you have gained from the lessons.

Good luck and have fun!

What to do before (Pretest)

Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. All of the following are related to energy EXCEPT

a. work
b. joules
c. heat
d. time

2. Which of these refers to the capacity to do work?

a. power
b. energy
c. velocity
d. momentum

3. Which of the following situations shows that potential energy is stored?

a. a bouncing ball
b. a speeding car

2
c. exploding firecracker
d. a book on top of the cabinet

4. Which quantity has the greatest influence on the amount of kinetic energy that a large
truck has while moving down the highway?
a. mass
b. weight
c. velocity
d. size

5. Which does not conserve energy?

a. using firewood in cooking
b. riding a bicycle to school
c. riding a bus for long trips
d. using several electric appliances at one time

6. Which of the following represents energy changes, which take place in a coal-fired
power station?
a. heat→ kinetic→ electrical
b. heat→ light→ electrical
c. heat→ chemical→ electrical
d. kinetic→ electrical→ potential

7. What are the energy changes that take place in a hydroelectric power plant?
a. electrical→ potential→ kinetic
b. kinetic→ electrical→ potential
c. potential→ kinetic→ electrical
d. potential→ electrical→ kinetic

8. The vacuum in a thermos bottle reduces heat loss by

a. radiation alone
b. conduction alone
c. convection alone
d. conduction and radiation

9. Why are cooking pans usually made of metal while their handles are often made of
plastic?
a. Metals are good conductors and plastics are good insulators of heat.
b. Metals are poor conductors and plastics are good insulators of heat.
c. Metals and plastics are both good conductors of heat.
d. Metals and plastics are good insulators.

10. Which of the following terms correctly describes the action of glass prism in splitting
white light into the colors of the spectrum?
a. deviation
b. diffusion
c. dispersion

3
d. image formation

11. Which of the following is a radioactive substance?

a. deuterium
b. helium
c. hydrogen
d. uranium

12. Which of the following devices does NOT make use of electromagnetic waves in its
operation?
a. camera
b. loudspeaker
c. television set
d. radio set

13. Which of the following graphs shows what will probably happen to the supply of
petroleum in the years to come?

a. c.
Amount of Petroleum Amount of Petroleum

Time Time

b. d.
Amount of Petroleum Amount of Petroleum

Time Time

14. What is true about a nuclear power plant and a geothermal power plant?
a. They are renewable sources of energy.
b. They use steam to turn turbines.
c. They are easy to operate and maintain.
d. They give off the same kind of pollutants.

15. Why does the greenhouse effect result to warmer temperature near the surface of
earth?
a. Clouds trap infrared radiation
b. Ozone traps ultraviolet radiation
c. Carbon dioxide traps infrared radiation
d. Soil absorbs incoming radiation

16. Which statement is TRUE about fluorescent bulbs and incandescent bulbs?
a. Fluorescent bulbs are more efficient than incandescent bulbs
b. Incandescent bulbs are more efficient than fluorescent bulbs
c. The bulbs are equally efficient
d. The efficiency of the bulbs cannot be compared

4
17. A plug connected to a table lamp contains a 3 A fuse. Why is the fuse needed?
a. to make it easier for the current to flow
b. to increase the resistance of the circuit
c. to prevent the lamp from getting too bright
d. to protect the wiring from overheating

18. Which form of energy is common among the following objects: lighted bulb, hot soup,
burning firewood and electric stove?
a. heat
b. light
c. electric
d. chemical

19. A tuning fork, a violin string, and a loudspeaker cone all produce sound. This is
because they are all in a state of
a. compression
b. rarefaction
c. vibration
d. tension

20. What should be the speed of the object to convert mass to energy?

a. increasing speed
b. decreasing speed
c. constant speed
d. average speed

A.

Key to answers on page 23

5
Lesson 1 Energy: Its Role in the Development of Human Society

What does a physicist mean by energy? Energy is the ability to do work. In addition,
energy has different forms, each of which can be converted into any other form. The metric
unit (SI) for energy is joule (J).

What is the role of energy in the development of human society? In answering this
question consider the figure below.

Environment Home

Energy
Communication
& Information Transportation
Technology

Economy

It could be gleaned from the preceding figure that energy is greatly utilized in the
following areas: environment, home, transportation, economy, and information and
communications technology. The development of these areas greatly helps us to live
comfortably.

To discuss the dependence of these fields on energy, topics on the different sources
of energy and energy conversion will be considered. What do you think are the sources of
energy and the different forms of energy that are used in these areas?

6
A. Energy: Its Role Environment

What helps you appreciate the beauty of your environment? Yes, you are right when you
say its because of light reaching your eyes either directly or indirectly from some sources
like the sun, light bulbs, fireflies, etc.

The colorful environment makes you appreciate your surroundings. It was Sir Isaac
Newton who was the first to make a systematic study of color. With the use of a glass prism,
the color of sunlight disperses into rainbow colors in the order of red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, and violet. Newton called this spread of colors a spectrum.

The sun is the main source of light. Its radiation supplies heat to warm the earth and
maintain human, animal and plant lives. Without light there will be darkness all over the
earth. Our planet earth would rapidly cool off. Water and air would freeze.

Light can produce change. For example, a chemical change takes place when light
strikes a photographic paper. When light strikes a certain metal, electric current is produced.

Another important form of energy is the nuclear energy. Nuclear energy can be
formed by fission or fusion reactions. Fission is the splitting of heavy atoms, such as
uranium, into lighter atoms. Fusion is the combining of lighter atoms like hydrogen and
deuterium into heavier ones like helium. In both processes, tremendous amount of heat are
released.

At present, nuclear power plants use fission reaction to generate electricity. Fusion is
still currently being explored for electric power generation. It requires high temperature,
which can now be obtained using laser beams.

A nuclear power plant uses uranium, a radioactive substance, as fuel. The major
problems associated with nuclear power plants are the radioactive waste disposal and the
risk of radioactive contaminant to our environment.

B. Energy: Its Role in the Home

Electricity is a form of energy and like all other forms of energy, it obeys the laws of
energy conversion. When an electric current flows through a circuit, it may give rise to
heating effects or chemical effects. We can make use of these effects to construct different
kinds of electrical appliances.

There are different types of electrical appliances in your home. Each one changes
electrical energy to some other forms.

Some of these electrical appliances are the electric iron, kettle, and electric stove.
These appliances make use of the heating effect of an electric current. The element is

7
usually made of nichrome wire coiled round an insulating fireproof material, e.g., silica or
mica.

The heat produced by an electric iron must be spread evenly over a large surface. A
metal base, which conducts heat well, is used.

In the case of an electric kettle, the heating element is enclosed in a metal tube and
electrically insulated from it. When a current flows through the heating element, the water
around the element is heated first by conduction. Then the heat is spread through the water
by convection.

Another very common example, which makes use of electricity for its operation is the
electric fan. Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy specifically kinetic energy,
the energy in motion.

C. Energy: Its Role in Transportation

It is said that approximately 80% of our fossil fuels are used directly in transportation
and industry. Petroleum and natural gas are formed from the remains of tiny plants and
animals that lived millions of years ago. Coal, on the other hand, is formed from an
accumulation of plant materials under special conditions millions of years ago. Thus
petroleum, natural gas, and coal are called fossil fuels. These fuels contain energy store in
the chemical bonds in their molecules. When they are burnt, the energy is released.

The illustration below shows the energy conversion from oil.

oil is burned steam turbine rotates generator

Chemical Heat Kinetic Electrical

Energy Energy Energy Energy

D. Energy: Its Role in Economy

Every month we pay our energy bills. We have a budget for the use of electricity, oil,
and natural gas in our homes and for the gasoline used in our automobiles. There are
indirect charges that we pay for the energy used in manufacturing processes and for the
transportation of goods. Because our rate of using energy is increasing, it is becoming more
expensive to generate sufficient energy to meet current demands. Thus, as we manufacture
and sell more goods, add more technologies for our comfort and entertainment, and make
more use of transportation facilities, we can look forward to larger and larger energy bills as
well as to shortages of some of our fuels.

Modern society cannot exist without the production and utilization of energy. As long
as we continue to use fuels, there will necessarily be undesirable side effects.

8
E. Energy: Its Role in Communication and Information Technology

What do you think are the sources and forms of energy that are greatly involved in
this field?

Moving water has been used as a source of energy for thousands of years. It is
considered a renewable energy resource, inexhaustible as long as the rain falls.
Hydroelectric power plants generate electricity. For the generation of hydroelectric power,
dams are built across rivers high up in the hills to store water. The water behind the dam
possesses potential energy. The potential energy (PE) of the water in the dam changes to
kinetic energy (KE) when the water is allowed to run down the pipes. The KE of the water
turns a turbine, which in turn drives a generator to produce electrical energy. The electrical
form of energy is responsible for the operation of the different communication and
information technologies. A computer, for example, is run by electricity. The convenience
that this gadget gives to humans is tremendous. This is an example of technology that
makes the world smaller. By just surfing the Internet we get to know the different events that
are happening in the opposite side of the globe in a matter of seconds.

Radio and television sets are examples of communication technologies, which show
how electrical energy is converted into sound energy and to some other form of energy, like
heat energy.

Sound energy is best transmitted in solid, followed by liquid and the least is gas. In
other words, there is a need for a medium for sound, which is produced by a vibrating body,
to be transmitted.

Below is an illustration of energy conversion taking place in the operation of television

to show the law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of energy states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only changed from one form to another.

Electrical Light Sound Heat

Energy Energy Energy Energy

9
What you will do
F. Activity 1.1

Identify the energy conversions in each of the following technology/process:

Example: lighted candle: chemical energy→ light energy

1. dry cell
2. photosynthesis
3. burnt gasoline
4. charging of battery
5. loudspeaker

B.

Key to answers on page 23

What you will do

G. Self-Test 1.1

Fill out the table below. Choose the form of energy from following: chemical energy,
mechanical energy (PE or KE), heat energy, electrical energy, light energy, and sound
energy. Choose the field/area from the following: transportation, industry, communication
and technology, home, and economy.

Forms of
Technology/ Process Field/Area
energy
Ex. Car chemical Transportation
1. geothermal power plant
2. radio
3. guitar
4. fluorescent bulb
5. car battery
6. refrigerator

Key to answers on page 23

10
Lesson 2 Energy Conservation: An Answer to the Energy Crisis

In the early part of our discussion of energy, we have mentioned about energy’s role
in human development and the benefits that humans get in utilizing the different forms of
energy. Majority of our activities require the use of energy. Hence, we should learn to
conserve energy. But what is energy conservation? Why conserve energy? How can you
conserve energy? As mentioned in Lesson 1 of this module, oil and coal are needed for
electricity, transportation and industries. We depend so much on oil and its products like
gasoline and cooking gas. But why save oil? It takes millions of years for plants and animals
to decay and form oil. We burn oil faster than it is formed, hence we are experiencing
energy crisis. Clearly, the supply is limited and the demand is high. The price of oil is fast
increasing. Do you think the government is doing something to lessen the energy crisis the
country is facing? Yes, the government is looking for alternative sources of energy.

Below are the alternative sources of energy:

1. Energy of falling water. Water is stored at high level in dams of rivers. Falling water
turns turbines of generators producing electricity.

2. Energy from the earth’s interior. Ground water in contact with hot rocks gets heated.
Steam coming out through rock openings is used to produce steam, which turns
turbines of generators producing electricity.

3. Energy of the sun. Heat from the sun is trapped and concentrated for cooking and
heating.

4. Energy of the wind. Wind turns windmill blades to pump water or produce electricity.

5. Energy from waste. Waste is changed to methane gas, a substitute for cooking gas.

6. Energy from alcohol. Alcohol from sugar cane is used as a gasoline substitute.

7. Energy from the atom. Energy from splitting the nucleus of the atom can be used to
produce steam. Steam turns turbines of electric generators.

Can you help the government conserve energy from oil? Do Activity 2.1 in answering
this question.

11
What you will do
H. Activity 2.1

Below are ways by which you can help conserve energy. Put a check mark on those
ways that you practice wherever you are, whether you are at home or in school.

___1. Turn off electric lights and electrical or gas appliances when these are not in use.
___2. Open ovens and refrigerators only when necessary.
___3. Turn off radios and televisions when not in use.
___4. Clean and oil machines regularly. Dust or dirt reduces efficiency of machines.
___5. Save on gasoline by using public rather than private vehicles.

C.

Key to answers on page 24

What you will do

I. Self-Test 2.1

The passage below contains keywords on energy that have been jumbled up and
italicized. Can you rearrange these words?

Energy cannot be dactree nor reyossetdd, but it can be changed from one form to
another. The amount of energy during the change may be the same. The type or quality of
energy is useful for living organisms but it is not so useful in mechanical processes. Too
much heat produced by industrial production and operating equipment contributes to global
mwgrain. At the same time, this means energy is lost and usable energy is reduced.

We get most of our energy from the sun. This is because billions of nuclear reactions
occur at the core. The sun can be thought as a giant nuclear rotacre. The energy it emits will
be gone one day, though that will not be for many millions of years at least. It has been
estimated that the mass of the sun is being converted to energy at the rate of 4 million tons
per second.

D.

Key to answers on page 24

12
Lesson 3 Fossil Fuels and the Environment

We rely almost completely on fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal for our
energy needs. However, these are nonrenewable resources, and their production and use
have a variety of serious environmental impacts. Do you want to know the environmental
issues linked to the production and use of these fuels? The succeeding discussion will give
you information about this problem.

As mentioned in the early part of this module, fossil fuels are forms of stored solar
energy. The main fossil fuels used today were created from incomplete biological
decomposition of dead organic matter. The major fossil fuels- crude oil (petroleum), natural
gas, and coal are our primary energy sources. On a worldwide basis, they provide
approximately 90% of the energy consumed.

Oil in the 21st Century

Recent estimates of proven oil reserves suggest that, at present production rates, oil
and natural gas will last only a few decades. The important question, however, is not how
long oil is likely to last at present and future production rates, but when will we reach peak
production? This is important because following peak production, less oil will be available,
leading to shortages and price shocks. World oil production is likely to peak between the
years 2020 and 2030, within the lifetime of many people living today. It is projected that
world production of oil will be nearly exhausted by 2100

What do you think should be the appropriate response by people worldwide to the
likelihood that production rate of oil will likely fall in the mid- 21st century?

1. We need an educational program early in the 21st century to inform people and
governments of the potential depletion of crude oil and the consequences of
shortages.

2. Planning and appropriate action are necessary to avoid military confrontation, food
shortages, and social disruption.

Before significant shortages of oil occur, we need to develop alternative sources of

energy such as solar energy and wind power and perhaps rely more on nuclear energy.

Environmental Effects of Oil and Natural Gas

Development of oil and gas fields involves drilling wells on land or beneath the sea
floor. What are the possible environmental impacts on land?

ƒ Use of land to construct pads for wells, pipelines, and storage tanks and to build a
network of roads and other facilities.

13
ƒ Pollution of surface waters and ground water from:

1. leaks from broken pipes or tanks containing oil or other oil-field chemicals

2. salty water (brine) that is brought to the surface in large volumes with the oil.
The brine is toxic and may be disposed of by evaporation in lined pits, which
may leak.

ƒ Accidental release of air pollutants, such as hydrocarbons and hydrogen sulfide, a

toxic gas.

ƒ Land subsidence (sinking) as oil and gas are withdrawn.

ƒ Loss or disruption and damage of fragile ecosystems, such as wetlands or other

unique landscapes.

Environmental impacts associated with oil production in the marine environment

include:

ƒ Oil seepage into the sea from normal operations or large spills from accidents, such
as blowouts or pipe ruptures

ƒ Release of drilling mud containing heavy metals, such as barium, that may be toxic to
marine life

ƒ Aesthetic degradation from the presence of offshore oil-drilling platforms, which some
people think is unsightly.

Refining

Refining crude oil and converting it to related products also create environmental
impacts such as the following:

ƒ Accidental spills and slow leaks of gasoline and other products from storage tanks
and pipes.

ƒ Over years of operation, large amounts of liquid hydrocarbons maybe released,

polluting soil and groundwater resources below the site.

ƒ Crude oil and its distilled products are used to make fine oil, a wide variety of plastics,
and organic chemicals used by society in huge amounts. The industrial processes
involved in the production of organic chemicals have the potential for releasing a
variety of pollutants into the environment.

14
Delivery and Use

Some of the most extensive and significant environmental problems associated with
oil and gas occur when the fuel is delivered and consumed.

• Crude oil is mostly transported on land in pipelines or across the ocean by tankers
and both methods present the danger of oil spills.

• Air pollution is associated with the burning of oil. Combustion of gasoline in

automobiles produces pollutants that contribute to urban smog.

Coal Mining and the Environment

Strip Mining

Coal mining is done by strip mining. This is a surface mining process in which the
overlying layer of soil and rock is stripped off to reach the coal. Strip mining has the
potential to pollute or damage water, land, and biological processes.

Underground Mining

Underground coal mining is a dangerous profession; there are always hazards of

collapse, explosion, and fire. Miners are at risk of contracting respiratory illnesses,
especially black lung disease, due to their exposure to coal dust. Black lung disease has
killed or disabled many miners.

Some of the environmental problems associated with underground mining include the
following:

ƒ Acid mine drainage from the mines and waste piles has polluted thousands of
kilometers of streams.

ƒ Land subsidence can occur over mines

ƒ Coal fires in underground mines maybe either naturally caused or deliberately set.
The fires may belch smoke and hazardous fumes, causing people exposed to them
to suffer from a variety of respiratory diseases.

15
What you will do
J. Activity 3.1

Fill out the table below regarding the environmental impacts related to the
recovery of oil and gas up to its delivery and use by consumers.

Stages/Processes Environmental Impacts

Ex. Pollution of surface water
Recovery 1.
2.
3.
Refining 1.
2.
3.
Delivery and Use 1.
2.
3.

E.

Key to answers on page 24

What you will do

K. Self-Test 3.1

Answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate strip mining from underground mining.

2. What are the three major fossil fuels?

Key to answers on page 24

16
Lesson 4 The Relationship between Mass and Energy

In 1905 Albert Einstein published his theory of

special relativity.

In it he concluded that mass and energy are

interchangeable. The quantitative mass-energy
relationship is given in his famous equation

E0= mc² Albert Einstein

(1879-1955)

where: E0 is the amount of rest energy and c is the speed of light, which is
3 x 108 m/s. This equation gives the total energy content of a piece of stationary matter of
mass m. The value of c² is a large number, and so a large amount of energy can be
obtained from the conversion of a small amount of mass.

In nuclear reaction, when the nucleus of radium undergoes fission, the mass of the
original radium nucleus is greater than the combined mass of the fission products. No
protons and neutrons are destroyed during fission reaction. Before and after fission reaction,
the total number of protons and neutrons are still the same. But the protons and neutrons
are rearranged resulting to change in mass. The mass difference is converted to energy.

Sample Problem:

Calculate the amount of energy obtained from converting 1.0 g of mass into energy
and compare it to the 3000 kcal of food used by a normal person in one day.

E= mc²
= (1.0 x 10-3 kg)(3 x108 m/s)²
= 9.0 x 1013 kg.m²/s²
= 9.0 x 1013 N-m
= 9.0 x 1013 J

Compare this to 3000 kcal:

9.0 x 1013 J x 1kcal/4186 J =2.15 x1010 kcal

by taking the ratio

2.15 x 1010 kcal/3000 kcal = 7.2 x 106

This is seven million times as much energy as the average person consumes in food
in one day.

17
What you will do
L. Activity 4.1

Answer the following:

1. Calculate the amount of energy obtained from converting 1000 kg of mass.

2. What do you mean by rest energy?

Key to answers on page 24

What you will do

M. Self-Test 4.1

1. Who formulated the equation, E0= mc2?

2. What is the value of c in the equation?
3. What does E0 represent? How about m?

Key to answers on page 25

Let’s summarize!

1. Energy is the capacity to do work. It is expressed in Joules (J).

2. Energy is utilized in the following areas: home, transportation, economy,
communication and information technology and environment.
3. The different forms of energy are, namely: mechanical (PE and KE), chemical,
electrical, sound, heat, light, and nuclear.
4. The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed but it can be transformed from one form into another form.
5. We rely almost completely on fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) for our energy
needs.
6. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable, so we have to develop other sources to meet our
energy demands. These alternative sources of energy are: energy of falling water,

18
energy from the earth’s interior, energy of the sun, energy of the wind, energy from
wastes, energy from alcohol and energy from atom.
7. Environmental impacts related to oil and natural gas include those associated with
exploration and development ( damage to ecosystems, water pollution, air pollution,
and waste disposal; those associated with refining and processing (soil, water, and
air pollution) and those associated with burning oil and gas for energy to power
automobiles, produce electricity, run industrial machinery, heat homes (air pollution).
8. Coal is a source of energy particularly damaging to the environment. Problems
associated with mining include fires, subsidence, acid mine drainage, and difficulties
related to land reclamation. Burning coal can release air pollutants, including sulfur
dioxide and carbon dioxide.
9. Mass and energy are equivalent that is anything with mass also has energy. For an
object at rest, its energy is its mass.

Posttest

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the letter on your answer sheet

1. Which of the following is related to energy?

a. time
b. force
c. heat
d. speed

2. Which of the following refers to the capacity to do work?

a. power
b. energy
c. velocity
d. momentum

3. Which of the following situations possesses kinetic energy?

a. a bouncing ball
b. a car in a parking place
c. a book on top on top of the table
d. a hammer raised at a certain height

4. Which quantity has the greatest influence on the amount of kinetic energy that the car
has while moving in a superhighway?
a. mass
b. weight
c. velocity
d. size

19
5. All of the following practices conserve energy EXCEPT
a. using firewood in cooking
b. riding a bicycle to school
c. riding a bus for long trips
d. using many electrical appliances at the same time

6. Which of the following energy changes take place in a hydroelectric power station?
a. potential→ kinetic→ electrical
b. kinetic→ potential→ electrical
c. heat→ chemical→ electrical
d. kinetic→ electrical→ potential

7. What are the energy changes that take place in a television?

a. electrical→ potential→ kinetic
b. kinetic→ electrical→ potential
c. electrical→ light→ sound
d. potential→ electrical→ kinetic

8. A photographer wants to determine the color of light he can use in the darkroom that
will not expose the films he is processing. In one trial, he used blue incandescent
bulb. Which bulb can he use for another trial?
a. red incandescent bulb
b. green incandescent bulb
c. red fluorescent bulb
d. blue fluorescent bulb

9. Why are cooking pans usually made of metal while their handles are often made of
plastic?
a. Metals are good conductors while plastics are good insulators of heat.
b. Metals are poor conductors while plastics are good insulators of heat.
c. Metals and plastics are both conductors of heat
d. Metals and plastics are good insulators

10. Which of the following terms correctly describes the action of glass prism in splitting
white light into the colors of the spectrum?
a. deviation
b. diffusion
c. dispersion
d. image formation

11. Purple light is a mixture of red and blue light. Orange paint reflects only red and
yellow light. When purple light falls on orange paint, what color does the paint appear
to be?
a. purple
b. red

20
c. yellow
d. orange

12. Which one of the following devices does NOT make use of electromagnetic waves in
its operation?
a. camera
b. loudspeaker
c. television set
d. radio set

13. Which one of the following graphs shows what will probably happen to the supply of
petroleum in the years to come?

a. c.
Amount of Petroleum Amount of Petroleum

Time Time

b. d.
Amount of Petroleum Amount of Petroleum

Time Time

14. All of the following are alternative sources of energy EXCEPT:

a. wind energy
b. natural gas
c. solar energy
d. energy from the earth’s interior

15. Why does the greenhouse effect result to warmer temperature near the surface of
earth?
a. Clouds trap infrared radiation.
b. Ozone traps ultraviolet radiation.
c. Carbon dioxide traps infrared radiation.
d. Soil absorbs incoming radiation.

16. Which of the following activities helps reduce water pollution?

a. throwing liquid wastes
b. using organic fertilizers in farms
c. using soap instead of detergents
d. treating wastewater before it is discharged

21
17. Atomic fission involves the splitting of atoms resulting in a tremendous release of
energy. This is used to produce steam in electric power plants. Which of the following
is the MOST accurate energy transformation?
a. nuclear→chemical→mechanical→electrical
b. nuclear→heat→mechanical→electrical
c. chemical→mechanical→light→electrical
d. chemical→nuclear→electrical-→light

18. Which process does NOT involve release of heat?

a. explosion of bombs
b. breakdown of food in the body
c. melting of butter
d. burning of gasoline

19. What form of energy does an object produce, which is set into vibration?
a. compression
b. rarefaction
c. electrical
d. sound

20. What should be the speed of the object to convert mass to energy?
a. increasing speed
b. decreasing speed
c. constant speed
d. average speed

F.

Key to answers on page 25

22
Key to Answers

Pretest

1. d 11. a
2. b 12. b
3. d 13. a
4. c 14. b
5. d 15. c
6. a 16. a
7. c 17. d
8. d 18. a
9. a 19. c
10.c 20. b

Lesson 1

Activity 1.1

1. chemical → light
2. light → chemical
3. chemical → kinetic
4. electrical → chemical
5. electrical → chemical

Self-Test 1.1

Technology Forms of Energy Area/Field

1. geothermal power 1. heat economy
plant
2. radio 2. electrical communication
technology
3. guitar 3. sound home
4. fluorescent bulb 4. light home
5. car battery 5. chemical economy
6. refrigerator 6. electrical home/economy

23
Lesson 2

Activity 2.1

Note: Student’s responses may vary because they may have different practices.

Self-Test 2.1

1. created
2. destroyed
3. warming
4. creator

Lesson 3

Activity 3.1

For recovery: They may choose only 3 out of 5 environmental impacts

1. accidental release of air pollutants

2. land subsidence
3. disruption and damage of fragile ecosystems
4. oil seepage into the sea
5. release of drilling mud
6. aesthetic degradation

For refining

1. accidental spills and slow leaks of gasoline

2. soil and water pollution
3. release of pollutants in the atmosphere

For delivery and use

1. oil spill
2. air pollution
3. effects of smog on vegetation

Lesson 4

Activity 4.1

1. 9 x 1019 J
2. Rest energy is the energy stored in matter which is at rest

24
Self-Test 4.1

1. Albert Einstein
2. c = 3 x 108 m/s
3. E= energy
m=mass

Posttest

1. a 11. b
2. b 12. b
3. a 13. a
4. c 14. b
5. d 15. c
6. a 16. d
7. c 17. b
8. d 18. c
9. a 19. d
10. c 20. a

-End of Module-

References

Botkin, D. & Keller, E. (2003). Environmental science. (4th Ed.) USA: John Wiley and Sons.

Hewitt, P.G. (1997). Conceptual physics. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.

Navasa, D. & Valdez, B.J. (2001). Physics. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House, Inc.

Salmorin, L.M. & Florido, A. (2004). Physics IV. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.

See Tho Weng Fong. (1995). Science for secondary schools. Singapore: Longman Singapore Publishers.

Taffel, A. (1992). Physics: Its methods and meanings. USA: Prentice Hall Publishers.

Tan, M., Rivero, C. (2001). TIMSS-LIKE test items in science and mathematics. Quezon City: DOST-SEI,
UPNISMED, Pundasyon Para sa mga Guro ng Agham at Matematika, Ink.

Tillery, B.W. (1999). Physical science. Singapore: WCB McGraw-Hill.

Urone, P. (2004). Physics with health science applications. Manila: C and E

Publishing Co.

Yong Loo Wan, Wai Kwok & Fong See Tho Weng. (2004). Physics insights. Manila: Pearson Educ. South Asia
PTE LTD.

25
Module 3
The Nature and Properties of Light

What this module is about

Most of the things that you know you have learned about through your eyes. You
can only see if there is light. Light makes you see shapes and colors. Light also helps you
identify objects both near and far. But what is light?

In this module you will learn about the nature and properties of light in the following
lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 – The Nature of Light

ƒ Lesson 2 – Reflection and Mirrors
ƒ Lesson 3 – Refraction and Lenses
ƒ Lesson 4 – Colors, Interference and Polarization

What you are expected to learn

After studying the lessons in this module, you are expected to:

1. state the different theories about the nature of light;

2. demonstrate reflection properties of light using mirrors;
3. describe the image formed by mirrors;
4. show the refraction properties of light using lenses;
5. give applications of total internal reflection;
6. describe the image formed by lenses;
7. enumerate the colors that make up white light;
8. explain what causes colors of object; and
9. cite applications of diffractions, interference and polarization of light.
How to learn from this module

Here is a simple guide for you in going about the module.

1. Read and follow the instructions very carefully.

2. Take the pretest (20-item multiple-choice test) to determine how much you know
about the lessons in the module.
3. Check your answers against the correct answers provided at the last page of the
module.
4. Be very honest in taking the test so you know how much knowledge you already
have about the topic.
5. Perform all the activities, as these will help you have a better understanding of the
topic.
6. Take the self-tests at the end of each lesson to determine how much you learned
about the lesson.
7. Take the posttest (20-item multiple choice test) to assess how much you learned
in this module.

Have fun in learning these lessons about light. Good luck!

What to do before (Pretest)

Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the best answer:

1. Which of the following is Sir Isaac Newton’s theory that explains light as a particle?
a. Corpuscular Theory c. Quantum Theory
b. Electromagnetic Wave Theory d. Wave Theory

2. When light hits a smooth surface, it is

a. bent around corners c. reflected
b. polarized d. refracted

3. A ray of light is reflected from a plane mirror. The angle of incidence is 20o. The angle
between the incident and the reflected ray is
a. 10o c. 30o
b. 20o d. 40o

2
4. What kind of mirror is used in automobile and trucks to give the driver a wider area and
smaller image of the traffic behind him/her?
a. concave mirror c. plane mirror
b. convex mirror d. none of these

5. The image in a plane mirror is always

a. erect but reversed. c. inverted and reversed.
b. erect but not reversed. d. inverted but not reversed.

6. When rays parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror are reflected, they pass
through
a. any point on the axis..
b. the principal focus.
c. the center of curvature of the mirror.
d. the point halfway between the focus and the mirror.

7. A stick partly submerged obliquely in water appears to be bent at a point where it enters
the water surface. Which one of the following gives explanation for this observation?
a. Dispersion of light on entering water
b. Light does not travel in straight line in water.
c. Diffraction of light by the surface of the water
d. Refraction of light due to differences in speed of light in air

8. The principle involved in the formation of images on lenses is

a. aberration. c. reflection.
b. dispersion. d. refraction.

9. A diamond is a brilliant gem because

a. it has low index of refraction. c. most of the light is refracted.
b. it has big critical angle. d. most of the light is reflected internally.

10. When light travels from air to glass its speed

a. increases . c. remains the same.
b. decreases. d. increases then decreases.

11. The property of light responsible for the formation of colors is

a. amplitude . c. velocity.
b. quality. d. wavelength.

12. Which of the following statements is NOT true about the dispersion of sunlight by a
prism?
a. The color most bent is red.
b. White light consists of waves of varying length.
c. Different wavelengths travel with different speed.
d. Different wavelengths correspond to different colors.

3
13. After a rainstorm, a rainbow may appear in the sky. Which statement explains this
observation?
a. Raindrops act as prisms separating sunlight into colors.
b. The white clouds are actually prisms composed of different colors.
c. The colors of the rainbow come from raindrops in the atmosphere.
d. When the sunlight is reflected by the ground towards the clouds, it separates into
different colors.

14. A piece of coal appears black when viewed in sunlight because it __________ all the
light that falls on it.
a. absorbs c. reflects
b. disperses d. transmits

15. A red rose appears red because of its ability to

a. absorb the red color and reflect all others.
b. reflect the red color and absorb all others.
c. transmit all colors except red.
d. transmit the red color and reflect all others.

16. Diffraction of light means that

a. light is a transverse wave.
b. light is reflected from a film.
c. light bends as it enters a different medium.
d. light bends as it passes through a small opening.

17. The sun appears to be more reddish at sunset than at noon. Which of the following
phenomena is responsible for this effect?
a. dispersion c. reflection
b. interference d. scattering

18. Which property of light produces bright and dark bands on a screen after light from a
source passes through two very narrow slits that are near each other?
a. dispersion c. polarization
b. interference d. refraction

19. When sunlight falls on soap bubble, the band of colors seen is due to
a. dispersion. c. pigments of soap.
b. interference. d. refraction.

20. Polarization of light is an evidence that light

a. is a transverse wave.
b. is a longitudinal wave.
c. has a particle property.
d. wave can destructively interfere with each other.

Key to answers on page 30

4
Lesson 1 The Nature of Light

What is light? Is it matter or is it energy? Is it a particle or is it a wave? Do you know

that for centuries, scientists disagreed about the nature of light? Sir Isaac Newton in his
corpuscular theory of light thought that light is made up of particles that travels through
space on a straight line. On the other hand, Christian Huygens, a Dutch physicist, thought
that light is made up of waves similar to that of water waves. This is called the wave theory
of light.

When scientist discovered the interference of light they thought they had proved that
light consists of waves. They felt that particles did not act this way. Yet, at that time,
scientists believed that waves must travel through a medium. They could not explain how
waves of sunlight traveled to the earth through a vacuum or space. Later, it was found that
an electromagnetic wave, such as light, could travel through a vacuum. Electromagnetic
waves are disturbances caused by both electric and magnetic fields. According to James
Clerk Maxwell, light is that small part of the electromagnetic spectrum which affects our
vision. Light is propagated in space as electromagnetic waves. This is known as
electromagnetic wave theory of light.

More recently, scientists found evidence to prove that light does consist of particles.
In photoelectric effect, Einstein discovered that light shining on certain metals can make
electron jumps out of the metal. Brighter light can make more electrons jump, but they jump
out at the same speed. However, different colors of light make electrons jump out at
different speeds. Scientists could explain these observations if light was made up of
particles of energy called photons. Based on this, the Quantum Theory was proposed by
Max Planck in 1900 and advanced by Albert Einstein in 1905. This theory assumes that
light is radiated in discrete packets or bundles of energy called photons, which also exhibit
wave characteristics. Based on the scientists’ investigations of the different behaviors of
light, it is now considered to have dual characteristics – those of a wave and those of a
particle. These behaviors can only be observed under different conditions.

Know This

When does light behave as a particle? When does it

behave as a wave? In general, if light interacts with light such
as in interference, it manifests wave behavior. If light interacts
with matter like in the photoelectric effect, the particle behavior
is strongly manifested.

Light of higher frequencies shows more of a particle

behavior while light of lower frequencies shows more of the
wavelike behavior.

5
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1

Direction: Match the theories about the nature of light in column A with their corresponding
proponents in column B.

Column A Column B
Theory Proponent
1. Wave Theory a. James Clerk Maxwell
2. Corpuscular Theory b. Christian Huygens
3. Electromagnetic Theory c. Max Planck
4. Quantum Theory d. Sir Isaac Newton

Key to answers on page 30

Lesson 2 Reflection and Mirrors

What can you see when you look at a mirror, or a polished metal or a still pool of
water? You can see your image. Why? These objects are image reflecting objects.

Types of Image

There are two types of images formed by reflecting surfaces. They are real and
virtual images. Real image is always inverted and is formed by actual rays of light. It can
be projected on the screen. Virtual image is always erect and is formed by apparent rays of
light. It cannot be projected on the screen.

Reflection of Light normal

ray
When light hits a smooth surface like a
mirror, light is reflected. Reflection is the incident i r reflected
turning back of light when it hits a barrier. The ray ray
angle between the incident ray and the normal
rays is called the angle of incidence. The smooth surface
angle between the reflected ray and the normal
ray is the angle of reflection. i = angle of incidence
r = angle of reflection
The laws of reflection state that:

1. the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the reflecting surface all lie in
the same plane.
2. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

6
What you will do
Activity 2.1 Image in a Plane Mirror

1. Stand in front of a plane mirror. Is your

image exactly the same in size as you
are? Where is it apparently found?
2. Raise your left hand. What hand does
your image raise?
3. Is your image erect or inverted? Is it
real or virtual?

The mirrors that we use as looking glasses are plane mirrors. The image formed by
a plane mirror is always erect, virtual, laterally reversed, same size as the object and found
to be apparently behind the mirror.

Spherical Mirrors

There are two kinds of spherical mirrors, the

concave and convex mirrors. If the reflecting surface is
curved inward, it is a concave mirror. If the reflecting
surface is curved outward it is a convex mirror.
a. concave mirror b. convex mirror

There are mirrors terminology which you should know. They are the following:

1. Vertex (V) is the middle portion of the mirror.

2. Center of curvature (C) is the center of the sphere
of which the curved mirror is a part.
3. Radius of curvature (r) is the distance of the center A
of curvature from the vertex. S
r
4. Principal axis (P) is the line drawn passing through
the vertex and the center of curvature. P V
C F f
5. Secondary axis (S) is a line drawn through the
center of curvature to any part in the mirror.
6. Aperture (A) is the opening of the mirror.
7. Focus (F) is the point where the reflected rays meet.
8. Focal length (f) is the distance between the focus
and the vertex.

Remember This

For spherical mirrors with small opening, the focal length is

one-half the radius of curvature.

7
What you will do
Activity 2.2 Image in spherical mirrors

1. Get a spoon. This can serve as your mirror.

2. Look at the concave surface of the spoon. Place the mirror very near your face.
Describe your image.
3. Bring the spoon an arm length distance away from you. Describe your image.
4. Look now at the convex surface of the spoon. Observe your image as you bring
the spoon farther from you. Describe your image.

You observed that the position and size of the image changes when the distance of a
concave mirror from the observer varies. For a convex mirror, you observed only one
kind of image which is smaller, erect and virtual.

Ray Method of Image Formation

How can we construct, locate and describe the image formed by spherical mirrors?

To construct the image formed by spherical mirrors by the ray method draw at least
two of the following rays from point A on the object (See Figure 2.1):

ƒ Ray 1 is an incident ray parallel to the

principal axis and is reflected through the A ray 1
principal focus.
object ray 3
ray 2
ƒ Ray 2 is a ray traveling along a secondary P V
C F
axis and passes through the center of
curvature which is reflected back along image
itself.

ƒ Ray 3 is a ray that passes through the Fig. 2.1

focus and is reflected parallel to the Ray method of locating images
principal axis.

Figure 2.2 summarizes the kind of image formed in a concave mirror at different position of
the object. Study how the image is constructed using the ray method. Note the kind of
image formed.

8
Fig. 2.2 Image in a Concave Mirror
b. Object is located beyond the
a. Object is at infinite distance
center of curvature

A ray 1
object ray 2
P
F C F
V
image

The image is a point at the principal The image is smaller, inverted, real and
focus. located between the center of curvature
and the focus.

c. Object is at the center of d. Object is between the center of

curvature curvature & the principal focus
ray 2

ray 1
ray 1 A
A
object
object ray 3
P
P C F
image C F
image

The image is of the same size, inverted, The image is larger, inverted, real and
real and located at the center of located beyond the center of curvature.
curvature.

f. Object is between principal

e. Object at principal focus
focus and the mirror

ray 2
A ray 1 A
ray 2 ray 1
object
P P
C F C F object image

The image is at infinity – no image is The image is larger, erect, virtual and
observed. located behind the mirror.

9
Image in a convex mirror

In a convex mirror, the image is always A

smaller than the object, erect and located behind
the mirror. As the object is brought closer to the object image F C
mirror, the size of the image increases, but it can
never become as large as the object itself.

Fig. 2.3 Image in a convex mirror

Where are mirrors used?

Concave mirrors are used in amusement parks to form fantastic images. The convex
side view mirror used by automobile and trucks gives a wide field of view and vision. Can
you name other uses of mirrors?

The Mirror Equation:

Mathematically, the object distance (do), image distance (di) 1 1 1

and the focal length (f) of the mirror can be found using the mirror = +
formula: f do d i

The size of the object (So) and size of image (Si) are Si di
determined using the size formula: =
So d o

The mirror formula is applicable for both concave and convex mirror. The following
conventions are helpful in using the equation for solving problems.

Mirror f do di
concave
real image + + +
virtual image + + -
convex (virtual image) - + -

10
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1

Direction: Identify the term herein defined, described or referred to in the following:

____________ 1. The kind of image that is formed by actual ray of light and can be
projected on the screen
____________ 2. The angle between the incident ray and the normal ray
____________ 3. The kind of mirror that will always produce a smaller, virtual and erect
image
____________ 4. The distance between the focus and the vertex of a mirror
____________ 5. The kind of mirror that will produce an image of the same size as the
object, erect and virtual
____________ 6. Position of the object in front of a concave mirror that will produce an
image that is smaller, inverted and real
____________ 7. Position of the object where no image is formed
____________ 8. The middle portion of the mirror
____________ 9. Spherical mirror used in automobile that gives wider view of area
____________ 10. Kind of mirror that will give a virtual, erect and larger image

Key to answers on page 30

11
Lesson 3. Refraction and Lenses

How does light travel? What happens to the ray of light when it passes through
different media, say air to water?

What you will do

Activity 3.1 Refraction of light

1. Get a glass half-filled with water.

2. Place a pencil in this glass of water
3. Look at the pencil at the top of the glass. What happens
to the pencil?
4. Look from the side of the glass. Do you notice any
difference?
5. Remove the pencil out of the water. Is there a difference
between the way it looks in water and the way it looks in
air?

The pencil appears bent when it is partly submerged in water. This shows that a light
ray bends as it passes from air to water. The change in direction or the bending of light
when it passes from one medium to another of different optical density is called refraction.
Refraction also makes the water appear shallower. Because of refraction, a fish appears
higher in the water when viewed from the bank than it actually is. A teaspoon placed in a
glass of water appears to be bent or broken at the surface of the water. A coin placed in the
bottom of a teacup, out of the line of vision of an observer, will become visible when the cup
is filled with water

Refraction and the Speed of Light

When light travels from air to water, its speed decreases. A medium is optically
dense if it slows down the speed of light. Water is optically denser than air.

When light travels from an optically less dense to denser medium at an angle, say
from air to glass, light bends toward the normal (Figure 3.1a). When light travels from a
denser to a less dense medium at an angle, say from glass to air, the light bends away from
the normal (Figure 3.1b). The angle formed between the incident ray and the normal is
called the angle of incidence, i, and the angle between the refracted and the normal is
called the angle of refraction, r.

12
incident normal incident normal
ray ray ray ray i = angle of
i incidence
i
r = angle of
air glass refraction

glass air
refracted
ray r
r refracted
ray
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.1
(a) Refraction of light as it passes from air to glass
(b) Refraction of light as it passes from glass to air

Where does light travel fastest? The speed of light is different in almost transparent
material. In a vacuum the speed of light is about 3.0 x 108 m/s, and in water the speed is
1.88 x 108 m/s. The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in another substance
is called the absolute index of refraction, n, for that substance.

Remember This

Speed of light, c
Index of refraction =
Speed of light in a given substance, v
c
n=
v

So, if you know the index of refraction of a substance you can determine the speed of
light in that substance.

Also, the higher the index of refraction, the slower the speed of light in the substance.
This means that the higher the optical density of a substance, the higher is its index of
refraction.

Table 3.1 shows the index of refraction of some substances.

Table 3.1 Index of Refraction

Substance Index of Refraction, n
Air 1.0003
Glass, crown 1.52
Glass, float 1.63
Water 1.33
Diamond 2.42

13
Do you know what is the importance of the index of refraction? The index of
refraction of a pure, transparent substance is a constant quantity which is a definite physical
property of a substance. Hence, the identity of a substance can be determined by
measuring its index of refraction. The very high index of refraction of diamond provides a
positive test for its identification.

Laws of Refraction

The facts about refraction of light maybe summarized in three laws of refraction.

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the surface at the point of
incidence are all in the same plane.
2. The index of refraction for a particular substance is always a constant.
3. When a ray of light passes at an angle from a medium of lesser to one of greater
optical density, it is bent toward the normal. Conversely, a ray of light passing at
an angle from an optically denser medium to a lesser medium is bent away from
the normal ray.

Total Internal Reflection

You already learned that as a ray of light passes from a medium of higher optical
density (water) into one of a lower optical density (air) it is bent away from the normal. As
the angle of incidence continues to increase, a value is finally reached at which the angle of
refraction equals 90o and the refracted ray does not enter the air at all but takes the path
along the water surface. The angle of incidence in the denser medium resulting in angle of
refraction of 90o is called the critical angle ic. (Figure 3.2) If the angle of incidence
exceeds the critical angle total internal reflection occurs.

normal refracted normal

ray ray ray
r
r = 90o
air air
water water

i ic
ic reflected
incident incident i>ic r ray
ray (a) ray (b)

Fig. 3.2
(a) The critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium
which results in a 90o angle of refraction.
(b) Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence exceeds
the critical angle.

14
Remember This

If the angle of incidence of a ray of light passing from

water into air is increased beyond the critical angle, no part of
the incident ray enters the air. It is totally reflected from the
water surface. Total internal reflection occurs when the angle
of incidence exceeds the critical angle.

Do you know why diamond is a very brilliant gem? It is because its index of
refraction is high and its critical angle is very small. Very little of the light that enters a cut
diamond passes through it. Most of the light is reflected internally.

Fiber optics makes it possible to use light instead of electricity to transmit messages
by total internal reflection.

Optical fibers are also used in the field of medicine. An endoscope is an instrument
used to explore the inside of the human body using the principle of total internal reflection.

Lenses

What are lenses made of? Lenses are made of transparent substance like glass or
plastic which can bend light rays. Lenses are of two kinds:

a. Converging lens (convex) which is thicker at the middle than at the edge
b. Diverging lens (concave) which is thicker at the edge than at the middle

double plano- converging double plano- diverging

convex convex meniscus concave concave meniscus

(a) Converging lenses (b) Diverging lenses

Fig. 3.3 Lens shapes

How do lenses refract rays of light?

When light rays parallel to the principal axis pass through a converging lens, the rays
are refracted toward the thicker part of the lens, and they all converge at a point called the

15
real focus. However, parallel rays of light are spread out by a diverging lens and appear to
meet at a virtual focus.
virtual
real focus
focus

F F

a. converging lens b. diverging lens

Fig. 3.4 Lenses refract parallel rays so they meet at the principal focus

Lens Terminology

What are the different terms related to lenses? Spherical lenses usually have two
centers of curvature which are the centers of the intersecting spheres which form the lens
surfaces. The centers are shown in Figure 3.5 as points C and C’.

In lenses, the focus is not midway between the lens and the center of curvature as
we found to be in spherical mirrors. Its position on the principal axis depends on the index
of refraction of the lens. With a double convex lens of crown glass the principal focus
almost coincide with the centers of curvature, thus the radius of curvature and the focal
length are almost equal.

1. Optical center, O – the center of the lens s

2. Principal axis, P – line joining the centers
of curvature and passes through the
C O C’
optical center P
3. Secondary ray, S – ray passing through r f
the optical center but not parallel to the F
principal axis
4. Focal length, f – the distance between
the focus and the optical center Figure 3.5

Ray Method of Image Formation in Lenses

How can we locate the image of an object formed by a lens? Lenses form images by
refraction. To locate the image, use the following rays coming from point A on the object:
(see Figure 3.6)
ray 1
ƒ Ray 1 is an incident ray parallel to the
principal axis and is refracted through object
ray 2
the focus.
ƒ Ray 2 is an incident ray along the 2F F O F’ 2F’
secondary axis which is not appreciably image
refracted as it passes through the
Figure 3.6
optical center (O) of the lens.

16
Image Formation in a Convex Lens

Using the ray method let us construct, locate and describe the images formed by a
thin converging lens at different positions of the object from the lens. Study Figure 3.7.

Fig. 3.7 Image at Different Positions of the Object from the Lens
b. Object is beyond twice the focal
a. Object is at infinite distance
length (2F)
ray 1
A
F object
ray 2
O 2F F O F’ 2F’
image

The image is a point at the principal focus. Image is real, inverted, diminished and located
between F’ and 2F’.

c. Object is at twice the focal length (2F) d. Object is between 2F and F

ray 1 ray 1
A A
object ray 2 object ray 2

2F F O F’ 2F’ 2F F O F’ 2F’
image
image

Image is real, inverted, of the same size and Image is real, inverted, bigger and located
located at 2F’. beyond 2F’.

f. Object is between the focus and the

e. Object is at the focus (F)
optical center

image
ray 1
A A
object object
ray 2
2F F O F’ 2F’ 2F F O F’ 2F’

Refracted rays are parallel. No image is Image is virtual, erect, bigger and located
formed. between 2F and F.

17
Image Formation in a Concave Lens
A ray 1
What kind of image is formed by a
concave lens? The ray method shown in Figure object ray 2
3.8 shows the image formed by a concave lens.
2F F image F’ 2F’
It is always erect, virtual and smaller in size.

Figure 3.8 Image in a concave lens

The Lens Formula

The equation used to determine the object distance do, image 1 1 1

distance di and the focal length f for spherical mirrors also applies for = +
lenses. Hence, the lens formula is the same as the mirror formula. f do d i

The size rule for mirrors also applies for lenses. si di

=
so do

For numerical computations, the following sign conventions are followed:

Lens f do di
convex (converging)
real image + + +
virtual image + + -
concave (diverging)
virtual image - + -

The focal length is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens.
Object distance is positive for both converging lens and diverging lens. Image distance is
positive for real images and negative for virtual images.

Study This

Sample problem: An object 8 cm tall is placed 30 cm from a converging lens.

A real image is formed 15 cm from the lens.

a) What is the focal length of the lens?

b) What is the size of the image? Describe the image.

18
Given: so = 8 cm Solutions:
do = 30 cm a) b)
di = 15 cm 1 1 1 S i di
= + =
f do di So d o
Find: a. f 1 1 1 So d i
b. si = + Si =
f 30 cm 15 cm do
1 1+ 2 8 cm x 15 cm
= Si =
f 30 cm 30 cm
1 3 Si = 4 cm
=
f 30 cm Image is smaller
3f = 30 cm than the object
30 cm
f=
3
f = 10 cm

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1

Direction: Completion Type. Write the word or expression which best completes the
meaning of the following statements.

1. __________ is the bending of light as it passes at an angle from one medium into
another of different optical density.
2. The angle between the refracted ray and the normal drawn to the point of refraction is
called __________.
3. __________ is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in a given
substance.
4. The index of refraction for any two media is always equal to a __________.
5. When a ray of light passes at an angle from a medium of lesser to one of greater optical
density, it bends __________ from the normal.
6. The limiting angle of incidence in the denser medium resulting in angle of refraction of
90o is known as __________.
7. The distance between the principal focus and the optical center of the lens is
__________.
8. __________ is the kind of lens that will always form a virtual, erect and smaller image.
9. The principle involved in the formation of image on lenses is __________.
10. An enlarged, erect and real image is formed by a __________ lens.

Key to answers on page 30

19
Lesson 4 Color, Interference and Polarization of Light

Have you ever wondered why the sky appears blue during noontime and reddish at
sunset? Why do we see rainbow colors in soap bubbles or in thin films with oil? How are
rainbows formed? What is color?

What you will do

Activity 4.1 Dispersion

Hold a prism or a bottle half-filled with water against sunlight or any light source like a
flashlight.

Answer these:

1. What do you observe?

2. Enumerate the colors you observe.

Key to answers on page 31

Colors of Light

When light leaves the prism and

strikes a white screen, it separates into
red
spectral colors. Dispersion is the i
separation of white light by a prism red
orange
into bands of colors – red, orange, violet yellow
yellow, green, blue and violet. The green
spectrum is due to the difference in the white blue
velocities and wavelength of the light
violet
spectral colors. Violet is bent most
and is slowed down more than the red
light. Fig. 4.1 Dispersion of light by a prism

Dispersion of light shows that light is a mixture of different spectral colors.

20
Know This

Have you seen a rainbow? When

can you see a rainbow?

A rainbow is a spectacular display of violet

colors. We usually observe a rainbow after
a rainshower. The raindrops act as prism
separating sunlight into bands of colors. A
rainbow is produced by reflection, refraction
and dispersion of light when sunlight strikes
drops of falling water which act as prisms.
red
The difference between one color and
another is due to difference in wavelengths
or frequencies. Each color of light has its
own wavelength and frequency. Violet has a
higher frequency but shorter wavelength. Fig. 4.2
Red has a lower frequency but longer Comparison of wavelengths
wavelength (see Figure 4.2). of red and violet light

Colors of Object

Why do objects show colors? Objects show colors because they reflect one or more
of the colors present in the white light. The color of an object depends on the wavelength of
light that it reflects.

A camia flower appears white because it reflects all the colors of light it receives. A
piece of coal appears black because it absorbs all the colors that fall on it. Under ordinary
daylight a blue bird appears blue because it absorbs all other colors and reflects only blue.
Why does a red rose appear red? The rose appears red because it reflects mainly red color
and absorbs all other colors.

Think of This

Suppose the light falling on an object you are looking at

is not white. What do you think will happen? For example, a
blue book under a red light will appear black because it absorbs
the red light and no color is reflected in our eyes. Similarly,
when a green light falls on a red book, the book will also appear
black because it absorbs the green light. No color is reflected
to our eye. How will a green book appear under a blue light?

21
red light green light blue light

blue red green

book book book

black black ?

Fig. 4.3
Colored light falling on colored objects

What you will do

Activity 4.2 Diffraction of Light

1. Look at the light through a slit between your fingers. What do you observe? Do you
see vertical white and dark bands? What causes the bands?
2. Repeat step 1 but make the slit narrower. What happens when the slit becomes
narrower?

Know This

As you look at the light through one slit between your

fingers you observe thin vertical white and dark bands. This is
because of the bending or spreading out of light after passing
through the opening. The bending of light as it passes through
an obstruction such as a small slit is called diffraction.

As the slit becomes narrow, diffraction patterns become

more prominent.

Scattering of Light

Do you know why the sky is blue during noontime? Why is the sky red at sunset?

When sunlight shines down on the atmosphere, the dust particles or molecules in the
atmosphere scatter the light in all direction. The amount of scattering of light depends on

22
the wavelength of the light. During noontime, most of the blue light of shorter wavelength in
sunlight is scattered and reflected to earth, so the sky looks blue. At sunset, the light travels
longer distances with more air and dust in the atmosphere. Thus, most of the blue light is
absorbed before it reaches you. Therefore, red light which has a longer wavelength is the
most predominant color left when the light from the sun reaches the eye. Hence, the sunset
appears red.

What you will do

Activity 4.3

Get a basin with soap suds. Blow on the soap suds. What can you observe in the soap
bubbles?

Interference of light

Have you noticed the beautiful spectrum of colors reflected from a soap bubble?
These colors are produced by the interference of light wave. This is often called
iridescenes and is observed in the transparent film.

When light strikes the outer surface of a

transparent material like a soap bubble, part of the light
is reflected and part of the light enters the inside
surface. At the inside surface, some of the light is
reflected again. The two reflected beams returning
toward your eye may have a path difference that is
determined by the thickness of the film. If the light
waves are in phase, they interfere constructively and
produce a bright fringe. If they are out of phase, they
interfere destructively and produce a dark band. If
white light is incident on the thin film, light of different
wavelengths (colors) constructively interfere in different
regions, giving rise to the rainbow-colored appearance
of the film.

Thomas Young (1801) was the first to

demonstrate interference of light using two slits. Waves
from a monochromatic light source are made to pass Fig. 4.4 Interference of light
through two narrow slits, S1 and S2 (Figure 4.5). in soap bubbles

23
Fig. 4.5
Interference of light using two slits

According to Huygen’s principle, these slits are sources of secondary waves. One
slit spreads out the light and produces its own wave. The other slit also diffracts the light,
producing another wave. These waves produced in S1 and S2 are of the same wavelength
and in phase with the initial light source. When the light waves from S1 and S2 meet at point
P0 in phase, wave crests meet wave crests and troughs meet troughs, constructive
interference occurs, producing a bright area.

Light waves from two slits may be completely out of phase when they meet at a point
P1, that is, a crest meets a trough. In such a case, destructive interference occurs,
producing a dark area.

Polarization

Think of This

What is polarized light? Imagine a wave produced from

a rope tied to a post (Figure 4.6). The rope is inserted through
the vertical slits of two sheets of cardboard and waves are
produced by moving the free end up and down. Waves pass
through the slits when the slits in both cardboards are vertical.
The waves are said to be plane polarized. All vibrations are in
one plane, the vertical plane. When the slits in one cardboard
are placed horizontally, they do not allow waves to pass
through.

24
Ordinary light vibrates in all directions. It
is unpolarized. When this light is allowed to
pass through a filter called Polaroid, the light
vibrates only in one plane (Figure 4.7). It
comes out as polarized light.

What happens when light is allowed to

pass through two Polaroid sheets? Light is
transmitted when the axes of the Polaroid
sheets are parallel. Light, however, is not
transmitted when the axes of the polaroid
sheets are perpendicular (Figure 4.8). What
does this show about light? Light is a
transverse wave.

Fig. 4.6
A mechanical analogy of polarization

Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8

Polarized light from a polaroid sheet Light is not transmitted when axes of the
polaroid sheets are perpendicular

One application of polarization is the reduction of glare using polaroid sunglasses.

Bright light reflected from a road or water surface is scattered in all directions. The polaroid
sunglasses absorb the horizontal vibrations of the light, and hence reduce the glare.

25
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1

Directions: Identify the term defined, described or referred to in the following.

____________ 1. The process of separating light into a band of colors

____________ 2. The bending or spreading out of light through small openings or around
corners
____________ 3. Light in which vibrations occur in a single plane perpendicular to the ray
____________ 4. The property of light waves which is dependent on the frequency or
wavelength of radiation that reaches the eye
____________ 5. The superposition of 2 beams of light resulting in a loss of energy in one
area and a reinforcement of energy in others
____________ 6. The band of colors when sunlight is dispersed by a prism
____________ 7. The color which is refracted most when sunlight is separated by a prism

Key to answers on page 31

Let’s Summarize

1. The laws of reflection state that:

a. The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal to the reflecting surface all lie in
the same plane.
b. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

2. Images in mirrors are formed by reflection.

3. The size of an object and the size of its image are related to their distance from
the mirror and are related to the focal length of the mirror. This relationship is
given by the equations
1 1 1 and Si di
= + =
f do d i So d o

4. Refraction is the bending of light rays as they pass at an angle from one medium
to another with a different optical density.

5. The index of refraction for a particular medium is a constant that is independent of

the angle of incidence.

6. The limiting angle of incidence in the denser medium, resulting in an angle of

refraction of 90o is known as the critical angle.

26
7. Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical
angle.

8. Converging lens is a lens that is thicker in the middle than at the edges and
refracts parallel rays passing through it to a focus.

9. Diverging lens is a lens that is thinner in the middle than at the edges, causing
parallel rays passing through it to diverge as if from a point.

10. Lenses form images by refraction.

11. Dispersion is the process of separating white light into a band of colors.

12. Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes through a small opening.

13. The color of light is dependent on the frequency or wavelength of the radiation
that reaches the eye.

14. The color of an opaque object depends on the kind of light it reflects to the eye. It
also depends on the color of light incident on it.

15. Interference of light occurs when two beams of light superimposed with one
another.

16. Polarization of light depends on the transverse nature of light waves – that is, light
vibrates only in one plane.

Posttest

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. The theory that explains light as a particle.

a. corpuscular theory c. quantum theory
b. electromagnetic wave theory d. wave theory

2. When we see a tree, the light that reaches our eyes

a. has been reflected by the tree.
b. has been refracted by the tree.
c. has been separated into a spectrum by the tree.
d. has undergone interference in passing through the tree.

27
3. Enlarged image can be formed by
a. concave mirrors only c. either concave or convex mirror
b. convex mirrors only d. neither concave nor convex mirror

4. The image formed by a convex mirror is always

a. real c. bigger than the object
b. inverted d. smaller than the object

5. If you are looking obliquely on a fish under water, in what direction should you aim your
arrow to hit it?
a. above the fish c. directly to the fish
b. below the fish d. either below or above the fish

6. The term refraction refers to

a. the bending of light rays when they strike a mirror.
b. the bending of light rays when they enter a different medium.
c. the fact that white light is made up of many colors.
d. the fact that light travels in straight line in uniform medium.

7. As the angle of incidence increases, the index of refraction of a medium

a. increases c. remains unchanged
b. decreases d. none of the above

8. If you look down on a pool of still water, you see your face clearly. Which one of the
following gives the best explanation for this observation?
a. Dispersion of light on entering water
b. Reflection of light by the surface of the water
c. Refraction of light by the surface of the water
d. Light is reflected from the surface of the water in different directions.

9. A diamond is a brilliant gem because

a. it has low index of refraction. c. most of the light is refracted.
b. it has big critical angle. d. most of the light is reflected internally.

10. A ray of light is reflected from a plane mirror. The angle of incidence is 20o. The angle
between the incident and the reflected ray is
a. 10o c. 30o
b. 20o d. 40o

11. When you stand 3 m in front of a full length mirror, your image is
a. real and 1 m behind the mirror c. virtual and 2 m behind the mirror
b. real and 3 m behind the mirror d. virtual and 3 m behind the mirror

12. The bottom of a clear and deep lake appears to be shallow because of ____________
a. diffraction c. reflection
b. polarization d. refraction

28
13. When sunlight strikes raindrops, it passes through them and produces
a. halo c. rainbow
b. heat d. shadow

14. Side mirrors of motor vehicles allow the driver to see wider areas. What best describes
the images compared to the real object in this kind of mirror?
a. bigger c. the same
b. smaller d. inverted

15. What do you call the separation of light into its component colors?
a. dispersion c. reflection
b. polarization d. refraction

16. Where does light travel fastest?

a. air c. vacuum
b. glass d. water

17. What do you call the bending of light around the corners of objects?
a. diffraction c. reflection
b. dispersion d. refraction

18. A beam of light traveling in air enters a glass medium. What changes does it undergo?
a. change in speed only c. change in wavelength only
b. change in frequency only d. change in both speed and wavelength

19. Which is the color of visible light with the longest wavelength?
a. blue c. violet
b. red d. yellow

20. Which of the following is a good description of a polarized light?

a. It is an ordinary light.
b. It is a transverse wave.
c. It is a longitudinal wave.
d. It is a wave that vibrates in all directions.

Key to answers on page 31

29
Key to Answers

Pretest

1. a 6. b 11. d 16. a
2. c 7. d 12. a 17. d
3. d 8. d 13. a 18. b
4. b 9. d 14. a 19. b
5. a 10. b 15. a 20. a

Lesson 1
Self-Test 1.1

1. b
2. d
3. a
4. c

Lesson 2

Self-Test 2.1

1. real image 6. beyond the center of curvature

2. angle of incidence 7. at the focus
3. convex mirror 8. vertex
4. focal length 9. convex mirror
5. plane mirror 10. concave mirror

Lesson 3

Self-Test 3.1

1. refraction 6. critical angle

2. angle of reflection 7. focal length
3. index of refraction 8. concave lens
4. constant 9. refraction
5. towards 10. convex lens

30
Lesson 4

Activity 4.1

1. spectral colors
2. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet

Self-Test 4.1

1. dispersion
2. diffraction
3. polarized light
4. color
5. interference
6. spectral colors
7. violet

Posttest

1. a 6. b 11. d 16. c
2. a 7. c 12. d 17. a
3. a 8. b 13. c 18. d
4. d 9. d 14. b 19. b
5. b 10. d 15. a 20. b

References

Hewitt, P. G. (1993). Conceptual physics. (7th ed). New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.

Padua, A. L. & Crisostomo, R. M. (1999). Science and technology IV: Physics. Quezon City: S.D.
Publications, Inc.

Santos, G. C. & Ocampo, J. P. (2003). Science and technology IV: Physics. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.

Sotto, R. L. (2005). Science in today’s world: Physics. Makati: SIBS Publishing House, Inc.

Young, H. D. & Friedman, R. A. (1996). University physics. New York: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.

31
Module 4
Optical Instruments

What this module is about

In the previous modules, you learned about the properties of light. You also learned
how images are formed by mirrors and lenses. Now it is time to apply these ideas to some
common optical lenses and to show how such devices work.

In this module you will study different optical instruments in the following lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 – The Human Eye and the Camera

ƒ Lesson 2 – Microscopes and Telescopes
ƒ Lesson 3 – Laser and Holography

What you are expected to learn

After going through the module you are expected to:

1. identify the parts of a human eye;

2. discuss the different eye defects and how lenses correct these defects;
3. compare the similarities and differences between the principle of the camera and
the human eye;
4. show using ray diagrams how images are formed in a telescope and a
microscope; and
5. explain the principle of a hologram.

How to learn from this module

Here is a simple guide for you in going through the module:

1. Read and follow the instructions carefully

2. Answer the pretest before you start the lessons.
3. Check your answers against the key to answers provided at the last page of the
module.
4. After taking the pretest, read and study carefully the different lessons on optical
instruments.
5. Perform all the activities to have a better understanding of the topic.
6. Take the self-tests at the end of each lesson for you to determine how much you
learn and remember about the lesson.
7. Take the posttest prepared at the end of the module for you to assess how much
you learned from this module.

Have fun in learning these lessons about optical instruments! Good luck!

What to do before (Pretest)

A. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the best answer.

1. Which part of the human eye refracts rays and forms the image of an object?
a. cornea c. lens
b. iris d. retina

2. A camera forms an image in a sensitive film while an eye forms the image on the
c. cornea c. pupil
d. iris d. retina

3. Which statement about the parts of the eye and their uses is FALSE?
a. The eyelid opens or shuts the eye.
b. The iris enables the eye to see nearby objects.
c. The pupil controls the intensity of the incoming light.
d. The retina serves as the screen where the image is formed.

4. A farsighted person needs a convex lens as this lens can make the image fall
a. on the eyeball c. on the retina of the eye
b. before the retina of the eye d. beyond the retina of the eye

5. What can a camera do which a human eye cannot do?

a. It can form images of object.
b. It can adjust to dim and bright lights.
c. It can change focus from short to long distances.
d. It can give a permanent record of the scene on which it is focused.

2
6. Which of the following optical instruments does NOT form a real, inverted and smaller
image?
a. camera c. pinhole camera
b. human eye d. simple microscope

7. An optical device used to see very far or distant objects clearly is the
a. camera c. simple microscope
b. compound microscope d. telescope

8. A compound microscope is an optical system. Which statement does NOT describe it?
a. It makes small objects look bigger.
b. It is used to magnify distant objects clearly.
c. It consists of two converging lens - an objective lens and an eyepiece.
d. It has an eyepiece that enlarges the image created by the objective lens.

9. A simple microscope produces

a. an enlarged and real image c. an erect and real image
b. an enlarged and virtual image d. an erect and smaller image

10. Which describes a hologram?

a. It is a recording of an image.
b. An ordinary light is needed to make a hologram.
c. It forms a true three-dimensional image of the object.
d. It is a photographic record of only one view of the object.

B. Identify the terms or phrases referred to in the following.

____________ 1. The part of the eye where the image of an object is formed
____________ 2. The part of the camera which corresponds to the iris of the eye
____________ 3. The kind of lenses used to correct nearsightedness
____________ 4. The ability of the eye to adjust the shape of its lens in order to focus
on objects at different distances
____________ 5. An eye defect which focuses the image beyond the retina
____________ 6. A lens prescribed to correct presbyopia
____________ 7. An optical device that forms magnified virtual and erect image
____________ 8. An optical device to magnify very distant objects
____________ 9. An optical system consisting of two converging lenes that magnifies
a magnified object
____________ 10. A technique to reproduce image through interference effect

Key to answers on page 19

3
Lesson 1 The Human Eye

The eye is the most remarkable optical instrument. What are the parts of the human
eye?

The eye is spherical in shape and is about 2.5 cm in diameter. The essential parts of
the human eye, considered as an optical system, are shown on Figure 1.1.

1. The white coat or sclera is the

hard, tough outer coat of the
eyeball which maintains the
shape of the eyeball and
protects the eyes. The
transparent cornea in front of
the sclera admits light into the
eyeball. The region behind the
cornea is a liquid called
aqueous humor.

2. The middle coat or choroids

layer contains a black pigment,
whose function is to absorb Fig. 1.1 The structure of the eye
stray rays of light and prevent
the blurring of images.

3. The inner coat, or retina covers only the rear portion of the eyeball. The nerves
of the eyes spread through the retina, forming a light sensitive screen to receive
images. Structures in the retina, known as rods, enables us to see in the dark.

4. The crystalline lens is a

double convex lens that forms a
real, inverted and smaller object
on the retina. (Figure 1.2)

5. In front of the lens is the iris,

which serves as a diaphragm
to regulate the amount of light
entering the inner eye. Fig. 1.2 Image formed in a human eye

6. The pupil is the opening in the center of the iris. In a dark room the pupil
becomes larger to admit more light, in bright sunlight it becomes smaller reducing
the amount of light admitted thus protecting the retina from damage by exposure
to intense light.

7. Behind the lens, the eye is filled with a thin watery jelly called vitreous humor.

4
8. The eyelids act as shutters to screen out the light and, in general, to protect the
eye.

What you will do

Activity 1.1 Identify Parts of an Eye

Look at the eye of another person. Identify the parts of the eye that you can see.

Key to answers on page 19

How does the eye focus?

For an object to be seen clearly or sharply, the image must be formed exactly on the
retina. To see objects at different distances, the eye adjusts itself by changing the shape of
its lens. If the object is near, the image distance increases and the lens become rounder
and thicker. Its focal length is shortened so that the image distance is kept constant and the
image is kept on the retina.

If the object is far, the image distance decreases such that the muscles attached to
the outer edges of the eye lens cause the lens to become thinner and flatter. This increases
its focal length and enables the image to be focused sharply on the retina.

This ability of the eye to focus the image of an object at different distances is called
the power of accommodation.

When the eye muscles are perfectly relaxed as when a person is looking at a distant
object, the lens has its greatest focal length and is said to be adapted to the far point. When
the object is so near that the lens has its shortest possible focal length, the object is said to
be at the near point.

For a normal eye, the shortest distance for distinct vision is 25 centimeters. The lens
muscles are completely relaxed when we look at objects more than 6 meters away.

Common Eye Defects

When the eye loses its ability to change the shape of its lens, vision becomes poor
and defective. Properly chosen eye glasses are needed to correct these eye defects.

5
1. Nearsightedness or myopia

A nearsighted person or myope can see near objects clearly but has
difficulty focusing on far objects. This occurs when you have a long eyeball and
lenses that are too convex, causing the image to be formed in front of the retina.
Eyeglasses with concave lenses are prescribed to correct nearsightedness.

Study figure 1.3 which shows image formation in a nearsighted individual

and how it is corrected by a concave lens.

Fig 1.3 A concave lens may be used to correct nearsightedness.

2. Farsightedness or hyperopia

A farsighted person or hyperope can see very far objects clearly but has
difficulty focusing on near objects. This is due to having a short eyeball and too
flat lenses that cause the image to be formed beyond the retina. Eyeglasses with
convex lenses are prescribed to correct farsightedness.

Study figure 1.4 which shows the image formation in a farsighted individual
and how it is corrected by a convex lens.

Fig. 1.4 A convex lens may be used to correct farsightedness.

6
3. Presbyopia

For an older person, the power of accommodation is reduced due to the

decrease in the elasticity of the lens and the lessened ability of the eye muscle to
increase the roundness of the lens. This inability is called presbyopia. To
remedy this, bifocal lenses are usually prescribed.

4. Astigmatism

The unevenness in the curvature of

the lens of the eyeball causes astigmatism
which results in blurred vision and
headaches. An astigmatic person will see
horizontal and vertical lines not equally
distinct and clear. This is usually corrected
with cylindrical lenses.

Fig 1.5
The lines are not all equally distinct
if the eye is astigmatic.

The Camera and the Eye

Your eyes enable you to see the color and beauty of things around you. Sometimes
you do not like to leave and forget such sights. To have an exact and permanent record of
them, you use a camera.

A good way to find out how a camera works is to make a simple one.

What you will do

Activity 1.2 A Pinhole Camera

Materials: empty powdered milk can (11 cm long and 10 cm in diameter)

small nail and hammer
black cartolina (about 35 cm x 30 cm)
tape or paste
wax paper, about 14 cm2

Procedure:

1. Get a milk can and remove its cover. Make a tiny hole in the center of its bottom using a
small nail and hammer. (Figure 1.6a)

7
2. Make a tiny tube out of the black cartolina. The tube must fit into the can. Cover one
end of the tube with wax paper. (Figure 1.6b)

3. Slide the covered end of the black tube into the can. You now have a pinhole camera.
(Figure 1.7)

4. Point the pinhole to a distant object such as a building or tree. View this object through
the open end of the black tube. Move the tube to get a clearer view of the object on the
wax paper. The wax paper serves as the screen for the camera.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 1.7

Fig. 1.6

Answer these:

1. What is formed on the wax paper? __________________________________________

2. Compare what you see on the wax paper with the object to which the camera is pointed.
(Figures 1.8) ___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Fig. 1.8 A pinhole camera

Key to answers on page 19

The real camera has a lens instead of a pinhole and uses a film for a screen instead
of a wax paper.

8
The basic elements of a camera are, namely: a converging lens, a light sensitive film
to record an image, and a shutter to let the light from the lens strike the film. The lens forms
an inverted, real and smaller image in the film.

Figure 1.9 The formation of an image in a camera.

When the camera is in proper focus, the position of the film coincides with the
position of the real image formed by the lens. With a converging lens, the image distance
increases as the object distance decreases. Hence in focusing the camera, the lens is
moved closer to the film for a distant object and farther from the film for a nearby object.
Often, this is done by turning the lens in a threaded mount.

Know This:

A camera is similar to a human eye in several aspects. The shutter of

a camera excludes unnecessary light just as the eyelids do. The diaphragm
regulates the amount of light that enters the camera through the aperture just
as the iris regulates the amount of light that enters the eye through the pupil.
In the dark, the pupil dilates, while it constricts in bright light. A camera has a
simple converging lens or a system of lenses which forms images by
refraction just like the lens of a human eye. The light sensitive film inside a
camera corresponds to the light sensitive retina in the back of the eye, and
both receive an inverted, real image that is smaller than the object.

In a camera, the lens is adjusted to form a sharp image, while our

eyes have the power of accommodation to see near and distant objects. The
camera gives a permanent image of the object, while the image in the eye
lasts for only about 1/16 of a second before another distinct image is formed.

Source: Science in Today’s World Series: Physics, 2005, pp. 231-232.

9
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1

A. Fill up the blanks in Table 1.1 which gives the similarities between a camera and a
human eye in terms of their parts and functions.

Table 1.1 Similarities between a Camera and a Human Eye

Parts
Functions
Camera Human Eye
a. shutter _____(1)______ Protects, opens and closes the eyeballs to
exclude unnecessary light
b. diaphragm _____(2)______ _______________(3)________________

c. ____(4)_____ pupil Opens and closes to control the intensity

of the entering light
d. ____(5)_____ lens _______________(6)________________

e. film _____(7)______ Serves as screen where the image is

formed

B. Answer this: Give two differences between a camera and a human eye.

1. _________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________

Key to answers on page 20

Lesson 2 Microscope and Telescopes

Most optical instruments are made up of a lens or an arrangement or combination of

lenses. The function of the optical systems is determined by the focal lengths of the lenses
and their relative positions.

10
What you will do
Activity 2.1

Open your book. Get a magnifying

glass. Hold it close to a page on a book.
Vary the distance of the lens until you see a
clear magnified image of the printed words.

Magnifying Glass: A Simple Microscope

The simple use of a converging lens is a magnifying glass. When we use a

magnifying glass, we hold it very close to the object we wish to examine. This is because a
converging lens produces an enlarged and erect image when the object is inside its focal
point. If a screen is placed at the image distance, no image appears on it because no light
is directed to the image position. The rays that reach our eye, however, behave virtually as
if they came from the image position, so we call this a virtual image.

A diverging lens used alone

produces a reduced virtual image. It
makes no difference how far or how
near the object is. When a diverging
lens is used alone, the image is always
virtual, erect and smaller than the
object. A diverging lens is often used as
a “finder on a camera”. When you look
at the object to be photographed
through such a lens, you see a virtual
image that approximates the same
proportion as the photograph. Fig. 2.1
Ray diagram of image formation
in a simple magnifier

11
Compound Microscope

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.2
(a) Elements of a compound microscope; (b) Ray diagram of
image formation in a compound microscope

A compound microscope makes a small object look bigger so that our eye can see it.
A compound microscope consists of two converging lenses of short focal lengths: the
objective lens and the eyepiece lens. The object is placed close to the focal point of the
objective lens to form the first image, which is an enlarged, real and inverted image. This
image falls between the eyepiece lens and its focus and becomes the object for the
eyepiece lens. The eyepiece forms a final virtual and enlarged image at a distance of 25
cm for distinct vision. This final image in the microscope becomes the object for the eye
which forms a real image on the eye’s retina.

Telescope

A telescope is used to make distant objects look closer and appear bigger. It
consists of two converging lenses: the objective lens with a long focal length and the
eyepiece lens with a short focal length. The objective lens is used to collect light from a
distant object and to form the first image. The eyepiece lens is a magnifying lens which
produces a final virtual image at a distance.

12
The optical system of a telescope is similar to that of a compound microscope. In
both instruments, the image formed by an objective lens is viewed through an eyepiece.
The key difference is that the telescope is used to view large objects at large distances and
the microscope is used to view small objects at a very close distance.

An astronomical telescope is a telescope that uses lens as an objective. It is called a

refracting telescope. In the reflecting telescope the objective lens is replaced by a
concave mirror.

(b) (a)

Fig. 2.3
(a) A telescope; (b) Ray diagram of image formation in an astronomical refracting
telescope

What is a Hubble Space Telescope?

The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is not only

a telescope with scientific instruments. It is also a
spacecraft and has power to move in orbit. A HST
enables astronomers to look out at a distant star or
nebula with amazing clarity. With such telescope you
could peer billions of light years away and see things
that happened billions of years ago.

The space telescope was named after

American astronomer Edwin Hubble, whose
observation of variable stars in distant galaxies
confirmed that the universe was expanding and gave
support to the “Big Bang Theory”.
Fig. 2.4 Hubble Space Telescope
http://science.howstuffworks.com/hubble.htm

13
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1

Identify the terms or phrase referred to in the following:

____________ 1. It consists of a converging lens that forms virtual, magnified and erect
image.
____________ 2. It is a lens system which makes distant objects appear bigger and closer.
____________ 3. It is a lens system which makes a small object look bigger.
____________ 4. It is a lens in a telescope used to collect light from a distant object to form
the first image.
____________ 5. It is the lens in a telescope which serves as a magnifying lens producing
a virtual image.

Key to answers on page 20

Lesson 3 Holography

What is a hologram?

Holography is a technique for recording and reproducing an image of an object

through the use of interference effects. Unlike the two-dimensional images recorded by an
ordinary photograph or television system, a holographic image or hologram is truly three-
dimensional.

Do you know?

The hologram was invented and named by Dennis Gabor in 1947.

Holo in Greek means “whole” and gram in Greek means “message” or
“information”. A hologram contains the whole message or entire picture.

How does a holograph differ from a photograph?

In ordinary photography, a lens is used to form an image of an object in photographic

film. Light reflected from each point on the object is directed by the lens on the film. In the
case of holography, no image-forming lens is used. Instead, each point of the object being
“photographed” reflects light to the entire photographic plate, so every part of the plate is
exposed with light reflected from every part of the object. Most importantly, holograms are
made with laser light which is a coherent light.

14
A conventional photograph is a recording of an image, but a hologram is a recording
of the interference pattern.

How is hologram made?

The basic procedure for making a hologram is shown in Figure 3.1. The object to be
holographed is illuminated by a laser light. LASER is the acronym for “light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation”. Part of the light is reflected from the object to a
photographic plate. The rest of the light, called the reference beam, is reflected by a mirror
to the same plate. The two wavefronts interfere, and the interference pattern recorded on
the plate constitutes the hologram.

An example of a hologram is the silver sticker on an original VCD used to identify if

the VCD is pirated or not. Another hologram is the sticker at the back of the original battery
of a cellular phone.

Figure 3.1 Principle of Holography

What are some uses of holograms?

Holograph systems are used with laser beams to scan the universal bar codes on
grocery store items. Holograms have many other possible uses. They can store
tremendous amount of data in a limited space, give details of structural flaws in a machine
parts, display the interior of body organs, and bring three-dimensional television pictures
into your home.

15
What you will do
Self-Test 3.1

A. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the best answer.

1. It is a technology that uses laser light to produce a three-dimensional image of an object

or scene.
a. photography c. stenography
b. holography d. x-ray

2. What kind of light is needed in hologram?

a. ordinary light c. coherent light
b. neon light d. incoherent light

3. Who invented the first hologram?

a. Gottfried Leibnitz c. Dennis Gabor
b. Thomas Edison d. Robert Brown

4. The following are applications of holography EXCEPT one:

a. scanning of universal bar codes on grocery items
b. storing tremendous amount of data in a limited space
c. displaying the interior of body organ
d. locating criminals

5. A hologram contains the whole message or entire picture.

a. True b. False

B. Give the differences between a photograph and a hologram.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Key to answers on page 20

Let’s Summarize

1. The most important parts of the eye are the:

a. eyelid – opens and shuts the eye
b. iris – regulates amount of light entering the eye
c. pupil – opens and closes to control intensity of entering light
d. lens – refracts light to form images

16
e. retina – serves as a screen where the image is formed
2. A nearsighted individual can see near objects clearly but has difficulty focusing on
far objects. Nearsightedness is corrected with a concave lens.

3. A farsighted individual can see far objects clearly but has difficulty focusing near
objects. Farsightedness is corrected with eyeglasses with convex lens.

4. Astigmatism is due to unevenness in the curvature of the lens of the eyeball which
results to blurred vision. It is corrected with cylindrical lenses.

5. Presbyopia is the inability of the eye muscles to increase the roundness of the
lens, thus reducing its power of accommodation. Bifocal lens is prescribed to
remedy this defect.

6. A camera and a human eye both form real, inverted and smaller images of
objects.

7. A camera can produce a permanent record of an image while eyes do not.

8. In a camera, the lens is adjusted to form a sharp image while the eyes has the
power of accommodation to see near or far objects.

9. A simple microscope consists of a single lens which produces a magnified, virtual

and erect image.

10. A compound microscope consists of two converging lenses. It is used to view

small objects at a very close distance.

11. A telescope is used to view large objects at very far distances.

a. A refracting telescope uses a lens as an objective.
b. A reflecting telescope uses a concave mirror as an objective.

12. Holography is a technology that uses laser light to produce a three-dimensional

image of an object or scene through interference effect.

Posttest

A. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the best answer.

1. Which part of the human eye regulates the amount of light entering the eye?
a. cornea c. lens
b. iris d. retina

17
2. An eye forms the image on the retina while a camera forms image in the
a. diaphragm c. sensitive film
b. lens d. shutter

3. Which statement about the parts of the eye and their uses is true?
a. The pupil opens or shuts the eye.
b. The eyelid regulates the amount of light.
c. The iris enables the eye to see near object.
d. The retina serves as the screen where the image is formed.

4. The nearsighted person needs a concave lens. This lens can make the image fall
a. on the eyeball c. before the retina of the eye
b. on the retina of the eye d. beyond the retina of the eye

5. Which of the following can be done by a camera but not by the human eye?
a. form images of objects
b. adjust to dim and bright lights
c. change focus from short to long distances
d. give a permanent record of the scenes on which it is focused

6. Which of the following instruments form a magnified, virtual and erect image?
a. camera c. pinhole camera
b. human eye d. simple microscope

7. A compound microscope is an optical device. Which statement is TRUE about a

compound microscope?
a. It consists of a single lens.
b. It is used to magnify distant object clearly.
c. It has an eyepiece that produces a smaller image.
d. It is used to view a very small object at very close distance.

8. A human eye forms an image which is

a. smaller and erect c. inverted and real
b. bigger and virtual d. inverted and virtual

9. A telescope is an optical device used to

a. view distant object c. diminish large object
b. view near object d. diminish small object

10. Which statement is NOT TRUE about hologram?

a. It is a recording of an interference pattern.
b. A laser light is needed to make a hologram.
c. It forms a true three-dimensional image of the object.
d. It is a photographic record of only one view of the object.

18
B. Identify the terms or phrases referred to in the following.

____________ 1. The part of the camera where the image object is formed
____________ 2. The part of the eye which corresponds to the diaphragm of the
camera
____________ 3. The kind of lenses used to correct farsightedness
____________ 4. The ability of the eye to adjust the shape of its lens to focus on
objects at different positions
____________ 5. An eye defect which focuses the image in front of the retina
____________ 6. A lens prescribed to correct astigmatism
____________ 7. An optical device that forms bigger, erect and virtual image
____________ 8. An optical device that views a small object at close distance
____________ 9. An optical device that views a large object at very far distance
____________ 10. Light used to create a hologram

Key to answers on page 21

Key to Answers

Pretest

A. B.
1. c 6. d 1. retina 6. bifocal lens
2. d 7. d 2. diaphragm 7. magnifying glass or
3. b 8. b 3. concave lens simple microscope
4. c 9. b 4. power of accommodation 8. telescope
5. d 10. c 5. farsightedness or 9. microscope
hyperopia 10. holography

Lesson 1

Activity 1.1

The eyelid, cornea, iris, pupil are the parts of the eye that could be seen.

Activity 1.2

1. The image of the object is formed on the wax paper

2. The image observed on the wax paper is smaller, inverted and real.

19
Self-Test 1.1

A. B.
1. eyelid 1. In a camera, the lens is adjusted to
2. iris form a sharp image while the eyes is
3. regulates amount of light self-focusing. It has the power of
4. aperture accommodation to see near and
5. lens distant objects.
6. refracts light and forms the image 2. A camera gives a permanent record
7. retina of the image while the eye can retain
an image only at about 1/16 of a
second.

Lesson 2
Self-Test 2.1

1. magnifying glass or simple microscope

2. telescope
3. microscope
4. objective lens
5. eyepiece

Lesson 3

Self-Test 3.1

A. B.
1. b 1. A hologram is a record of an interference pattern while a photograph
2. c is a record of an image.
3. c 2. A hologram is capable of reconstructing an exact replica of the
4. d wavefront of an object
5. True 3. More than one hologram can be recorded in the same area of a
photographic plate.
4. In ordinary photography, a lens is used to form an image of an
object in photographic film. In holography, no image-forming lens is
used.
5. Holography makes use of laser light while in ordinary photography
ordinary light is used to form images.

20
Posttest

A. B.
1. b 6. d 1. sensitive film 6. cylindrical lens
2. c 7. d 2. iris 7. simple microscope
3. d 8. c 3. convex 8. compound microscope
4. b 9. a 4. power of accommodation 9. telescope
5. d 10. c 5. nearsightedness 10. laser light

References

Dull, C. E., Metcalfe, H. E. & Williams, J. E. (1960). Modern physics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc.

Hewitt, P. G. (1993). Conceptual physics. (7th ed.) New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.

Padua, A. L. & Crisostomo, R. M. (1999). Science and technology IV: Physics. Quezon City: S.D.
Publications, Inc.

Santos, G. C. & Ocampo, J. P. (2003). Science and technology IV: Physics. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.

Sotto, R. L. (2005). Science in today’s world: Physics. Philippine Copyright: SIBS Publishing House, Inc.,
Makati, Philippines.

U.P. Science Education Center. (1984). Physics in your environment: High school science IV. Manila:
Textbook Board, Ministry of Education and Culture.

Young, H. D. & Friedman, R. A. (1996). University physics. New York: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.

21
Module 5
Radiation around Us

What this module is about

Did you know that an effective way of

treating cancer nowadays is with the use of
radiation? Radiation therapy is now being
practiced by some hospitals in Metro Manila like
St. Luke’s Medical Center, Makati Medical
Center and Cardinal Santos Medical Center.
The process is very well expressed as
radioactivity – the transformation of an atom.

In this module you will learn many things

about Physics, particularly about radiation. This module includes four (4) lessons such as:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Brief Account of Radioactivity

ƒ Lesson 2 - Radioactivity
ƒ Lesson 3 - Nuclear Reactions: A Menace?
ƒ Lesson 4 - Applications of Radioactivity and their Implications

Read, enjoy, and discover the secrets of Physics!

What you are expected to learn

After going through the module, you are expected to:

1. discuss the contributions of Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie on radioactivity;

2. discuss and compare the types and properties of ionizing radiation;
3. interpret equations on nuclear reactions;
4. explain Einstein’s matter-energy equivalence; and
5. recognize the significance of the contributions of scientists in nuclear energy and
related technology.
How to learn from this module

Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module.

1. Read and follow the instructions very carefully.

2. Take the pretest. It is a simple multiple-choice test provided at the start to
determine how much you know about the content of this module.
3. Check your answers against the answer key provided at the last page of the
module.
4. Be very honest in taking the test so you know how much knowledge you already
have about the topic.
5. Read the different lessons about the earth, sun and moon.
6. Perform all the activities, as these will help you have a better understanding of the
topic.
7. Take the self-tests at the end of each lesson for you to determine how much you
remember about the lesson.
8. Finally, take the post test at the end of this module.

Good Luck and have fun!

What to do before (Pretest)

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. What is the process by which elements change to other elements by the emission of
ionizing particles?
a. Radioactivity
b. Chemical Change
c. Physical Change
d. None of these

2. Who is the polish chemist who received 2 Nobel prizes-one in physics and another in
chemistry for his/her success in the field of radioactivity?
a. Marie Curie
b. William Roentgen
c. Ernest Rutherford
d. Henry Becquerel

2
3. Which of the following is INCORRECT?
a. Atoms are made of subatomic particles called electrons, protons and neutrons.
b. The electrons are distributed in space like a cloud around the nucleus.
c. The nucleus of the atom consists of protons and neutrons.
d. The electrons are found inside the nucleus of the atom.

4. What do you call the force that holds the nucleus together?
a. nucleonic force
b. gravitational force
c. strong nuclear force
d. electromagnetic force

5. Helium is 4x as massive as hydrogen. Compared to the size of hydrogen, helium is

___________.
a. smaller
b. of the same size
c. twice as large
d. four times as large

6. Which among the ionizing radiation can penetrate the farthest into a material?
a. a beta particle
b. a gamma ray
c. an alpha particle
d. All have the same penetrating capability.

7. The reason alpha rays are easy to stop is that they _____________.
a. are relatively big
b. slow down easily
c. are doubly changed
d. All of the above.

8. Large nuclei, like uranium, are radioactive because ____________.

a. they have too much mass
b. there are too many protons
c. there are too many isolated neutrons
d. they can hold extra particles, like beta rays

9. When Uranium (90 protons) ejects an alpha particle, how many protons does the
remaining nucleus have?
a. 92 protons
b. 90 protons
c. 88 protons
d. 86 protons

3
10. What happens to the atomic number of an element which emits 1 alpha particle and 3
beta particles?
a. increases by 1
b. stays the same
c. decreases by 2
d. decreases by 1

11. What happens to the atomic number of an element which emits 1 alpha particle and 2
beta particles?
a. increases by 1
b. stays the same
c. decreases by 2
d. decreases by 1

12. A sample of a certain radioactive material has a half-life of 1 year. How much of this
radioactive material will be left at the end of 3 years?
a. one sixteenth
b. one eighth
c. one quarter
d. one half

13. The half-life of most radioactive isotopes is about _________.

a. 5700 years
b. a few years
c. a few seconds
d. half lives range from very short to very long

14. The half life of a certain isotope is 1 day. At the end of 2 days, how much of the
isotope remains?
a. one half
b. one quarter
c. one eighth
d. none of it

15. Energy released by the sun results from atomic nuclei __________
a. combining
b. breaking apart
c. None of the above
d. Needs more information to say

16. Splitting helium would yield ___________.

a. a net release of energy
b. a net absorption of energy
c. neither absorption nor release
d. Not enough information to say

4
17. Which shape uses the smallest amount of material when creating a critical mass?
a. cube
b. cone
c. sphere
d. elongated box

18. If gold were used as nuclear fuel, it would be best ____________.

a. fused
b. split
c. either
d. neither

19. Suppose hydrogen bombs were exploded in a box that could contain all the energy
released by the explosion, the weight of the box after the explosion would be
__________.
a. less
b. more
c. the same
d. none of the above

20. What technique is used by archeologist to determine the age of wooden artifacts?
a. Carbon dating
b. Radium dating
c. Uranium dating
d. Polonium dating

Key to answers on page 27

5
Lesson 1 A Brief Account of Radioactivity

Read this!

Do you still remember the word ‘atom’? Atom

is the smallest particle of matter. Its era began
during Becquerel’s time. Becquerel’s discovery of
radioactivity marked the beginning of the modern
understanding of the atom.
Henri Pierre Marie
Antoine Henri Becquerel was a physicist and Becquerel Curie Curie
an expert in the field of fluorescence. While studying
a fluorescent compound that included an element Fig. 1.1 Scientists who discovered
called uranium; he noticed that the material was radiation
giving out a type of a ray that passes through foil
which he used to wrap the material. He later discovered that this event only happens to
uranium compound and not with others. Further experiments showed that there were 2
distinct types of radiation: the alpha and beta radiation, which consisted of electrically
changed particles. Later, a third type, gamma radiation was discovered which proved to be a
form of electromagnetic radiation.

Know this!
Marya Sklodowska (Marie Curie) was born
on November 7, 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. She left for œ Nobel Prize – prestigious award
Sorbonne in Paris to study chemistry where he met given to a person who has done
and married another chemist, Pierre Curie (1859- extraordinary things.
1906).
œ Electromagnetic waves – waves
In their own research on radiation, they were that do not need medium in order
able to discover that a mineral uranium, is 4x as to propagate.
radioactive as pure uranium. This led them to
conclude that the mineral must contain some
unknown radioactive element. By 1902, they successfully separated 0.1 gram of the
unknown element and called it radium. This breakthrough led them to a Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1903 and a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911. The Curies were the first scientists
who received 2 Nobel Prizes.

6
What you will do
Activity 1.1 Try Me!

Direction: Answer the crossword puzzle given below.

1

3 2

Across
1. Marie Curie’s husband
2. Becquerel’s first name or given name
3. Process of atom transformation

Vertical
1. Element discovered by Becquerel to be radioactive
2. Radioactive element discovered by the Curies
3. Home town of Marie Curie.

Key to answers on page 27

7
The Nucleus of the Atom

Before we go on, identify the following parts of an atom

Fig 1.2 The Atom

Key to answers on page 27

Read this!

The atomic nucleus is a very tiny structure of an atom which is composed of particles
called nucleons. Electrically charged nucleons are the protons and the neutrally charged
nucleons are the neutrons. On the average, nucleons have nearly 2000 times the mass of
the electron. This means that the mass of an atom is practically equal to the mass of its
nucleus alone!

Electrons are held close to the nucleus by the protons. The neutrons, on the other
hand, hold the nucleus together. Nucleons are bound by an attractive force known as the
strong nuclear force, which holds the protons and neutrons
1 2
H H
together inside the nucleus.

In an electrically neutral atom, the number of protons 1 1

inside the nucleus is equal to the number of electrons in the Hydrogen Deuterium
atomic orbital. A difference in the number of protons and 3
electrons makes the atom a charged particle and is known as an
ion. The number of neutrons in the nucleus, however, has no 1 H
effect on the number of electrons an atom may have. This means Tritium
that any change in the number of neutrons will not affect the
chemical properties of an element. Elements having different Fig 1.3 Isotopes of
numbers of neutrons but have the same number of protons have Hydrogen
the same chemical properties and are called isotopes.

8
The common form of hydrogen has a bare proton as its nucleus. There are however
different kinds of hydrogen as seen in figure 1.2. They all have the same number of protons
but different number of neutrons. Thus, they are known as the isotopes of hydrogen:
deuterium and tritium.

1
1H is a stable element. This means that it has no excess nuclear energy. On the
other hand, 12 H and 13 H which are isotopes of hydrogen are unstable atoms. They have
excess nuclear energy which is released when the neutrons inside their nuclei decay.

What you will do

Self-Test 1.1

Direction: Answer the following briefly.

1. What is the major contribution of the Curies in the field of radiation that gave them
two Nobel prizes?
2. Who initiated the research on radiation?
3. Between what subatomic particles does the strong nuclear force act?
4. How does the number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom compare with the
number of protons in its nucleus?
5. What do different isotopes of a given element have in common? How are they
different?

Key to answers on page 28

9
Lesson 2 Radioactivity

Read this!

Fig 2.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Radiation is energy in transit in the form of high speed particles and electromagnetic
waves as seen in Figure 2.1. There are basically 2 types of radiation: the ionizing radiation
and the non-ionizing radiation.

Take a look at figure 2.1. The electromagnetic waves that we often encounter such
as visible light, radio waves, infrared, microwaves and UV are electromagnetic waves that
do not carry enough energy to separate molecules or remove electrons from an atom. Such
waves are called non-ionizing radiation.

The electromagnetic waves, on the other hand, such as x-rays, gamma rays and
cosmic rays are known as ionizing radiation. These are the rays that carry amounts of
energy large enough to remove electrons from the atom, thus making the atom a charged or
an ionized particle. In the same manner, some atoms are unstable and are called
radioactive. These atoms eventually disintegrate into a totally new atom. This process of
spontaneous transformation of an unstable atom which
results in the emission of radiation is called radioactivity.
Stable neutron
Take a look at Figure 2.2. A single or lone neutron is
an unstable neutron. While a neutron with a proton is a
+
stable one. Neutrons without nearby protons decay into a
proton and an electron (Figure 2.2). All nuclei that decay in
this manner are known to be radioactive. Radioactive atoms Unstable neutron
decay and emit three distinct types of rays. These are the
alpha particle (α) for an alpha decay, a beta particle (β) for a
beta decay, and gamma ray (γ) for a gamma decay. +

Fig 2.2 Stable and Unstable Neutron

10
Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons in
the form of atomic nuclei. They carry a positive electrical
charge and are emitted from naturally occurring heavy 4
2 He Alpha particle
elements such as uranium. Since alpha particles are relatively
large they collide readily with matter and quickly loses this
energy, thus they have little penetrating power. Sheets of 0
e Beta particle
1
paper and skin can easily block or stop alpha particles.

Beta particles, on the other hand, are fast moving

Gamma ray
electrons ejected from the nuclei. They are smaller than the
alpha particle, thus they have greater penetrating capability.
They can penetrate up to 2 cm of water or human flesh and
can only be stopped by a sheet of aluminum.
Fig 2.3 Ionizing particles and
radiation
X-rays and gamma rays are transmitted through
waves. X-rays are generally artificially produced while
gamma rays are generally emitted from the atomic nucleus. Both have high penetrating
power and can easily pass through the human body. Only thick barriers of concrete, lead or
water can be used to stop them.

Neutrons are particles, that are highly penetrating. They usually originate from the
splitting (nuclear fission) of atoms in a nuclear reaction. Water and concrete are the most
common shields against neutron radiation.

What you will do

Activity 2.1 Ionizing Radiation

Direction: Identify the ionizing radiation that can penetrate the given materials.

Key to answers on page 28

11
Did you know that Uranium-
238 can decay and become
Thorium- 234? When a nucleus of 92 90
an atom emits an alpha or a beta +
146 144
particle, a different element is
formed. This changing of one
238 4
element to another is called U
92 Æ
234
90Th + 2 He
transmutation.
(Parent nucleus) (Daughter nucleus) (alpha particle)

Fig 2.4 Transmutation of a radioactive element

Take a look at figure 2.4. Uranium-238 has 92 protons and 146 neutrons. The sum of
the protons and neutrons is 238. This is known as the atom’s mass number. The mass
number of an atom is the total
number of particles inside the
atomic nucleus. If an alpha particle
( 24 He ) is emitted then the mass 90 91
number of Uranium is decreased by 144 +
143
4 while the number of protons is
decreased by 2. This results to a
234 0
−1 e
234
90Th Æ 91 Pa
nucleus with a mass number of 234
+
(238-4=234) 90 and protons (92-
(Parent nucleus) (Daughter nucleus) (beta particle)
2=90). If we consult the periodic
table of elements, the element with
90 protons and a mass number of Fig 2.5 Beta Decay of Thorium-234
234 is Thorium. This means that
Uranium (parent nucleus) has become thorium (daughter nucleus) when an alpha particle is
emitted. This radioactive decay is particularly called alpha decay. When this happens,
energy is then released in three forms: gamma radiation, kinetic energy of the alpha particle
and kinetic energy of the thorium.

Take a look at figure 2.5. Thorium is still radioactive and can possibly emit a beta
particle. Remember that a beta particle is an electron ejected from the nucleus. When a beta
particle is ejected, a neutron changes into a proton. For thorium, beta emission leaves its
initially 90 protons with fewer neutrons and an additional proton. Thus, the new nucleus has
91 protons and 143 neutrons. In the periodic table of elements the element which has 91
protons and 143 neutrons is Protactinium.

12
Gamma emission has no effect on the mass 234 234
number or on the number of protons. Thus, for
90 Th Æ 90 Th + γ
Thorium, gamma decay results to Thorium of
lesser energy.
Fig 2.6 Gamma decay of Thorium-234

Remember this!

The number of nucleons on the left side of the equation (reactants) must always
equal the number of nucleons on the right side of the equation (products).

What you will do

Activity 2.2 Ionizing Radiation

Direction: Identify the nucleus of the new element designated by X in each of the
following reactions.
226 4
1. 88 Ra Æ X + 2 He

234 0
2. 91 Pa Æ X + 1 e

3. 59
26 Fe Æ X + γ

4. 234
92 U ÆX + α

Key to answers on page 28

13
The Half-life

Do you have any idea when will half of Radium-226

decay? The time needed for half of the active atoms to
226
decay is known as half life. This means that half-life is the
radioactive decay rate. In the case of Radium-226, its half-
life is 1620 years. This means that after 1620 years, half of
Ra
the 5-g sample which is 2.5 grams will decay leaving a 2.5 g
active radium-226. Then after another 1620 years, half of the
remaining 2.5 grams which is 1.25 grams will decay leaving
1.25 g active radium – 226.

Rates of radioactivity are remarkably constant

and are not affected by any external conditions such
as changes in pressure and temperature. Uranium-
238 for example has a half-life of 4.5 billion years.
This is measured using radiation detectors such as a
Geiger counter and scintillation counter. A Geiger
counter detects incoming radiation by its ionizing Geiger Counter Scintillation Counter
effect on enclosed gas in a tube. A scintillation
counter, on the other hand, detects incoming
radiation by flashes of light that are produced when Fig 2.7 Radiation detectors
charged particles or gamma rays pass through it. The
half-life of an isotope is related to its rate of
disintegration. Generally, half-life is shorter for more active substances. The half-life can be
computed from the rate of disintegration, which can be done in the laboratory.

What you will do

Activity 2.3 Half-Life

Objective:
To develop an understanding of half life of radioactive atoms.

Materials:
100 25-centavo coins, graphing paper

Procedure:
1. Place the 100 25-centavo coins in a shoe box.
2. Pour out the coins on a clean table.
3. Take out the coins that show the head. The coins that showed the head
represents the decayed radioactive material.
4. Count how many coins are left after the 1st throw. Record your data on the
table provided.

14
5. Place the remaining coins in the box. Then again pour out the coins on the
clean table.
6. Take out the coins that show the head.
7. Count how many coins are left. Record your data on the table provided.
8. Continue doing the activity until only 2 or 3 coins are left.

Data and Results

Number of decayed Number of coins

Number of throws
coins left
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Analysis:

1. Using your data what do you notice about the rate at which the coins “decay” as their
number decreases?
2. Plot the graph of the number of coins left (N) against the number of throws (t). The
number of coins should be along the vertical axis while the number of throws should
be on the x-axis.

15
N

0
t

3. How would you describe the graph?

4. Describe in your own words what half-life is.

Key to answers on page 29

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1

Direction: Answer the following briefly.

1. Identify the daughter nucleus in the decay of 234

92 U by alpha particle emission.

2. Name the element that results from the alpha decay of polonium.
3. If a sample of a radioactive isotope has a half-life of 2 years, how much of the original
sample will be left at the end of the 4th year?

Key to answers on page 29

16
Lesson 3 Nuclear Reaction: A menace?

Take a look at figure 3.1. These are 2

instances of nuclear reactions, one brings
about destruction while the other is a
constant source of energy of the planet.

The atomic bomb that hit Hiroshima

during World War II was discovered in 1939.
It involved the splitting of the atoms, a
process known as nuclear fission.

Take Note of these! Fig 3.1. Nuclear Reactions

Nuclear Fission

The nucleus of the atom is held

together by a strong nuclear force. When the Greater nuclear force than electrostatic force
strong nuclear force is greater than the
repulsive electrical force within the nucleus,
then the nucleus maintains its shape as
shown in figure 3.2. However, if the repulsive Critical deformation
electrical force increases and the nuclear
force decreases to a critical level, the nucleus
elongates. The nucleus further elongates with Greater electrical force than nuclear force
increasing electrical force until it splits. One
way for an atom to split is when it absorbs a
neutron.
Fig 3.2. Forces within the atomic nucleus
Take a look at figure 3.3. This is
what happens when one neutron starts the
fission of a uranium atom. It could result to
a combination of smaller nuclei emitting two
neutrons. These two new neutrons in turn
can cause the fissioning of two other atoms
which in turn can cause more atomic
fissioning. This makes a chain reaction.
Specifically, fission reaction occurs to the
rare isotope of U-235. If a chain reaction
occurs in a pure U-235, a great explosion
will likely to occur. This makes U-235 a
dangerous isotope of Uranium-238. But
don’t worry, it is very difficult to separate
Fig 3.3. Chain reaction
enough U-235 from U-238 for an atomic
bomb. In fact, it took the scientists more

17
than two years to extract enough U-235 from uranium ore to make one atomic bomb that hit
Hiroshima in 1945.

Think about it!

Nuclear Fusion

Take a look at the picture of the sun. What color do you see? Is this the real color of
the sun? What about the energy or light it emits? Is it also colored yellow? The sun is really
a yellow star. This is because the sun is a middle-aged star. The color of the star tells us its
temperature. Yellow stars have surface temperatures of about 6000 oC. But the inside of the
sun is much hotter than the surface.

Astronomers believe that the inside temperature of the sun is over 13 million degrees
Celsius (13 000 000 oC). This very high temperature on the inside makes it possible for the
sun to undergo a process called nuclear reaction. In a nuclear reaction, the atomic nuclei
are changed. Atomic nuclei combine in the sun’s
interior. This kind of nuclear reaction is called
thermonuclear fusion. Since the sun is about
80% hydrogen, 18% helium, and 2% other
elements deep inside the sun, the hydrogen
nuclei fuse or combine to form a nucleus of
helium.
He
In this reaction, four hydrogen nuclei
combine to form one helium nucleus. The mass
of the helium nucleus is usually much less than
the combined mass of the four hydrogen nuclei.
This missing mass is a matter that is changed
into an amount of energy. This conversion of
mass to energy is done using Einstein’s principle
4 H Æ He + Energy
of matter-energy equivalence. It is usually Fig 3.4. Thermonuclear Fusion
expressed in his famous equation:

E = mc2
where

E = the equivalent energy of a difference in mass

m = difference in mass after a nuclear reaction
c = conversion factor which is also known as the speed of light
= 3 x 108 m/s

This equation means that any change in the mass of a radioactive substance after a
nuclear reaction (nuclear fission or nuclear fusion) is converted into a form of energy. In the
case of the sun, thermonuclear fusion results to a difference in mass which is detected in
the form of electromagnetic waves such as light, UV and microwaves.

18
What you will do
Activity 3.1 Reminiscing Nuclear Energy

Look for articles or pictures of the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant. Identify what nuclear
reaction is used to acquire energy. What are the possible advantages and disadvantages of
its construction and operation in the Philippines (Cite at least 2 advantages and 2
disadvantages).

Key to answers on page 29

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1

Direction: Answer the following very logically.

1. What happens when U-238 absorbs a neutron?

2. What becomes of the loss in mass of nucleons when heavy atoms split?
3. What becomes of the loss in mass of nucleons when light atoms fuse to become
heavier ones?
4. Why are fusion reactors not yet a present day reality like fission reactors?

Key to answers on page 29

19
Lesson 4 Applications and Implications

Did you know that most radiation that

we encounter originate in nature? It is in the
ground where you stand on, in the bricks and
in the building. Even air is slightly radioactive.
This natural background radiation is believed
to be present before we even know about it. It
is believed to be existing before the human
race existed.

How much radiation do you receive when you

undergo chest x-ray? Is this amount of
radiation harmful to the tissue?

Fig 4.1. Background radiation

Read this!

The amount of ionizing radiation or ‘dose’

received by a person is measured in terms of the
energy absorbed in the body tissue and is
expressed in gray. One gray (Gy) is one joule
deposited per kilogram of mass. Equal exposure
to different types of radiation expressed as gray
does not necessarily mean the same biological
effects. For example, one gray of alpha radiation
will have greater effect than one gray of beta
radiation. The unit known as sievert (Sv) is used
to express the radiation effect as effective dose.
Fig 4.2 Chest X-ray
Accordingly, 2-10 sievert doses are believed to
cause severe radiation sickness and can be fatal.

20
Table 4.1. Effective dose in Sv and their corresponding biological effects.

Effective dose Biological Effect

1 Sv Threshold for causing immediate radiation sickness
100 mSv and The probability of cancer increases with dose
above
Estimated effective dose of people who work in mines and
20 mSv/yr
hospitals
Typical background radiation from natural sources. This is
2 mSv/year close to the minimum dose received by all humans
anywhere on Earth.

What you will do

Activity 4.1 Computing my effective dose

We live in a radioactive world. By filling out this form, you will get an idea of the
amount of radiation you are exposed to every year. The average Filipino is exposed to
between 100 and 300 units each year.

YOUR ANNUAL TOTAL

Cosmic radiation that reaches earth: 44

Because cosmic radiation is modified by the atmosphere
add 1 for every 100 feet above sea level ______
If your house is brick or concrete add 45 ______
stone add 50
wood add 35

Ground radiation 15

Water, food, air radiation 25

Nuclear weapons testing fallout 4

If you have had a chest x-ray this year add 9 for each one: ______

If you’ve had intestinal x-ray add 210 ______

For each 1500 miles you’ve flown in an airplane during the

year add 1: ______

21
If you live within 5 miles from a nuclear plant add 0: ______

If you sleep with your spouse add 0.1: ______

TOTAL ______________

*Note: The unit in this computation is mSv. Check out table 4.1 if your annual dose is within
the optimum range.

Key to answers on page 29

Although radiation is a menace at high levels,

radiation in correct doses has many uses. Medical and Radiation
dental x-rays discern hidden problems. Radiation is used to Therapy
diagnose ailments. Cancer patients are treated with
radiation.

Aside from its medical applications, radiation can also

be used as a technique by archeologist to establish the
Sterilization
dates of wooden artifacts and skeleton. This process is
known as carbon dating. The dating of older, but non-living
things like the planet earth is done using uranium dating
technique. Further, nuclear reactions can produce large
amounts of energy that could sustain life on earth for a long
time. We all benefit from a multitude of products and
services made possible by the careful and responsible use
of radiation
Fig 4.3. Applications of
Radiation

22
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1

Direction: Answer the following very briefly.

1. Cite at least 3 applications of radiation.

2. What is the probable reason why some people think of radiation as a menace?
3. Differentiate carbon-dating and uranium-dating.

Key to answers on page 30

Let’s summarize

1. Radioactivity is the process of atomic transformation.

2. Radiation is an energy released in the form of high speed particles or
electromagnetic waves during a nuclear reaction.
3. Henry Becquerel discovered that uranium is radioactive. Marie and Pierre Curie
discovered the element radium.
4. The isotope of an element has the same number of protons as the element but
has different number of neutrons.
5. Ionizing radiation has enough energy to separate molecules or remove electrons
from an atom while non-ionizing radiation does not have enough energy to
remove electrons from an atom.
6. Radioactive atoms decay and emit three distinct types of rays: alpha particle in an
alpha decay, beta particle in a beta decay, and gamma ray in a gamma decay.
7. Transmutation is the changing of one element to another by emission of an alpha
particle or a beta particle.
8. Half-life is the time needed for half of the active atoms to decay.
9. Geiger counter is a radiation detector that detects incoming radiation by its
ionizing effect on enclosed gas in a tube. Scintillation counter is a radiation
detector that detects incoming radiation by flashes of light that are produced when
charged particles or gamma rays pass through it.
10. There are two types of nuclear reactions: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission is the splitting of atom that releases tremendous amount of energy
while nuclear fusion involves combining the nuclei of atom to produce large
amounts of energy.
11. Radiation can be a menace through the production of atomic bombs. However,
radiation is of great help to humans especially in the field of medicine and
archeology, and as an energy source.

23
Posttest
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper

1. The energy released in the form of high speed particles or electromagnetic waves during
a nuclear reaction is known as ____________.
a. chemical energy
b. electrical energy
c. stored energy
d. radiation

2. The physicist and the specialist in the field of fluorescence who discovered that the
element uranium is radioactive is ______________.
a. Marie Currie
b. William Roentgen
c. Ernest Rutherford
d. Henri Becquerel

3. Which of the following compose the nucleons?

a. electrons, protons and neutrons.
b. electrons and protons
c. neutrons and electrons
d. protons and neutrons

4. What do you call the force that maintains the electrons in their orbitals?
a. nucleonic force
b. gravitational force
c. electrostatic force
d. strong nuclear force

5. Helium is 4x as massive as hydrogen. Compared to the size of hydrogen, helium is

___________.
a. smaller
b. of the same size
c. twice as large
d. four times as large

6. Which among the ionizing radiation can penetrate the least into a material?
a. an x-ray
b. a beta particle
c. a gamma ray
d. an alpha particle

24
7. The reasons alpha rays are easy to stop is that they _____________.
a. are relatively big
b. slow down easily
c. are doubly changed
d. All of the above.

8. Large nuclei, like radium are radioactive because ____________.

a. they have too much mass
b. there are too many protons
c. there are too many isolated neutrons
d. they can hold extra particles, like beta rays

9. When Uranium (90 protons) ejects a beta particle, how many protons does the remaining
nucleus have?
a. 92 protons
b. 91 protons
c. 90 protons
d. 89 protons

10. What happens to the atomic number of an element which emits 1 alpha particle and 1
beta particle?
a. increases by 1
b. stays the same
c. decreases by 2
d. decreases by 1

11. What happens to the atomic number of an element which emits 1 alpha particle?
a. increases by 1
b. stays the same
c. decreases by 2
d. decreases by 1

12. A sample of a certain radioactive material has a half-life of 1.5 year. How much of this
radioactive material will be left at the end of 3 years?
a. one sixteenth
b. one eighth
c. one quarter
d. one half

13. The half-life of most radioactive isotopes is about _________.

a. 5700 years
b. a few years
c. a few seconds
d. half lives range from very short to very long

25
14. The half life of a certain isotope is 2 days. At the end of 2 days, how much of the isotope
remains?
a. one half
b. one quarter
c. one eighth
d. none of it

15. Which of the following nuclear reactions is responsible for the release of energy by the
sun?
a. Nuclear Fission
b. Thermonuclear Fusion
c. None of the above
d. Needs more information to say

16. When an element splits, the process would yield ___________.

a. a net release of energy
b. a net absorption of energy
c. neither absorption nor release
d. Not enough information to say

17. Which shape uses the smallest amount of material when creating a critical mass?
a. cube
b. cone
c. sphere
d. elongated box

18. If gold were used as nuclear fuel, it would be best ____________.

a. fused
b. split
c. either fused or split
d. neither fused nor split

19. An experimenter finds that 50% of a sample of U-238 has decayed. Since U-238 has a
half-life of 4.5 billion years, the sample’s age is about __________.
a. 0.60 billion years
b. 1.12 billion years
c. 2.25 billion years
d. 4.50 billion years

20. The reason carbon-dating works is that ______________.

a. plants and animals are such strong emitters of carbon-14
b. after a plant or animal dies, it stops taking in fresh carbon-14
c. there is so much non-radioactive carbon dioxide in the air
d. when a plant of an animal dies, it stops producing oxygen

Key to answers on page 30

26
Key to Answers

Pretest
1. A 11. B
2. A 12. B
3. D 13. D
4. C 14. B
5. D 15. A
6. B 16. A
7. D 17. D
8. C 18. B
9. C 19. C
10. A 20. A

Lesson 1

Activity 1.1
1
U
1
P I E R R E
2
R A
3 2
A P H E N R I
3
R A D I O A C T I V I T Y
I L U
U A M
M N
D

Orbital

Electron
Nucleus

Fig 1.2. The Atom

27
Self-Test 1.1

1. The discovery of Radium.

2. Antoinne Henri Becquerel
3. Protons and neutrons
4. The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in an
electrically neutral atom.
5. Isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons
or atomic number but have different number of neutrons.

Lesson 2

Activity 2.1

Activity 2.2.

222
1. 86 Rn

234
2. 92 U

59
3. 26 Fe

230
4. 90 Th

28
Activity 2.3.

Analysis
1. As the number of coins decreases, the rate at which the coins
“decay” also decreases. This is because as the atoms are
disintegrating all the time, there will be fewer and fewer atoms left
which still have to disintegrate.

2. N

3. The graph shows a decreasing N as t increases.

4. Half life is the time it takes for the amount of radioactive substance
to be reduced to half its original value.

Self-Test 2.1.

234
1. U Æ 230
92
4
90Th + 2 He

(daughter)
4
2. 84 Po Æ 204
209
82 Pb + 2 He
Lead (Pb) is the element that results from alpha decay of polonium

3. One-fourth

Lesson 3

Activity 3.1

1. Nuclear Fission is used as a process of acquiring energy in Bataan

Nuclear Power plant.
2. Advantages:
a. New source of energy
b. Additional employment or jobs
Disadvantages:
c. Radiation pollution
d. Cycle disruption

29
Self-Test 3.1
1. U-238 will emit a beta particle and becomes neptunium.
2. Loss in mass is radiated as energy.
3. Loss in mass is radiated as energy.
4. Sustained fusion reaction is not yet possible on earth.

Lesson 4

Activity 4.1 – Answers may vary

Self-Test 4.1
1. Applications
a. Cancer treatment
b. Carbon-dating
c. Source of energy
2. Disadvantages
a. Construction of destructive atomic bombs
b. Excessive radiation use brings about cancer
c. Radiation pollution
3. Carbon-dating is a technique used in dating dead living organisms
while uranium-dating is a technique used in dating older nonliving
things.

Post Test

1. D 11. C
2. D 12. C
3. D 13. D
4. C 14. A
5. D 15. B
6. D 16. A
7. D 17. C
8. D 18. C
9. B 19. D
10. D 20. B

-End of Module-

30
References

Halliday, D., Resnick, R. & Krane, K. (1994). Fundamentals of physics. Singapore: John Wiley &
Sons Inc.

Hewitt, P. (1989). Conceptual physics (6th Ed.) London: Scoot, Foresman and Company

Heuvelen, A. (1986). Physics. A general introduction (2nd Edition). Sta. Cruz, Manila: UNI-ED Inc.,

Jones, E. & Childers, R. (1999). Contemporary college physics. NY: Mc Craw-Hill Co.

Morales, M., Corpus, A., Corpus, E., Dayao, A., Sotto, R. (2000). WorkText in physical sciences.
Manila: PNU Press

Young, Hugh. D. (1996). University physics (9th Edition). NY : Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.

Physics Classroom Tom Henderson © 1996-2004. Retrieved on January 5, 2005 form

www.physicsclassroom.com

31
Module 6
Experiencing Electricity

What this module is about

Electricity is everywhere around us. The incandescent bulbs that light our homes, the
batteries that power up our appliances, the transmission lines that supply energy to our
homes are but few of the many things that utilize electricity. There are also some far more
simple phenomena that let us experience electricity, and many of these are indeed amazing.
However, if we understand the principles behind electricity, we will find out that what lies
behind these wonders are just simple laws of nature. This module discusses the
fundamental concept of electricity and its effects and applications in our everyday living.
Specifically, it tackles the following lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Development of Electricity

ƒ Lesson 2 - Static Electricity
ƒ Lesson 3 - Charges and Coulomb’s Law
ƒ Lesson 4 - Conductors and Insulators

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. cite the contributions of some scientists in the development of electricity;

2. demonstrate the effects of static electricity and transfer of charges for different
materials;
3. relate electrical force to the magnitude and separation of charges; and
4. distinguish conductors from insulators.

1
How to learn from this module

Going through this module can be both a fun and a meaningful learning experience. All
you need to do is make use of your time and resources efficiently. To do this, here are some
tips for you:

1. Take time in reading and understanding each lesson. It is better to be slow but sure
than to hurry finishing the module only to find out that you missed the concepts you
are supposed to learn.
2. Do not jump from one chapter to another. The lessons are arranged such that one is
built upon another. Hence, an understanding of the first is essential in comprehending
the succeeding lessons.
3. Be honest. When answering the test items, do not turn to the key to correction page
unless you are done. Likewise, when performing experiments, record only what you
have really observed.
4. Safety first. Perform the experiments with extra precaution. Wear safety gears
whenever necessary.
5. Don’t hesitate to ask. If you need to clarify something, approach your teacher or any
knowledgeable person.

What to do before (Pretest)

A. Match the scientist listed in Column A with their respective discoveries in Column B

A B
____ 1. Thomas Alva Edison a. Voltaic Pile
____ 2. Charles Augustos Coulomb b. Torsion Balance
____ 3. Luigi Galvani c. Electric Motor
____ 4. Alesandro Volta d. Incandescent Bulb
____ 5. Benjamin Franklin e. Animal Electricity

B. On the space provided, write C if the object is a conductor and I if it is an insulator.

____ 6. Rubber band

____ 7. Iron Rod
____ 8. Wood tiles
____ 9. Cement
____ 10. Tin Can

2
C. Put a checkmark on the space provided if the statement is correct. Otherwise, put a cross
mark.

____ 11. An object whose atoms have excess electrons is negatively charged.
____ 12. If two objects are oppositely charged, they attract each other.
____ 13. Insulators have many electrons that are randomly and freely moving.
____ 14. The force two charged objects exert on each other is directly proportional
to their distance of separation
____ 15. Static electricity deals with charges at rest.

Key to answers on page 21

Introduction
Let us begin our discussion by looking at the picture in
figure 1.1

Have you ever had an experience similar to the one in

the picture? What do you think explains this? What made the
girl’s hair stand when she touched the charged sphere?

The one in the picture is a simple illustration of a rather

rare concept of electricity. When you hear the word electricity,
perhaps you will attribute it to lights and appliances at home,
transformers and transmission lines or the shock that may harm
you once you touch a live electrical wire. While it is true that all
of these are manifestations of electricity, we can explain both
the girl’s experience in the charged sphere and your common Fig. 1.1 Girl on a
observations at home in common terms. charged sphere

Have you ever experienced ironing a piece of linen cloth or pair of pants? What do
you feel when you put your skin near the just ironed cloth? Is there a crackling sound
produced? What do you feel when you immediately grab a doorknob after walking through a
carpeted floor? How do you explain the slight shock that you feel considering that there is
no physical connection to a source of electricity in these instances?

Do you remember what happens when you rub an object against your hair and put
such object near a piece of paper? You used to play with this at school and were once
amazed. But now do you know that by explaining this phenomenon, we will come to an
understanding of the nature of electricity?

3
Lesson 1 Development of Electricity
For our distant ancestors, perhaps one of the earliest
manifestations of electrical phenomenon is a lightning strike.
When a lightning strikes a tree, the tree can explode in flames.

Even in ancient times, many different sources of power

have been used such as the controlled burning of wood, crops
or animal wastes, and various types of coal. The Greeks and
Romans utilized the power from the water in their windmills.
The power of steam became available with the development
of steam engines. As early as the 19th century, gas lamps
became available but were later replaced by incandescent
bulbs. When generators were invented in the 20th century, the
Fig 1.2. Lightning
use of electricity to supply power in multitude of applications
has started.

Although electrical effects have been known since the

time of ancient Greeks, the development of electricity as a
usable power really happened only in the last twenty decades.
Luigi Galvani discovered animal electricity after he made the
muscle of a frog twitch by touching the nerve with various
types of metals without a source of electrostatic charge. He
found out that the best reaction of the frog’s muscle was
obtained when two kinds of metals were used.

Fig 1.3. Animal electricity

Contrary to the idea of “animal electricity”, Alessandro
Volta demonstrated the production of electricity with inanimate
materials alone. He believed that the electricity produced by
Galvani did not come from the frog’s muscle but from the
interaction of dissimilar metals. With this, he invented the first
battery called the voltaic pile, which provided continuous electric
current source.

After the issue of producing electricity was dealt with, the

next question was: What is the nature of electricity? Some
experimenters speculated that electricity was like a fluid flowing
as a result of its interaction with other objects. This stemmed
from the earlier discovery that certain materials would
mysteriously attract or repel each other after being rubbed. With
Fig 1.4. Voltaic pile
this, Benjamin Franklin concluded that there was only a single
fluid exchanged between the rubbed objects, and that the two
different “charges” were nothing more than an excess or deficiency of such a fluid. After
experimenting with wax and wool, he suggested that the coarse wool removed some of the

4
fluid from the smooth wax. The resulting disparity of fluid content then causes an attractive
interaction between the two objects as the fluid tries to regain its former balance.

Interestingly, it was soon discovered that the fluid they used to

speculate in the experiment is comparable to small bits of matter
called the electrons. The excess or deficiency of electrons in an
object makes it electrically charged. Later in this module, we shall
briefly review electrons and atomic structure.

Precise measurement of electrical charges was carried out by

Charles Augustus Coulomb using a device called the torsion
balance. We shall discuss how it operates when we discuss
Coulomb’s Law in Lesson 2.
Fig 1.5 Torsion balance
Since then studies of electricity began to flourish. Some of
the important discoveries are listed in the following table

Study this:

Table 7.1 Chronology of events in the development of electricity

Date Scientist Discovery

1820 Michael Faraday Postulated that electrical current moving through
a wire creates “fields of force” surrounding the
wire. With this, he showed electromagnetic
induction and built the first electric motor
1826 Georg Simon Measured the electromotive force of electrical
Ohm currents. He found that some conductors worked
better than others and quantified the differences
in a law named after him.
1830 Joseph Henry Worked on electromagnets by superimposing
coils of wires wrapped on an iron core
1844 Samule Finley Invented the morse code
Breese Morse
1845 Gustav Robert Developed the laws that allow easy calculation of
Kirchoff currents, voltages and resistance of electrical
networks

If you notice, the development of the field of electricity came hand-in-hand with that of
magnetism. In fact, the two fields complemented each other. In the next few modules, we

5
will study in depth the intertwining aspects of electricity and magnetism and some important
applications of the combinations of the two.

Over the years, our society has become increasingly dependent on electricity as a
source of power. Now, it is almost unthinkable how electricity has made life easier and more
comfortable. Almost all facets of modern living depend on electricity – lighting, heating or
cooling, food preparation, transport, communication, manufacturing of goods and materials,
entertainment, data storage, medical applications, household cleaning tasks, building and
construction of industries, to mention a few.

What you will do

Activity 1.1 How has electricity changed the ways you live?

How has electricity changed the way of life in your community? Ask your
parents what transformations occurred since electrical energy was made
available in your community. Compare and contrast your lifestyle now with the
lifestyle of the people when electricity was not used in your community. Write a
short essay about this.

When there was yet no electric Now, with electricty

power,
Mother would have to iron Mother does not burn
our clothes using burned charcoal anymore because she
charcoal now uses flat iron… It makes
the task less messy and
easier

6
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1

Identify the scientists associated with each discovery or idea. You may look into the word
hunt puzzle to gain clues. Encircle the names of the scientists in the puzzle. Names may be
written vertically, diagonally , horizontally or reversed.

_______________ 1. Discovered animal electricity

_______________ 2. Used torsion balance to measure the force exerted by electrical
charges on other charges
_______________ 3. Demonstrated electromagnetic induction
_______________ 4. Opposed the existence of animal electricity and invented an
inanimate source of electric current
_______________ 5. Found out that across conductors, the voltage is directly
proportional to the current.

A D T Y A D A R A F
V R C G C A L R A D
O L O F D O R O A A
V Y U C G F U P M H
V O L T A T V L H U
O D O E A A N P O M
L A M D L N O I K Y
G E B T B S A E E C
A R L G A L V A N I
F A A A O O V R A L

Key to answers on page 21

7
Lesson 2 Static Electricity

You have learned that everything we see is made up of

tiny parts called atoms. Atoms are composed of even smaller,
sub-atomic particles, namely, electrons, protons and neutrons.
They are different from each other in many ways. One of the
ways they are different is their charge. Protons, which are
located in the nucleus of the atom, have positive charge.
Electrons, which are located and revolving around the
nucleus, have an equal but negative charge as protons.
Neutrons which are located inside the nucleus have no charge.
Usually, atoms have the same number of protons and
electrons. Such atoms are called neutral atoms. Otherwise,
they are called ions. The electrons located outside the nucleus
may be attracted or repelled by other electrons of different
atoms. Electrons can then move from one atom to another. As
a result, some atoms can get extra electrons and acquire a net negative charge. Other
atoms lose electrons and acquire a net positive charge. When charges are separated like
this, static electricity is produced as the electrons regain their former state of balance.

The transfer of electrons creates charges that also interact with other charges. If two
materials have different charges, they attract or pull towards each other. If two things have
the same charge, they repel or push away from each other. What about the interaction of
charged and uncharged materials? Quite surprisingly, a neutral object always has an
attractive interaction with charged material. We will discuss the magnitude of such forces of
attraction or repulsion in Lesson 3.

Perhaps you are asking yourself this question: How then can I transfer electron in an
atom, so I can create a charge and, eventually, electricity? We will discuss the two most
common ways to do this: charging by friction and induction.

When objects are rubbed against each other, the electrons of their atoms have the
tendency to move from one atom to another. The manner by which electrons move depends
on the electron affinity of the atoms. Some objects like metals share electrons easily while
some like plastic and rubber don’t. Objects that share electrons easily are conductors and
those that do not share electrons easily are insulators. Materials that may or may not share
electrons are called semiconductors. Semiconductors are often used in electronics.

How do we know which among the objects being rubbed together gains or loses
electrons? By rubbing a variety of objects against each other and taking their interaction with
a known charge, the tested materials can be ordered according to the affinity with electrons.
Such order is known as triboelectric series.

8
Among the objects listed here, celluloid has the
greatest electron affinity. This means that of all the Triboelectric
conductors, celluloid has the least tendency to share an Series
electron. Celluloid
Sulfur
Rubber
Copper, Brass
Amber
If I rub a rubber against my cat’s fur, Wood
will the charge move from my cat to Cotton
the rubber, or the other way around? Human Skin
Silk
Cat Fur
Wool
Glass
Rabbit Fur
Asbestos

We shall do some simple experiments to find out how objects gain or lose charges.

What you will do

Activity 2.1 A simple charging experience

What you will need

ƒ A piece of bond paper
ƒ Plastic ballpen case

What to do

1. Cut the piece of bond paper into several small pieces (bits) and lay them on
a wooden table. What do you think is the charge of these bits of papers?

2. Get the plastic ballpen case and rub it several times against your hair or silk
clothes. Which do you think has greater electron affinity, the ballpen or your
hair? What becomes of the charge of each after rubbing?

3. Now, place the ballpen near the laid bits of paper. What do you observe?
What happened to the bits of paper?

9
If the bits of paper clung to the plastic ballpen case, it is right to say that either the
ballpen case or the paper was charged. Since you did not do anything but tear the paper
into pieces and, if initially it was uncharged, then the pieces of paper remained uncharged.
The ballpen has greater electron affinity than your hair. When it was rubbed against your
hair, the ballpen case gained extra electrons and became negatively charged. Thus, when
placed near the bits of paper, the negatively charged ballpen case attracted the uncharged
paper.

Try performing the experiment in front of a mirror to see how

your hair looks like when you rub the ballpen case more
strongly. Explain this phenomenon in the same manner as how
we explained the result of Activity 2.1?

To help you understand and experience static electricity more, try doing the following
experiments. You can choose from the four sets of experiments depending on the
availability of materials. Write your observations on a separate sheet of paper. Explain your
observations using the concept of charges we have just discussed.

10
What you will do
Activity 2.2 The Swinging Cereal

What you will need

ƒ a hard rubber, a plastic comb or a balloon
ƒ thread, small pieces of dry cereal or puffed rice

What to do

1. Tie a piece of the cereal to one end of a 12-inch piece of thread. Find a
place to attach the other end so that the cereal does not hang close to
anything else.
2. Wash the comb to remove any oils and dry it well.
3. Charge the comb by running it through long, dry hair several times, or
vigorously rubbing the comb on a wool sweater.
4. Slowly move the comb near the cereal. The cereal will swing to touch the
comb. Hold it still until the cereal jumps away by itself.
5. Now try to touch the cereal again with the comb. The cereal will move away
as the comb approaches.

This activity can also be done by substituting a balloon for the comb.

What happened?

Combing your hair moved electrons from your hair to the

comb. The comb had a negative charge. The neutral cereal was
attracted to it. When the comb and the cereal touched,
electrons slowly moved from the comb to the cereal. Now both
objects had the same negative charge, and the cereal was
repelled.

11
What you will do
Activity 2.3 The Bending Water

What you will need

ƒ a hard rubber, a plastic comb or a balloon
ƒ a sink and water faucet

What to do

1. Turn on the faucet so that the water runs out in a small, steady stream
about 1/8 inch thick.
2. Charge the comb by running it through long, dry hair several times or rub it
vigorously on a sweater.
3. Slowly bring the comb near the water and watch the water "bend."

This activity can also be done with a balloon.

What happened?

The neutral water was attracted to the charged comb, and

moved towards it.

12
What you will do
Activity 2.4 Light a bulb!

What you will need

ƒ hard rubber comb or balloon
ƒ a dark room
ƒ fluorescent light bulb (not an incandescent bulb)

SAFETY NOTE: DO NOT USE ELECTRICITY FROM A WALL OUTLET FOR

THIS EXPERIMENT. Handle the glass light bulb with care to avoid breakage.
The bulb can be wrapped in sticky, transparent tape to reduce the chance of
injury if it does break.

What to do?

1. Take the light bulb and comb into the dark room.
2. Charge the comb on your hair or sweater. Make sure to build up a lot of
charge for this experiment.
3. Touch the charged part of the comb to the light bulb and watch very
carefully. You should be able to see small sparks. Try touching different
parts of the bulb with your hands and the comb.

What happened?

When the charged comb touched the bulb, electrons moved

from it to the bulb, causing the small sparks of light inside. In
normal operation, the electrons used to light the bulb come
from the electrical power lines through a wire at the end of the
tube.

13
What you will do
Self Test 2.1 Think about this…

Think about this and explain in terms of the concept on static electricity: Why does
your hair stand after you take your hat off?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Key to answers on page 22

Lesson 3 Coulomb’s Law of Charges

Charged objects create an invisible electric force field around themselves. The
strength of this field depends on many things, including the amount of charge, the distance
involved, and the shape of the objects. This can become very complicated. We can simplify
things by working with "point sources" of charge. Point sources are charged objects that are
much, much smaller than the distance between them.

Charles Coulomb first described electric field strengths in the 1780's. Using a device
called the torsion balance, he found that for point charges, the electrical force varies
directly with the product of the charges. In other words, the greater the charges, the stronger
the field. And the field varies inversely with the square of the distance between the charges.
This means that the greater the distance, the weaker the force becomes. This relationship
can be written as a formula:

14
Remember this:

where q is the charge, and d is the distance between

F = k (q1 x q2) the charges, k is the proportionality constant
I which depends on the material separating the
d2 charges.

In vacuum the value of k is 9 x 109 N.m2/C2 Let us interpret the formula using the
following diagrams

According to this law, when two positively-charged objects (2C and 4C, respectively)
are brought near each other within a distance of 20 cm, the force of attraction between the
two charges is

q1 q 2 2 ( 2C )(4C 0)
F =k 2 = 9 x10 N .m / C
9 2
2
= 1.8 x1012 N
d2 (0.20)

In solving problems, it is important to be consistent with the units. Inspect the units of
the constant you are using and convert the units of the quantities, if necessary

What you will do

Self Test 3.1 Problem Solving

It’s time for you to solve these problems!

1. Find the magnitude of the force between two

charges of 1 C each that are 2 m apart.

2. A charge of 5 x10-9 C is attracted by a charge of

–3x10-7 C with a force of 0.135 N. How far apart
are they? (Hint: manipulate the equation to get an
expression for d)

Key to answers on page 22

15
Lesson 4 Conductors and Insulators
In the activities you have just performed, you have learned and demonstrated that
electrons may be made to move from one atom to another. However, some materials hold
their electrons very tightly and electrons do not move through them very well. These
materials are called insulators. On the other hand, some materials have very loosely held
electrons, which move through them very well. These are called conductors.

The following activity helps you classify materials into conductors and insulators. The
set-up involves the concept of circuit which we shall discuss in the next module. Our main
objective now is to find out the response of the circuit to the materials.

What you will do

Activity 4.1 Identifying conductors

What you will need

ƒ Battery, bulb and connecting wires
* the battery should match the kind of bulb and wires used

Suggested materials to be gathered:

Plastic spoon, aluminum spoon, cloth, ceramic tiles, pair of scissors, plant leaf,
pencil lead, glass, paper, coin

What to do
1. Gather the materials needed.
2. Connect wires to the two terminals of the bulb. It would be easier to make
use of a bulb socket.
3. Using the wires, connect the battery to the bulb. Check that the bulbs must
light on. What does the bulb indicate?
4. Break the circuit by connecting another wire at one end of the battery and
inserting the materials between the wire connected at one terminal of the
bulb and the other wire connected to the battery one by one.
5. Using the table, list down the materials that makes the bulb glow when
inserted in the circuit.

Materials that made the bulb Materials that did not make the bulb
glow glow

16
What happened?

In the activity, you were able to classify the materials into

two: those that made the bulb glow and those that did not.
When a material inserted in the circuit allows the flow of
electrons through it, its electrons are loosely held and it
conducts electricity. Thus it makes the bulb glow. Such
material is called a conductor.

What you will do

Self-Test 4.1

Name the materials found in the box and classify them as conductors or insulators.
Encircle the materials that exhibit more conductive than insulating properties.

1 2 4 5
3

6 7 8 9 10

Key to answers on page 22

17
Let’s summarize

In this module, you have learned that

1. Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest.

2. The fundamental entity in electrostatics is the electric charge. The standard unit for
charge is coulomb (C).

3. A body could either be positively charged, negatively charged or neutral. Negatively

charged bodies have excess electrons and positively charged bodies have deficiency
of electron. Bodies that are electrically neutral have the same number of protons and
electrons.

4. Electrification or charging is the process of producing an electrically charged object.

Charging may be done by friction (contact) and induction.

5. Coulomb’s law states that the force one charge exerts on another is directly
proportional to the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them

6. Materials could either be conductors, insulators or semiconductors. Conductors are

materials that permit electric charges to move easily within them while insulators are
materials that permit electric charges to move much less readily.

18
Posttest
Directions: Select the letter of the choice that correctly answers the given questions.
Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. How do you describe an object that gains excess electrons after being rubbed
against another object?
a. Uncharged
b. Negatively-charged
c. Positively-charged
d. Either a, b or c

2. Who among the following scientists believed in “animal electricity”?

a. Alessandro Volta
b. Luigi Galvani
c. Georg Simon Ohm
d. Michael Faraday

3. Which of the following can be said about two objects that attracted each other when
held close together?
a. The two objects have the same charges
b. The two objects have opposite charges
c. One of the objects is neutral (no charge)
d. Both b and c

4. What do you call those materials that easily permit the flow of electricity through
them?
a. Insulators
b. Conductors
c. Resistors
d. Current Sources

5. Two uncharged objects A and B were rubbed against each other. When object B was
placed near a negatively charged object C, the two objects repelled each other.
Which of these statements is true about object A?
a. Object A remained uncharged.
b. Object A became positively-charged.
c. Object A became negatively-charged.
d. Unpredictable

6. Which of the following is NOT a conductor?

a. water
b. aluminum utensils
c. rubber band

19
d. pencil lead

7. During which of the following weather conditions is static electricity easiest to

produce?
a. Humid
b. Windy
c. Hot and dry
d. Rainy

8. What apparatus did Charles Coulomb use to measure the force of interaction of
charged bodies?
a. Beam balance
b. Spring balance
c. Torsion balance
d. Electronic balance

9. When you rub a plastic rod against your hair several times and put it near some bits
of paper, the pieces of papers are attracted towards it. What does this observation
indicate?
a. The plastic and the paper are oppositely-charged.
b. The plastic acquired a charge.
c. The plastic and the paper have the same charges.
d. All of the above

10. How do you describe an atom having the same number of protons and electrons?
a. Positively-charged
b. Negatively-charged
c. Uncharged
d. Both a and c

11. According to Coulomb’s Law, what happens to the attraction of two oppositely-
charged objects as their distance of separation increases?
a. increases
b. decreases
c. remains unchanged
d. cannot be determined

12. The handles of our cooking utensils at home are usually made of rubber or hard
plastics that do not allow heat to pass through them. These materials

a. have high resistance

b. are conductors
c. both and b
d. Neither a or b

20
13. Which of the following materials does not belong to the group?
a. rubber slippers
b. ceramic plate
c. aluminum frying pan
d. electrical tape

14. Who among these scientists investigated different materials and found out that
current passes through at different rates for different kinds of materials?
a. Thomas Alva Edison
b. Georg Simon Ohm
c. Charles Coulomb
d. Joseph Henry

15. When you rub a plastic rod against your skin, charges will likely move
a. from the rod to your skin
b. from your skin to the rod
c. simultaneously to your skin and the rod
d. cannot be predicted

Key to answers on page 22

Key to Answers

Pretest

1. d 6. I 11. √
2. b 7. C 12. x
3. e 8. I 13. x
4. a 9. I 14. x
5. c 10. C 15. √

Lesson 1

Self-Test 1.1
1. Galvani
2. Coulomb
3. Faraday
4. Volta
5. Ohm

21
Lesson 2

Self-Test 2.1
The hat and your skin rub against each other when your hat is removed. In this case,
charges will move from your hair to the hat. Your hair strands become charged as a
result of the rubbing process. Since each hair strand has the same charge, each will
repell the other hair strands and the hair appears to stand.

Lesson 3

Self-Test 3.1
1. 2.25 x 10 9 N
2. 10,000 m

Lesson 4

Self-Test 4.1

Materials Classification
1. Ceramic plate Conductor
2. Cooler Insulator
3. Plastic mug Insulator
4. Door knob Conductor
5. Gloves Insulator
6. Hollow Block Insulator
7. Spoon Conductor
8. Tires Insulator
9. Aluminum pan Conductor
10. Galvanized Conductor
sheets

Posttest
1. b 6. c 11. b
2. b 7. c 12. a
3. d 8. a 13. c
4. b 9. a 14. b
5. b 10. c 15. a

-End of Module-

22
References
Gebelein, C.G. (2001). Chemistry and our world. USA: WCB Wm. C. Brown Publishers

Payawal, P. (1992). Discoverer science. Quezon City: Academe Publishing House

Salmorin, L. M. and Florido, B. (2003). Science and technology IV. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House Inc.

Tan, M. (2000). TIMSS-LIKE test items in science and mathematics. Manila:DOST-SEI, UPNISMED
Pundasyon para sa mga Guro ng Agham at Matematika, Ink.

Tillery, B. W. (1999). Physical science. Singapore: WCB McGraw Hill

Young, H. D.andFreedman, R. A. (2004). University physics. USA: Pearson Education Inc.

Van Heuvelen, A. (1986). Physics: a general introduction(2nd Edition). Canada: Little Brown and Company
(Canada) Limited

23
Module 7
Electric Circuits

What this module is about

The benefits that we derive from electricity are brought about not by the fundamental
charge alone but also by the control of the flow of electrons through different materials or
media. Almost, if not all, appliances involve the control of the flow of electrons. This tells us
that for electricity to be useful, there needs to be a proper path for electrons to move. This
module shall discuss the concept of circuits and how it is being used in different
applications. Because of the hazards electricity poses, this module shall also tackle
precautionary measures in dealing with electricity. This module contains the following
lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Circuit Basics

ƒ Lesson 2 - Series and Parallel Circuits
ƒ Lesson 3 - Household Electrical Wirings
ƒ Lesson 4 - Computing Electrical Energy Consumption
ƒ Lesson 5 - Dealing with Electricity Safely

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. identify the basic parts of electrical circuits;

2. distinguish series from parallel circuit connection;
3. relate voltage and current in a given resistor;
4. compute the equivalent resistance of series-parallel circuits;
5. estimate the electrical energy consumption cost of different appliances at
home; and
6. practice safety precautions in dealing with electricity.

1
How to learn from this module

Going through this module can be both a fun and a meaningful learning experience. All
you need to do is make use of your time and resources efficiently. To do this, here are some
tips for you:

1. Take time in reading and understanding each lesson. It is better to be slow but sure
than to hurry finishing the module only to find out that you missed the concepts you
are supposed to learn.
2. Do not jump from one chapter to another. Usually, the lessons are arranged such that
one is built upon another, hence an understanding of the first lesson is essential in
comprehending the succeeding lessons.
3. Be honest. When answering the test items, do not turn to the key to correction page
unless you are done. Likewise, when performing experiments, record only what you
have really observed.
4. Safety first. Perform the experiments with extra precaution. Wear safety gears
whenever necessary.
5. Don’t hesitate to ask. If you need to clarify something, approach your teacher or any
knowledgeable person.

What to do before (Pretest)

Directions: Select the letter of the option that correctly answers the questions. Write your
answer in a separate sheet of paper.

1. Two bulbs are connected and plugged to the outlet as shown in the figure. Both
bulbs have the same
a. current
b. voltage
c. resistance
d. voltage and current

2. When a third bulb is added to the connection in no.1, what happens to the
intensity and brightness of the bulbs?
a. remains the same
b. increases
c. decreases
d. some may increase and others may decrease

2
3. To find out the electrical consumption at home, we should look at the
a. generator
b. transformer
c. meter
d. circuit breaker

4. Our electricity in the Philippines is 220 V. V is a unit of what quantity?

a. velocity
b. voltage
c. current
d. resistance

5. When the fuse in a circuit “blows up”, the circuit is said to be

a. short
b. open
c. overloaded
d. both b and c

The table shows the power ratings and length of use of a toaster, CD player,
refrigerator and washing machine.

Power Rating Length of Use

(Watts) (Hours)
Toaster 800 2
CD player 15 12
Refrigerator 800 10
Washing Machine 500 3

6. Which one consumes the greatest electrical energy?

a. toaster
b. CD player
c. refrigerator
d. washing machine

7. If all are plugged to a 220-V outlet, which appliance will draw the greatest amount
of current?
a. toaster
b. CD player
c. refrigerator
d. washing machine

3
8. In the circuit below, which two elements are connected parallel to each other?

a. A and B
b. B and C A B
c. C and D E C D
d. A and D

9. The circuit element labeled E in no. 8 is a schematic diagram of

a. voltage source
b. bulb
c. resistor
d. switch

10. Why is it NOT advisable to touch electric appliances when our hands are wet?
a. The appliances may have rust when they get wet
b. We may get a shock because water conducts electricity
c. Water may cause the appliance to over heat
d. All of the above

Key to answers on page 26

Lesson 1 Circuit Basics

In conductive materials, the outer electrons in each atom can easily come and go.
That is why they are called free electrons. For electrons to flow continuously and indefinitely
through a conductor, there must be a complete, unbroken path for them to move into and
out of that conductor. This means that there is a need for an electron source and destination
which are able to supply and collect infinite number of electrons so that continuous flow of
current is sustained. However, it would be quite impractical to provide such infinite sources
and destinations? How do we give electrons a path such that we can create a continuous
flow without having to resort to infinite sources and destinations?

The answer to this question is circuit. Let us consider an experiment that can provide
us with ideas in discovering the concept of a circuit.

4
What you will do
Activity 1.1 What is a circuit?

What you will need

Small marbles or perfectly rounded and smooth stones
Transparent hose, with hole size big enough to accommodate the marbles or
stones.

What to do

Try stretching the hose over a flat surface. Initially, insert the marbles inside the
hose and label the positions of the marbles. Now place an additional marble on
one end of the hose. What do you notice? The marble on the other end moved,
right? In other words, the marbles “flowed”. This flow of marbles is analogous to
the flow of electrons. Before an electron moves from one place to another in a
conductor, it needs to be displaced by another electron. Later, we shall learn how
electrons can be initially moved to create movements in other electrons.

Now, what should you do if you want a continous flow of the marbles? One way is
to catch the marble that exits on one end and insert it again in the other end of the
hose. Surely, this is very laborious! There is another more practical way. Try
creating a loop using the hose, that is, connect the two ends of the hose. Create a
movement of the marbles. What do you notice now? Have you created a never-
ending loop?

This is the concept of electrical circuit: if we take a wire, or many wires joined end to
end, and loop them around so that they form a continuous pathway, we have the means to
support a uniform flow of electrons without having to resort to infinite sources and
destinations. Each electron advancing in a certain direction in a circuit pushes on the one in
front of it, which pushes on the one in front of it and so on. All we need to do is maintain this
flow by continuous means of motivation of these electrons.

5
Before a continuous flow of electrons occurs, we need a force to push these
electrons around the circuit. With electrons, this force is the same as the force at work in
static electricity.

When two objects are rubbed, an imbalance of charges may happen, which is
manifested as attractive or repulsive force between them and other objects near them.

Let us consider two objects that become positively and negatively charged after being
rubbed. What kind of force exists between them? Attractive force, right? With no path for
electrons to flow from the negatively charged to the positively charged object, all this force
can do is to attract the objects together. But what if we bridge the two objects by means of a
conductor? The force now provokes the electron to flow in a uniform direction through the
conductor until the charge in that area neutralizes the force between the charged objects.
This indicates that the electric charge formed by rubbing two materials serves to store a
certain amount of energy.

To understand this better, let us consider again an

analogy. Have you seen and experienced using a water tank?
First, the tank needs to be filled with water. This is done by
pumping water into it. This requires an amount of energy
equivalent to the work done in storing water in the tank. If the
tank’s faucet is kept closed over a period of time, then the tank
stores that energy. Because of the imbalance of water content in
the faucet and tank, the water begins flowing out as soon as the
faucet is opened.

We can represent the electrons as water in this analogy.

The imbalance of water content represents the imbalance of
electric charges. The force attracting the electrons back to their
original position is analogous to the force gravity exerts in water Fig. 1.1 Water Tank
in the tank, trying to draw it down to its former position.

Just as pumping water to higher level results in energy being stored, opening the
faucet for water to flow represents a release in stored energy. The potential energy stored in
the form of electric charge imbalance which is capable of provoking electrons to flow
through a conductor can be expressed as a term called voltage, which technically is the
potential energy per unit charge of the electron. In the concept of static electricity, voltage is
the work required to move a unit charge from one location to another, against the force
which tries to keep the charges balanced.

However, it should be noted that voltage can also be generated by means other than
by rubbing certain types of materials against each other. Chemical reactions, radiant energy
and the influence of magnetism on a conductor are few of the other means.

What about current? Following the analogy we used about the water running on a
pipeline, this continuous, uniform flow of electrons through a conductor or circuit is called

6
current. The flow of electrons in one direction results to direct current. When the flow of
electrons constantly reverses, then alternating current is produced.

Having defined voltage and current, we are now ready to build a simple circuit. What
is a circuit made of? A circuit is basically composed of three things: sources, loads and
connectors. The source can be a current or voltage source such as batteries and power
supplies. Loads are those that consume the energy provided by the source such as
household appliances and bulbs. What connects the source and the loads are the
connecting wires.

Before constructing a real circuit, it is first necessary to represent the circuit parts
using schematic diagrams. Here are some of the most commonly used electrical elements
and their respective schematic diagrams

Schematic diagrams of elements commonly used in circuits

Schematic Diagram Element How to interpret

Voltage Source (Battery) The longer vertical lines

represent the positive
terminal of the battery

Switch When the lines are not joined,

the switch is open and no
current flows through the wire

Bulb

Resistor Resistors do not have

polarities

The curved line represents

Capacitor the negative terminal of the
capacitor

Fuse

7
What you will do
Activity 1.2 – Assembling a simple circuit

What you will need

Bulb, Battery and Connecting Wires

What to do

1. Build the circuit shown in the schematic diagram. What happens to the lamp
when you turned the switch open? What if it is closed?

2. Try leaving the set-up for 10 minutes with the switch closed. Now, touch the
lamp with your hands. What do you feel?

In the experiment, why did the lamp turn warm? As the electrons work their way to
the lamp, they encounter more opposition to the motion than they typically would in the
connecting wires. This opposition to electric current is called resistance. This opposition
generates heat similar to the generation of heat by friction when we rub our hands together.

Georg Simon Ohm found something interesting while investigating on different

conductors. He found that electrons do not pass at the same rate through conductors of
different materials. Further, he found out that the current passing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference or voltage across the conductor, and their
ratio is expressed as resistance. He then formulated this into a law, called Coulomb’s
Law, which in equation form yields
where R is the resistance in ohms (Ω)
R=V V is the voltage in volts (V), and
I I is the current in amperes (A)

We will now verify Ohm’s Law in a simple experiment and apply it later in solving
sample problems. However, the experiment will be very good only if you have materials
such as ammeter and voltmeter at home. An ammeter measures the current flowing
through an element and must be connected in series. A voltmeter measures voltage across
and element and must be connected in parallel with the element. Digital ammeters and
voltmeters display the current and voltage values on a screen. However, the analog ones
need to be read using pointers, just like the way we read weighing scales.

8
If the materials are available, you may perform the experiment. If not, you may skip
this part and proceed analyzing a set of sample data derived from such experiment.

What you will do

Activity 1.3 – Ohm’s law

Experiment – Ohm’s Law

What you will need

Variable dc power supply
120, 270- Ω resistors
ammeter and voltmeter

What you will do

1. Assemble the circuit shown in the figure. A digital voltmeter is preferred

over the analog one. In the absence of a variable dc power supply,
batteries may be used. To vary voltage, you just keep adding batteries in
series. You may see your teacher and ask for specific instruction how to go
about this experiment.
2. Using the 120 Ω resistor first, vary the power supply eight times and record
the current and voltage readings for each trial.
3. For each trial, compute the value of the resistance by dividing voltage by
current. At the end of the eight trials, get the average value of the
resistance. How do you compare the computed value of resistance to the
resistance of the resistor?
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the other resistor.
5. Plot the graph of voltage versus current for both resistors. What kinds of
graphs are produced?

Analyzing sample data

Here’s a set of data for you to analyze. A 120 Ω resistor was connected to a power
source with varying voltage values and the following current values were obtained

Value of the resistor used = 120 Ω

Voltage (V) Current (A)

3 0.024
6 0.06

9
9 0.075
12 0.99
15 0.130
18 0.15
21 0.175

You may want to review your notes in the experiment before proceeding to answer the
following guide questions:

Guide Questions:

1. In step 3, how does the computed value of the resistance compare to the marked
resistance in the element?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. What kinds of graphs of voltage versus current were you able to obtain for the two
resistors?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3. What do these kinds of graphs tell you about the resistors you have just used?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

After answering the guide questions, you may have noted that the linear graph
produced when the values of voltage and current were plotted indicates a direct
proportionality between voltage and current for a typical resistor. This means that as
current through the resistor increases, the voltage across it increases proportionally.

Sample Problem on Ohm’s Law

What is the voltage across a bulb with a resistance of 115 Ω when the current flowing
through it is 1.5 A?

To solve this problem, we will use the equation V = IR derived from manipulating the
equation of ohm’s law.

V = (1.5 A) (115 Ω) = 172.5 V

10
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1 State which of these ideas are correct and which are not correct.

___1. Ohm’s law tells us that across a resistor, the

voltage increases when the current through it
also increases.
___2. Voltage is the opposition offered to the flow of
electrical charges.
___ 3. Circuits provide pathways for electricity to
travel.
___ 4. When the switch is closed, the sources and the
loads are not connected.

Key to answers on page 26

Lesson 2 Series and parallel circuits

We shall now explore the two types of circuit connections. At this point, it is again
important to recall that conductors provide a path for electrons to flow. This path can be
in single direction or it can be a branched path. If like an electron, you are given a single
path, you do not have another option but to proceed and take that path. If you are given
more paths to take, then you can choose from among these paths. If there were many of
you, you may divide yourselves among the paths. Does electron or electricity behave in
the same manner? Let us do the next activity to answer this question.

11
What you will do
Activity 2.1 – Series and Parallel Circuits

In this experiment, you will need the

same equipment you used in activity 1.1,
but this time a bulb replaces the resistors.
In a way, the filament in the bulb serves
as resistor. Be sure to get a bulb that has
a power rating within the variable dc Figure 2.1
power supply and the bulbs should be
provided with appropriate sockets when Figure 1.1 Water
necessary. Before preparing this Tank
experiment, it is advisable to ask your
teacher for assistance on precautionary
measures.
Figure 2.2
What to do Figure 1.1 Water
Tank
1. Assemble the circuit shown in figure 2.1. Set the dc voltage to 3 V.
Observe the intensity of the light emanating from the bulb.
2. Insert one or more bulbs in the circuit. What do you notice about the
intensity or brightness of the bulb as you add more and more bulbs?
3. Try to unscrew one of the bulbs from the socket. What happens to the
other bulbs? What does your observation indicate?
4. Modify the circuit in step 1 by adding another branch of wire with a bulb as
shown in figure 2.2. How do you compare the circuit produced with that in
step 1? Which of them is series circuit and which one is parallel circuit?
5. Again, switch on the power supply and observe the brightness of the bulbs.
Try adding more branches of wires with a bulb as shown in the figure. Does
the brightness of each bulb change?
6. Unscrew one of the bulbs in any branch. Are the other bulbs affected? Try
unscrewing one more bulb. Do you observe the same? How does your
observation compare to that in step 3?

The circuits you just assembled show series and parallel connections. The circuit in
step 1 is a series circuit and the circuit in step 4 is a parallel circuit.

12
Remember this:
In the series connection, there is only a single path for electric current because there
is but a single loop of connecting wire. With this connection, for each part of the circuit,
the amount of current remains constant. That is why elements connected in series have
the same current. As you added more bulbs in the loop, each bulb turned dimmer
because the voltage was divided among the bulbs. Also, the resistance of the circuit
increased because the resistance of each bulb added up. Remember that earlier we
have discussed that elements that consume energy opposes the flow of electrons
because they have resistance.

To compute for the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series to a source,

all we need to do is add the individual resistances. In equation:

where RT is the equivalent resistance of

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …. + Rn
the combinations of n number of resistors.

On the other hand, parallel circuit connection was shown in step 4 of the experiment.
If you try to inspect the circuit, there are many possible paths for the electricity because
each element is independently connected to the voltage source. Since current takes
many paths, it is divided among the elements or bulbs. But since each bulb is connected
independently to the source, each element has the same potential as the source, that is,
technically speaking, they are of the same voltage. This is shown by the unchanged
brightness of each bulb even when you added more and more circuit branches in step 5.
Also, you must have observed that when you unscrewed one of the bulbs, the rest
remained lit because current through the glowing bulbs took some alternative paths
when there was a break in the circuit.

The total resistance in parallel circuit connection is given by the equation

1 1 1 1 where RT is the equivalent resistance of

= + + .... + the combinations of n number of resistors.
RT R1 R2 Rn

Comparing this equation to that in the series connection, we can infer that the
equivalent resistance for a parallel circuit connection is always less than any of the
individual element’s resistance. To produce greater equivalent resistance, elements
should be connected in series.

13
Think about this:
Where are series and parallel connections used? Does connection really matter at
all? Have you ever encountered problems with your christmas lights at home like when
the bulbs do not glow anymore because of only one busted bulb? But why are Christmas
lights connected in series, anyway, if that is a problem? The bulbs are usually very small
and have low power and voltage ratings. For bulbs with low voltage ratings, the current
drawn must be minimal or small (based on Ohm’s law). The increased number of
connected bulbs increases the resistance of the circuit but reduces the value of the
current drawn from each bulb. By having the bulbs connected this way, the voltage
divides among the bulbs, so even high voltage input will not bust the bulbs.

On the contrary, our homes are wired in parallel connections, to provide

constant operating voltages for our appliances, which is 220 V in the Philippines. We
shall discuss about parallel circuit connection at home in more detail in the next lesson.

Can you think of other situations that make use of series and parallel electrical
connections?

Lesson 3 Household Electrical Wiring

Now that we know the difference
between series and parallel electrical circuit
connections, let us try to see how our
homes should be wired.

During nighttime, when almost all

lamps are turned on and you try to switch
off one lamp, are the other lamps or
appliances in the house affected? How does
our observation compare to the results in
the experiment on series and parallel
circuits when you unscrewed one bulb? Figure 3.1 Appliances used at home
Your answer to these questions should already indicate what type of circuit connection is
being used at home. Correct, it’s parallel!

Our homes are supplied with electricity at a voltage of nearly 220 V. Since most
appliances are also designed to operate at this voltage, our appliances should be
connected in parallel to the outlets. Recall from our previous experiment that when the
bulbs are connected in parallel, they have the same voltage. You may clearly see this
when you measure the voltage across each bulb using a multitester.

If one bulb or appliance is turned off, the others remain unaffected because each
of these has a separate connection to the source. If one point of the household circuit
breaks, there will still be other paths for electricity to flow, unlike in series connection.

14
By wiring our homes in parallel connection, the total resistance of the elements is
also reduced. From the equation of the equivalent resistance of parallel circuits
discussed earlier, we can see that the resistance of the combination of electrical
elements at home is always less than the resistance of each element.

But how does electricity reach our homes? Electricity is first produced at a very
high voltage in a generator. The high voltage electricity is then transmitted through
transmission lines to the sub-stations where the voltage is regulated using transformers.
The sub-stations then distribute electricity at 220 V by letting it pass through another
transformer. These transformers resemble the shape of a tin can and usually hang in
posts in our communities.

From the transformers, electricity has to pass through an electric meter that
measures our consumption. After the meter, the electricity has to pass through circuit
protectors, like circuit breakers and fuses, to protect our appliances just in case there is
an abrupt change in current in the circuit.

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1 Analyzing circuit connections

Study the diagram, then answer the questions below on a separate piece of paper.

1. How many different circuits do you

see in the household circuits
diagram?
2. Are household circuits series
circuits or parallel circuits?
3. Explain what would happen if the
circuits were the other kind.
4. If the refrigerator in the diagram
blew a fuse, what other
appliance(s) would be affected?
5. If the coffee maker blew a fuse,
what other appliance(s) would be
affected?
6. What other appliances would be affected if the living room fan blew a fuse?

Key to answers on page 26

15
Lesson 4 Computing our electrical energy Consumption

So how do we compute for our electrical

energy consumption?

Our appliances have respective power ratings.

Power Ratings (usually in watts or kilowatts) indicate
the amount of energy consumed by each appliance
for a period of time. The higher the power rating of an
appliance is and the longer the time it is used, the more electrical energy is consumed.

Table 8.2 shows the power ratings of some appliances we usually use at home.

Appliance Wattage
Room airconditioner 1000
Blender 300
Blow dryer 700
CD player 15
Ceiling fan 15
Computer 200
Coffee Maker 800
Freezer 445
Hot plate 1200
Flat iron 1000
Incandescent lamp 40-100
Fluorescent lamp 11-30
Microwave oven 6000-1500
Refrigerator 540-800
Stereo 10-30
Toaster 800-1500
Vacuum Cleaner 1500
Washing Machine 500

When determining how many watts x hours your appliances will use, keep in mind
that many of the appliances you might use will only run for an average of a few minutes per
day

To compute the cost of electrical energy consumption, multiply the wattage (in
kilowatts), the length of time of use (in hours), and the cost of electricity (per kilowatts-hour)
set by your electricity distributor.

16
For example, if the cost of electricity is P 4.77/ kWh (kilowatt-hour) and the
refrigerator has been operating for 10 hrs per day, in one month the electrical energy
consumption of the refrigerator will be:

Wattage of Refrigerator (kWatts) = 0.1

x length of use (hours) = 300
x cost of electricity per kWatts-hour = 4.77
Total = P143.10

This is only for the refrigerator. How about the other appliances? Try doing the next
activity for you to estimate your total monthly consumption, considering the appliances you
use. You can read the exact power ratings of your appliances by looking at the manual.

What you will do

Activity 4.1 Computing electrical consumption.

On the table, list down the appliances you use at home and try to estimate the
number of operating hours per month. Then, try to compute your monthly consumption by
following the example given.

Appliance Wattage Total time of Cost of Total Cost

use in one electricity/
month kW-hr

Total Consumption

17
Lesson 5 Electrical Hazards and safety
While electricity is very useful, it also poses dangers to our lives. Such hazards may
range from simple electrical shocks to fires that result to serious injuries, death and loss of
properties.

Electricity travels easily through the

human body. Your body is 70 percent water,
and water is an excellent conductor of
electricity. So, when you touch an energized
bare electrical wire or a faulty appliance, the
electricity will use your body as the shortest
path to the ground. If you are grounded, the
electricity will instantly pass through you to the
ground, causing a harmful and sometimes fatal
shock.

It doesn't take much. You can be killed

by the tiny amount of electricity used by one
7.5-watt light if it passes through your chest. If
the shock doesn't kill you, it can still badly hurt
you by causing serious falls, burns, cuts, or internal bleeding. A shock from a 100-watt bulb
or a 1000-watt hair dryer will probably be fatal.

You can avoid harmful or fatal shock by understanding how electricity travels, how to
stay out of its way and how to use it properly. What safety precautions should we practice
when using electricity?

What you will do

Activity 5.1 In one or two sentences, interpret the pictures shown below to identify
the basic precautionary measures we should take when dealing with electricity.

18
Key to answers on page 27

Indeed, electricity is an important part of our lives that cannot be taken for granted.
To avoid accidents, it is important that we have basic knowledge on electricity and exercise
caution in dealing with it.

As an added protection, some devices may be also placed in our circuit that function
as breakers whenever there are faults and problems with the circuit.

Our homes are fed with electricity through lead wires called lines which are
connected to outlets inside the house. The voltage impressed on these lines is applied to
appliances and other devices that are connected in parallel to these lines.

As more devices are connected to these lines, more pathways are provided for the
current. Because of the lowered combined resistance of appliances in parallel, a greater

19
amount of current passes through the wire and heat is generated. If the lines carry more
than the safe amount of current, the resulting heat may melt the insulation and start a fire.
The lines are said to be overloaded. It is therefore important that our loads (appliances) at
home matches the available voltage source. In some case, voltage regulators may be used.

To prevent overloading, fuses are connected in series with the power supply line,
making the entire line current pass through it first before reaching the loads. Fuses are
made up of metal ribbon that will heat up and melt if the current exceeds the critical value. If
the ribbon melts, there is a break in the circuit. Once the fuse is blown out, it must be
replaced with a new one once the source of overloading is determined and remedied.

Circuits may also be protected by circuit breakers that use magnets and bimetallic
strip to open a switch in cases of overloading. Circuit breakers are often used instead of
fuses in modern buildings because they do not have to be replaced each time the circuit is
opened.

A diagram of a typical circuit breaker is shown in the figure.

When the live wire carries usual operating current, the electromagnet is not strong
enough to separate the contacts. If something goes wrong with the appliance, and large
current flows, the electromagnet will pull hard enough to separate the contacts and break
the circuit. The spring then keeps the contacts apart. After the fault is repaired, the contacts
can then be pushed back together by pressing a button on the outside of the circuit breaker
box.

20
Let’s summarize
In this module we have learned that:

1. Circuits provide continuous pathway for electricity to travel. Circuits are composed of
sources, loads and connecting wires, which are considered to have negligible
resistance.

2. Circuit connections can be series or parallel. In circuit connection, there is only one
path of electricity and elements connected in this way have the same current. In
parallel connections, there is more than one possible path for electricity to flow.
Elements connected in parallel have the same voltage.

3. Ohm’s law relates current, voltage and resistance. It states that current is directly
proportional to voltage.

4. Power ratings of appliance provide the basis for computing electrical energy
consumption. As the power rating and the longer time of use increase, the amount of
electrical energy used increases.

5. Electricity can be both useful and harmful as well. It is important that we practice
precaution in dealing with it.

6. Electrical sources and loads must be matched correctly to avoid overloading. Fuses
and circuit breakers are devices that ensure safety when faults and problems in a
circuit arise.

21
Posttest

Direction: Select the letter of the choice that correctly answers each question.

1. Which of the following quantities do elements connected in series have in common?

a. Current
b. Voltage
c. Resistance
d. Both a and b

2. Which of the following quantities connected in parallel have in common?

a. Current
b. Voltage
c. Resistance
d. Both a and b

3. What is the voltage across a 6 Ω resistor when 3 A of current passes through it?

a. 2V
b. 9V
c. 18 V
d. 36 V

4. How do you describe a part of a circuit where no current can pass because of a break
or discontinuity?

a. short
b. open
c. overloaded
d. both a and b

5. What happens to the intensity or the brightness of the lamps connected in series as
more and more lamps are added?

a. increases
b. decreases
c. remains the same
d. cannot be predicted

22
6. Why should household appliances be connected in parallel with the voltage source?
I. To increase the resistance of the household circuit
II. To impress upon each appliance the same voltage as the power
source.
a. I only
b. II only
c. Both I and II
d. Neither I and II

7. Why are fuses and circuit breakers used in circuits?

a. Fuses and circuit breakers open to the circuit when a large amount of current
flows through the circuit.
b. Fuses and circuit breakers increase the efficiency of the appliances within the
circuit.
c. Fuses and circuit breakers insulate the connection in the circuit.
d. Fuses and circuit breakers can help out the electrical consumption.

8. An airconditioning unit has a wattage of 900 W and is operating continuously for 1

day. How much is the daily electrical consumption if the cost of electricity is
P5.80/kWh?

a. P 5.22
b. P 21.60
c. P 125.28
d. P 522.00

9. Which of the following regulates the voltage of the electricity produced in power
plants?

a. Generator
b. Transformer
c. Meters
d. Circuit breakers

10. What electrical element is represented by the schematic diagram in the figure?

a. bulb
b. fuse
c. battery
d. switch

23
11. What law states that the voltage across an electrical element is proportional to the
current flowing through it?

a. Newton’s Law
b. Faraday’s Law
c. Coulomb’s Law
d. Ohm’s Law

12. Which of the following is a unit of current?

a. kilogram
b. Ohms
c. Ampere
d. Volts

13. Three resistors ( 20 kΩ, 30 kΩ, 60 kΩ) are connected in series. What is the
equivalent resistance of the combination?

a. 10 kΩ
b. 60 kΩ
c. 110 kΩ
d. 220 kΩ

14. What is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in no. 13, if they were connected in
parallel instead?

a. 1 kΩ
b. 10kΩ
c. 60 kΩ
d. 110 kΩ

15. How much current passes through the 20-kΩ resistor when the resistors in no. 13 are
connected in series with a 220 V source?

a. 2 mA
b. 11 mA
c. 20 mA
d. 110 mA

16. According to Ohm’s law, across a resistor with constant resistance, what happens to
the current across it when the voltage applied is doubled?
a. remains the same
b. halved
c. doubled
d. quadrupled

24
17. In the circuit shown, which two bulbs are in series.

a. A and B
A B b. C and D
E C D
c. B and C
d. None of the bulbs are connected in
series

18. A kite hangs on the electrical power in your community. Which of the following should
you do?

a. Get a long piece of wood and try to remove the kite.

b. Climb the post and try to clear the power line without touching it.
c. Call your barangay electrician and let him do the clearing.
d. Leave the kite, anyway it’s just a piece of plastic or paper.

19. Your fuse at home has “blown” up many times. Which of the following will you do to
solve this problem and prevent it from happening again?

a. Connect appliances in series instead of parallel.

b. Do not use too many appliances at the same time.
c. Plug two or three appliances in one outlet.
d. Connect an additional fuse to your circuit.

20. To save energy at home, which of the following should you do?

a. Use fluorescent lamp instead of incandescent lamps

b. Iron clothes once a week, not every now and then
c. Clean and defrost you refrigerator regularly
d. All of the above

Key to answers on page 27

25
Key to Answers

Pretest

1. a 6. c
2. c 7. c
3. c 8. c
4. b 9. a
5. d 10. b

Lesson 1

Self-Test 1.1
*Statements (1) and (3) are the correct ideas and statements (2) and (4) are incorrect
ideas.

Lesson 3

Self-Test 3.1

1. How many different circuits do you see in the household circuits diagram?
4 circuits

2. Are household circuits series circuits or parallel circuits?

parallel circuits

3. Explain what would happen if the circuits were the other kind.
All electrical devices would go off each time a light bulb burned out.

4. If the refrigerator in the diagram blew a fuse, what other appliance(s) would be
affected?
the clock

5. If the coffee maker blew a fuse, what other appliance(s) would be affected?
the electric can opener

6. What other appliances would be affected if the living room fan blew a fuse?
bedroom lamp; living room lamp; kitchen ceiling light

26
Lesson 5

Activity 5.1
Possible answers:

• Do not touch appliances with wet hands because water is a good conductor of
electricity
• Do not plug too many appliances in one outlet because this may cause
overloading
• Do not operate appliances in an open environment especially when the
weather is bad.
• Regulate the simultaneous use of appliances to avoid overloading
• Do not destroy electrical posts. Keep away from high-voltage areas
• Do not operate defective appliances because you may accidentally touch live
wires
• Do not use electrical appliances while you are in water because water
conducts electricity and you may get serious shock.

Post test
1. a 6. b 11. d 16. c
2. b 7. a 12. c 17. a
3. c 8. c 13. c 18. b
4. b 9. b 14. b 19. b
5. b 10. a 15. a 20. d

-End of Module-

References

Payawal, P. (1992). Discoverer science. Quezon City: Academe Publishing House

Salmorin, L. M. & Florido, B. (2003). Science and technology IV. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House Inc.

Beiser, A. (1991). Modern technical physics. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.

27
Module 8
Magnetism

What this module is about

Everybody is familiar with a toy magnet, that mysterious little U-shaped device that
picks up needles or pins and holds them indefinitely in what seems to be like magic. As a
child you probably played with small magnets. But magnet is far from being a mere toy. It is
an essential part of machines, tools and some measuring devices. You have heard of a
magnetic compass that helps navigators keep their course at sea. When you hold a phone
receiver to your ear, a magnet records the vibrations set up by the voice of the person
talking at the other end. Electric motors also contain magnets to function. Particle
accelerators like cyclotron contain thousand of magnets as well.

Electricity and magnetism cannot be separated. Magnetism plays an important role in

the study of electricity. Whenever electric current appears, there is magnetism. The
operation of many electrical devices such as radios, TV sets, motors and other devices
depends on the magnetic effects of electric current.

This module presents the discovery of magnetism and some of the fundamental
experiments and laws showing the relationship between electricity and magnetism. In
reading this module, you should pay attention to the nature of the force exerted on moving
charges by a magnetic field. In addition, you need to understand the way in which an
electric current produces a magnetic field. You will also learn how two important current-
carrying shapes of wire: a long straight wire and a circular loop or solenoid produce
magnetic field.

This module discusses the following topics:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Discovery of Magnetism

ƒ Lesson 2 - Magnets and Magnetic Field
ƒ Lesson 3 - Electromagnetism

Read this module and see the wonders of electricity and magnetism and their
contributions to the world of technology.

So, start and enjoy.

1
What you are expected to learn
After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. discuss the history of magnetism;

2. describe the different kinds of magnets and their properties;
3. list some uses of permanent magnets;
4. explain what is meant by magnetic field and how it is detected;
5. describe magnetic field;
6. show how magnetic fields and electric currents are related;
7. describe the way an electromagnet is made and the kind of magnetic field it
produces;
8. state the effect that a magnetic field has on electric current;
9. recognize the conditions under which a magnetic field can be used to produce
electric current;
10. explain how the interaction of magnetic fields produces movement in a motor;
11. illustrate the components of a typical household electrical circuit;
12. describe the functions of fuses and circuit breakers and tell how they work;
13. describe a generator and the way it produces electric energy; and
14. describe a transformer and explain how it works.

How to learn from this module

Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module:

1. Read and follow instructions carefully.

2. Answer the pretest in order to determine how much you know about the lessons in
this module.
3. Check your answers with the given answer key at the end of this module.
4. Read each lesson and do activities that are provided for you.
5. Perform all the activities diligently to help and guide you in understanding the
topic.
6. Take the self-tests after each lesson to determine how much you understood the
topic.
7. Answer the posttest to measure how much you have gained from the lessons.

2
What to do before (Pretest)

I. Choose the letter(s) of the BEST ANSWER. Write your answers on a separate sheet
of paper

1. The N pole of a compass needle points to the north magnetic pole of the earth
because that pole is
a. an S pole c. a large iron deposit
b. an N pole d. near the north geographic pole

2. If the poles of two magnets repel each other

a. both poles must be S poles.
b. both poles must be N poles.
c. one pole is an S and the other is an N.
d. both poles are of the same kind.

3. Magnetizing a piece of iron is a process by which

a. magnetic atoms are added to the iron.
b. magnetic lines of force are brought into line.
c. existing atomic magnets are brought into line.
d. each atom in the iron is converted into a magnet.

4. A magnetic field can make a compass needle turn because the field
a. attracts N poles.
b. is produced by a magnet.
c. comes from the center of the earth.
d. exerts forces on the atomic currents in the compass needle.

5. A primary solenoid connected to a battery is inside a secondary solenoid. It is not

possible to induce a current into the secondary coil by
a. turning the primary current off.
b. moving a core into the primary coil.
c. pulling the primary out of the secondary coil
d. running a steady current through the primary coil.

6. A magnet will attract a wire if

a. the wire is long.
b. the wire has a small mass.
c. the wire exerts an electric force.
d. the wire has current flowing through it.

3
7. The iron atom acts as a magnet because
a. it has an equal number of protons and electrons.
b. the electrons have a spinning motion.
c. the electrons have negative charge.
d. the neutrons have no charge.

8. A steel sewing needle can be made into a magnet by

a. banging it on a table.
b. soaking it in mercury.
c. placing it near a compass.
d. stroking it with a magnet in one direction only.

9. A piece of copper cannot be made into a magnet because

a. copper cannot be charged.
b. the domains are already aligned.
c. the copper atoms have no charge.
d. electrons spinning in opposite directions in copper cancel each other.

10. To increase the strength of an electromagnet,

a. increase the current in the coil.
b. add an iron center in the coil.
c. increase the number of loops in the wire.
d. all of the above

11. If a magnet is brought near a magnet suspended on a string, the

a. N poles attract each other.
b. N poles attract the S poles.
c. S poles attract each other.
d. N poles repel the S poles.

12. A device that turns electric energy into sound energy is

a. a speaker . b. a generator.
c. a VCD player. d. a transformer.

13. Substances that are slightly attracted by strong magnets are said to be
a. diamagnetic. b. ferromagnetic.
c. paramagnetic. d. none of these.

14. The lines of force of unlike poles placed near each other
a. curve away from each other.
b. connect the poles.
c. cancel each other.
d. none of these.

4
15. The scientist who discovered that an electric current can affect the action of a
magnetic needle was
a. Ampere.
b. Oersted.
c. Faraday.
d. Gilbert.

II. Complete each statement by supplying the correct term or phrase.

1. The N pole of a magnet will be attracted to the _____ pole of another magnet.
2. Alloys and ceramics are used to make _______magnets.
3. The S pole of the earth’s magnetic field is located in ________.
4. Many magnetic lines of force go into a magnet at its ________.
5. A suspended solenoid will rotate until it is lined up with the earth’s ______.
6. Regions containing groups of atoms that act like small magnets are called
_________.
7. The relationship and interaction between electricity and magnetism is called
___________.
8. Like poles of magnets ________each other.
9. ______ are objects that attract material containing iron and they always face the
same direction when moving freely.
10. Natural magnets are made of iron ore called ________.

Key to answers on page 32

Lesson 1 Discovery of Magnetism

Have you ever used a compass to find a direction? If you have, you are doing
something that was first done by the Chinese in the twelfth century. Historians believe that
the Chinese were the first to build compasses to help them navigate. They made use of a
property of certain materials that had been discovered centuries before – magnetism.

To know more about the discovery of magnetism, do this activity.

5
What you will do
Activity 1.1

Read the history of magnetism and answer the questions after the selection:

MAGNETS: KNOWN SINCE ANTIQUITY

Magnetism, the natural force that causes magnets to function as they do, became
known to people many centuries ago. They knew that the black metallic ore are called
loadstone. It has the property of drawing particles of iron to it.

The Greek philosopher named Thales, who

lived during the sixth century B.C., is said to have
been the first to observe this property. After his
time, the lodestone was often mentioned in ancient
writings. It was given the name “magnet” after
Magnesia, a district in the Asia Minor where large
magnetic deposits are found. Years later, they
found out that the thing they called magnet does
not only attract iron rings but also attract other rings
suspended from one another forming a long chain.
Pins, needles and nails are
attracted to the lodestone The Roman Lucretius, who lived in the first
century B.B., tried to explain magnetism in terms of
his atomic theory.

There are many legendary accounts of the properties of magnet. The Arabian Nights
contains the story of ship that approached an island made of magnetic rock. The ship fell
completely to pieces because all the iron nails were pulled out of it through the attraction of
the rock.

Another tale was based on the story of a shepherd named Magnes. One day when
he was tending his flock of sheep on the slopes of Mount Ida in Asia Minor, he noticed that
the iron tip of his staff was being pulled toward the ground. He dug up the ground and found
out that the large deposit of lodestone was attracting his staff. Thereafter the lodestone was
called magnet in honor of the shepherd who had discovered it, and later was called
magnetite. Scholars have pointed out that this story originated long after the word “magnet”
was commonly used.

6
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1

Test your understanding by completing the blanks.

1. The black metallic ore that has the property of attracting pieces of iron are called
_____________.
2. The natural force of attracting pieces of iron is called ___________.
3. The word magnet was believed to have been derived from the name of a shepherd
named ______________.
4. Lodestone was later called ____________ for its magnetic property.
5. _________ was a Greek philosopher who first discovered the magnetic property of
lodestone.

Key to answers on page 32

Lesson 2 Magnets and Magnetic Fields

In the course of the centuries, much of the mystery that once surrounded magnetism
has been dispelled. Today, the lodestone or the natural magnet is no longer familiar in the
study of magnetism because practically all magnets nowadays are artificial. This lesson
dicusses the different types of magnets, their properties and magnetic fields.

A. Magnetic Substances

A substance that possesses magnetic properties is

a magnet. It attracts iron and faces the same direction
when moving freely. All materials have the property of
being attracted or repelled. Substances like iron and steel
are strongly attracted to magnets. These substances are
called ferromagnetic. Nickel and cobalt are also
ferromagnetic. These materials are often called magnetic
materials.
Some substances, such as wood, aluminum,
platinum and oxygen, are just slightly attracted by strong
magnets. These substances are called paramagnetic. Substances that are slightly repelled
by magnets are diamagnetic. Table salt, mercury, zinc and gold are diamagnetic
substances.

7
Substances that are already magnetized
are called magnetite. These are called
natural or permanent magnets. Lodestones
are permanent magnets. Materials that can
be made into magnets are called artificial magnets.
Artificial magnets are made by induced magnetism.
This is done by stroking ferromagnetic materials
in the same direction several times with a magnet.
This process is called magnetization. ALNICO
magnet is permanent magnet containing aluminum,
nickel and cobalt. Temporary magnets are those
of soft iron that are easy to magnetize and loses
their magnetic property very easily. Electromagnet is an example of temporary magnet. It is
a magnet that can be switched on and off. It is used to lift heavy objects in industrial sites
and forwarding businesses. Permanet magnets are used in radio speakers, audio-video
devices and other electrical appliances.

What you will do

Activity 2.1 Making an artificial magnet by induced magnetism

Problem: How to make an artificial magnet

Materials: screw driver,

magnet (circular magnet from defective radio speaker)
pins, clips and nails

Procedure:
1. Gather all the materials needed.
2. Stroke the end of a screwdriver with the magnet. (Do it in one direction
only)
3. Place the screwdriver near pieces of paper clips, pins or nails. Observe
what happens. ___________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Key to answers on page 32

8
B. Magnets and Magnetic Forces

Look at the pictures above. The areas of greatest magnetic force are called magnetic poles.
Every magnet has two poles. You cannot produce a magnet with only one pole.

The end of the magnet that points north is called the north magnetic pole, (N pole),
and the end that points south is the south magnetic pole, (S pole).

What you will do

Activity 2.2

The diagram below illustrates a bar magnet that is suspended by a string. Another
bar magnet is brought near it. Study the arrows in the diagram and answer the questions
below.

The N pole of a The S pole of a The S pole of a The N pole of a

magnet is brought magnet is brought magnet is brought magnet is brought
near the S pole of near the S pole of near the N pole of near the N pole of
the suspended the suspended the suspended the suspended
magnet magnet magnet magnet

9
Answer the following questions:

1. What happens to the suspended magnet when the S pole of the other magnet is
brought near its N pole?
____________________________________________________________________

2. What happens to the suspended magnet when the N pole of the other magnet is
brought near its N pole?
____________________________________________________________________

3. What happens to the suspended magnet when the N pole of the other magnet is
brought near its S pole?
____________________________________________________________________

4. What happens to the suspended magnet when the S pole of the other magnet is
brought near its S pole?
____________________________________________________________________

Key to answers on page 32

Rules of Magnets

You’re right in your observations regarding the magnets. The diagrams below
illustrate the rules of magnets. Refer to the diagrams below:

Like poles repel. Opposite poles attract.

10
Uses of Magnets

There are also five elements that can be made into magnets: iron, cobalt, nickel,
aluminum, gadolimium and dysprosium. None of these elements can be magnetized
permanently. To make a permanent magnet, you need an alloy. An alloy is a mixture of two
or more metals. The classic material for making a permanent magnet is steel, an alloy of
carbon and iron. The best material for permanent magnet is magnequench, which was
invented in 1985. This material is mostly iron, with a little neodynmium and boron added.

Ships use compasses to find the correct course through vast areas of oceans where
no land is in sight. A ship’s compass is a permanent magnet attached to a card marked in
degrees that floats in alcohol.

Magnets are made in many sizes and shapes. There are several magnets hidden in
your home. Electric clocks, motors, stereos, loudspeakers and television sets all contain
magnets. One magnet that is easy to find is the magnet found on the door of your
refrigerator.

C. Magnetic Domains, Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Lines of Force

Most materials cannot be magnetized. Iron and a few other materials such as steel,
nickel and cobalt can be magnetized. These materials have regions called magnetic
domains. Magnetic domains, which are clusters of many atoms, can be thought of as tiny
magnets.
Substances that can be magnetized can be
thought of as consisting of many tiny
magnets. How does the arrangement of the
“tiny magnets” differ between the
unmagnetized and magnetized substances?

Look at this!

BEFORE: When the material is unmagnetized, the

domains are not lined up in a definite way. They
are randomly arranged.

AFTER: When the material is magnetized, the

domains line up in a definite pattern. All the north
poles point in one direction, and the south poles in
the other.

11
So, if you cut a magnet in half, the cut ends
become poles. You then have two similar
magnets, each with an N pole and an S pole.
Breaking a magnet does not greatly affect
the alignment of domains in the pieces, so
each piece is still a magnet.

The closer you bring two magnets together, the stronger the force between them
becomes. Move them apart and the force gets weaker. If you move them apart farther, you
will eventually feel no force. The force changes strength as you move within the magnet’s
magnetic field. A magnetic field is the space around a magnet in which its force affects
objects. A good picture of a magnetic field can be made by sprinkling iron filings around a
magnet. (See figure below.)

What you will do

Activity 2.3 Drawing Magnetic Lines of Force

Materials:
bar magnet (2)
iron filings
plain sheet of paper

Procedure:

1. Place two bar magnets flat on the table with the N poles about 2 cm apart.
2. Cover the magnets with a thin sheet of plain paper.
3. Sprinkle the iron filings on the paper gently until the filings line up.
4. Make a sketch showing how the magnetic lines of force are arranged.
5. Where is the magnetic field strongest?

12
If the materials are not available at home, refer to the following figures:

Figure A: Figure B:

1. Trace the path of the iron filings in each figure.

2. What do you observe?______________________________________

Discussion:

The magnetic field changes the filings into little magnets that attract one another. This
makes the filings form long and thin chains. The chains line up in the shape of the magnetic
field.

Analysis:

Figure A shows the magnetic field around a

bar magnet. The arrowheads show the
direction of the magnetic lines of force,
which come out of the N pole and enter the
S pole. The concentration of lines of force
at the poles shows that the field is strongest
there.
Fig. A: Bar Magnet
Figure B shows the magnetic field around a
U-shaped magnet. The shape crowds the
lines of force together in between the two
poles. This means that the magnetic force
between the poles becomes very strong.
This is also the reason why a horseshoe
magnet can lift greater weights than a bar
magnet.
Fig. B: U-shaped magnet

13
In studying magnets in 1820s, Michael
Faraday described magnetic fields
through magnetic lines of force (Fig.
C)

Magnetic lines of force never overlap

even when the poles of the two
(a) (b) magnets are brought close to one
another.

Fig. C: Magnetic Lines of Force

(a) between two unlike poles
(b) between like poles

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1

Arrange the jumbled letters to form the word(s), that best fits the statement.

1. Natural magnets COILAN

2. Clusters of many atoms that act as tiny magnets in a material MAINODS
3. A region around a magnet SFILEDGENAMICT
4. Imaginary lines that represent magnetic field SLIENSOFGENTMICFOECR
5. Materials that are strongly attracted to magnet GENTAMICORREF
6. Materials that are repelled by magnet GENTAMICIAD
7. Materials that are slightly attracted by magnet GENTAMICARAP
8. A substance that possesses magnetic properties NETGAM
9. Iron and other elements can become strongly magnetized NETGAMITAZIONT
10. A magnet has two SLOPES

Key to answers on page 33

14
Lesson 3 Electromagnetism

What did you do today? Did you listen to a recorder? Did you use or hear a motor at
work in a mixer, blender, refrigerator, washing machine, hair dryer, fan, and vacuum
cleaner? Did you hear a buzzer or doorbell sound? What about a cellular phone?

If you saw or heard these devices or machines, you observed the combined effects of
electricity and magnetism at work. Scientists learned how to use the relationship between
electricity and magnetism to produce electric currents and to make machines that would
make these devices function. These scientists and inventors have made amazing changes
in the way you live.

Read this lesson and you will appreciate the convenience of life because of electricity
and magnetism.

A. Electricity Makes Magnetism

On the morning of February 16, 1820, an important

discovery was made by accident. Professor Hans Christian
Oersted in Denmark was giving a lecture on electricity to his
students. He closed a switch to demonstrate the flow of
current. There happened to be a compass nearby. Every time
the professor closed the switch, the compass needle turned.
Oersted had discovered that an electric current is surrounded
by a magnetic field.

Hans Christian Oersted

His discovery made him conclude that a current-

carrying wire produces a magnetic field. This led to
the principle of electromagnet.
An electromagnet is a magnet that can be switched
on and off. It is a solenoid with a core. The strength of
an electromagnet can be made stronger
by increasing
the number of
turns on the core.

15
B. Magnetic Field and Electric Current

Shortly after Oersted’s discovery that electricity produces magnetic field, scientists
experimented with the opposite possibility. In 1831, Michael Faraday, an English scientist,
discovered that a moving wire through a magnetic field could cause an electric current. At
about the same time, an American scientist named Joseph Henry made a similar
discovery. A current produced by a magnetic field is an induced current.

What you will do

Activity 3.1 Make your own electromagnet

Materials: Large nail, copper wire, dry cell and paper clips

Procedure:

1. Gather all the materials needed.

2. Wrap the copper wire around the large nail.
3. Connect the free ends of the wire to a dry cell.
4. Place the iron nail coil near pieces of nail, paper clips and
pins.
5. Observe what happens.
______________________________
6. Disconnect the wire from the dry cell. What happens? ________________

Key to answers on page 33

16
What you will do
Activity 3.2 Diagram Analysis

The set up shows a wire that is bent and the ends were attached to a galvanometer.

Diagram A

Diagram B

In diagram A, the coil is moved down the space between the north and south poles (see
arrow) of the two magnets. What happens to the galvanometer needle?
_________________________________________________________________________

In diagram B, the coil is moved up the space between the north and south poles (see arrow)
of the two magnets. What happens to the galvanometer
needle?__________________________________________________________________

If a galvanometer is an instrument used to measure very small electric currents, what is

produced by the coil of wire inserted between the poles of the magnet?
_________________________________________________________________________

Discussion

This experiment showed that electricity is produced in a wire as it moves through a

magnetic field. It also shows that the direction in which the coil moves affects the direction of
the current. The conducting material like the coil cuts the magnetic lines of force that
produce electric current.

If we moved the magnet in and out of the magnetic field, is there a current
produced? Yes, the effect is the same, but if the magnet does not move, no current is
produced, because no magnetic lines of force exist.

Key to answers on page 33

17
Michael Faraday concluded that when a wire is moved
through a magnetic field, a current is generated in the
wire. This process of generating current by the relative
motion between a wire and magnetic field is called
electromagnetic induction.

Michael Faraday

Applications of Electromagnetic Induction

What is the difference between the generator and a motor?

1. What is a generator?

A generator operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction. A generator is a

device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. It consists of a u-shaped
magnet that produces magnetic field, and insulated loop of wire. The wire loop is attached to
a power source placed between the magnetic poles. The power source slowly begins to
rotate the wire clockwise. As the wire loop moves, it cuts through the magnetic lines of force
that induce current. As the rotation of the wire loop continues, it moves parallel to the
magnetic lines of force. When the wire is in this position, no lines of force are cut, therefore,
there is no electricity. As it moves further clockwise, the lines of force are cut again
producing electricity. The alternate movement of the wire causes alternating current. A
rectifier changes alternating current into direct current.

MAGNET

COIL

COMMUTATOR

SHAFT
BRUSHES

18
A moving loop cuts through a magnetic field, which generates current in the wire.

Types of Generators

• An a.c. generator is a rotating loop in a magnetic field which generates current that
fluctuates in value and changes direction every half-rotation of the loop. The current
produced is called alternating current (a.c.).
• A simple d.c. generator is a rotating loop in a magnetic field which generates current that
fluctuates in value but does not change direction.
• The only difference between the simple a.c. and simple d.c. generator is the commutator
used. An a.c. generator makes use of two slip rings while a d.c. generator makes use of
a split ring commutator.

2. What is a motor?

One of the most important uses of electromagnetism is in the electric motor. An

electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. A
motor contains a movable electromagnet. If an alternating current is supplied to the
electromagnet, its poles are reversed. Where it was once attracted by the opposite pole of
fixed magnet, it will next be repelled. This process is repeated many times each second.

There are many

types of electric
motors. Each is
designed for a
particular purpose
or use. They all
operate on the
principle of
electromagnetism.

19
3. What is a transformer?

The alternating current through power lines is at an extremely high voltage. Before
alternating current from the power plant can enter your home, its voltage must be
decreased. The current must flow through a device called a transformer to decrease the
voltage. The transformer regulates the voltage that enters the system. The operation of a
transformer operates on the principle of both electromagnetism and electromagnetic
induction.

A simple transformer is made of two coils of wire called the primary and the
secondary coils. These coils are wrapped around an iron core. As an alternating current
passes through the primary coil, the iron core becomes an electromagnet. Because the
current changes direction many times each second, the magnetic field also changes its
direction and induces an alternating current in the secondary coil.

Schematic Diagram of the Parts of a Transformer

What you will do

Activity 3.3 Diagram Analysis

Examine the pictures of the two types of transformers, the step up and the step down
transformers. Differentiate a step-up transformer and the step-down transformer in terms of
the number of turns in the coil.

20
Step-up Transformer Step-down Transformer

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

You’re right! The number of turns in the iron core determines the type of transformer. In a
step-up transformer, the number of turns in the primary core is less than in the secondary
coil, while in the step-down transformer, the number of turns in the primary core is greater
than in the secondary coil. A step-up transformer increases the voltage while a step-down
transformer decreases the voltage.

What will you do?

You want to use the appliance that was given to you by your Japanese friend. It is
said that its voltage is 100 volts. What will you do? Why?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Key to answers on page 33

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1

Match the phrase in COLUMN A with the term being described in COLUMN B

COLUMN A COLUMN B

1. a small region in a piece of iron where a. electromagnetism

atomic magnetic line up in the same direction b. armature
2. ends of bar magnet c. circuit breaker
3. rotating coil in an electric motor d. commutator
4. a device that converts mechanical energy e. electromagnet
into electric energy f. electromagnetic
5. a device that converts electrical energy into induction
mechanical energy g. generator
6. the production of current in a wire that h. magnetic domain

21
is moving across a magnetic field i. magnetic field
7. a device that regulates or controls the flow of j. rectifier
current k. transformer
8. current that reverses the direction of flow l. magnetic
9. increase the voltage supply m. transistor
10. measures small amounts of electric current n. temporary magnetism
11. a property of some materials in which there o. motor
is a force of repulsion or attraction between p. magnetic poles
like or unlike poles q. generator
12. a temporary magnet made of a wire coil r. galvanometer
through which an electric current passes s. alternating current
13. current that flows in only one direction t. direct current
14. the branch of physical science that involves u. step down transformer
the combined effects of electricity and v. step-up transformer
magnetism
15. induced magnetism
Key to answers on page 33

Lesson 4 Electricity at Home

Human lifestyles have changed. Years ago, most people thought of electricity as little
more than a curiosity for amusing people. To many scientists, however, it was a
phenomenon to be studied in the laboratory. Today giant towers across the country carry
electricity to every corner of the land. Electricity has become indispensable to our way of life.

Look around your home. You will find electric outlets in nearly every wall. This is
where electrical appliances are plugged in order to function. You use electricity in many
ways.

Read this lesson and see how important electricity is in our daily life.

A. Household Circuits

When a house is built, an electrician must install electric outlets, wall switches,
fuses, and circuit breakers. All of these devices must be connected by wires inside
the walls. In one kind of installation, the wirings in the walls consist of plastic-
insulated cable. This type of cable is a group of three wires enclosed in a plastic
casing. One wire, insulated with its own black cover, is the “hot” wire. This carries the
alternating current to the outlet of 220 volts. Caution: DON’T TOUCH THIS WIRE!
When touched, it would produce a potential difference of 220 volts that would be

22
very dangerous. This could send enough current through your body to stop your
heart from beating. The white insulated wire has no potential but it carries the AC
(alternating current) back out of the appliances and it might be dangerous to touch.
The third wire has no insulation. This wire is connected directly to the ground and it
carries no current. This wire is a safety feature.

BLACK “HOT”WIRE

THIRD WIRE
WHITE WIRE –
(grounding)
Electric Cable

The electric cable is used to carry electric current to

homes and other buildings. The electric outlet, the figure at
the left side, is where you insert a plug. The flat prongs are
connected to the black and white wires of the cable inside
the wall. Current flows in one prong, through the appliance,
and back into the wall through the other prong. The
potential difference between the prongs causes current to
flow, delivering energy to the appliance.

The round outlet is a provision for the round prong

Electric Outlet that serves as the ground wire. If you live in an older type of
house, the outlets may not have the grounding terminals.

B. Short Circuits

The 220-volt “hot” wire is very dangerous. Worn insulation or a poor

connection can create a short circuit. A short circuit is any accidental connection that
allows the current to go directly to the ground instead of passing through an
appliance. A 220-volt potential difference can provide any enormous current if there is
no appliance in the circuit to provide resistance. A short circuit can cause wires to
carry more current than they were designed to carry. The wires can overheat and
cause fires.

In modern homes, the ground wire in the cable protects people against short
circuits. The metal shell of an appliance is connected to the ground wire through the
round, third terminal of the plug. If the “hot” wire touches the shell, the current goes
directly to the ground through this lowest –resistance path. If you touch the shell of
the grounded appliance, very little of the current will go through your body.
Appliances that have plastic shell insulate the user from the current. Such appliances
do not need to be connected to the ground.

23
C. Overloads

Have you ever plugged several appliances into the same outlet? If you have,
you may have overloaded the circuit. Wires may contain too much current when they
are overloaded. An overload may cause the circuit to heat up and melt the wires,
much as a short circuit would. Often, this kind of overload occurs in the kitchen. For
this reason, kitchens are usually wired with thicker wires that carry more current
without over heating. Why are kitchens likely places for circuit overload?

D. Protecting the Circuits

What you will do

Activity 4.1 Locating and Examining a Fuse Box

Have a parent or an adult help you locate and examine the fuse box or circuit breaker
in your home. Answer the following questions:

1. Describe the appearance of the fuse.

2. How are these fuses rated?
3. How many are rated 15 Ampere, 30 Ampere and 60 Ampere?
4. If you have a circuit breaker at home, describe the set-up.

Key to answers on page 34

Read this!

To prevent wire from overheating, circuits are protected against overloads and short
circuits. This protection is often provided by a fuse. A fuse is a device containing a short
strip of metal with a low melting point. If too much current passes through the metal, it melts,
or “blows”, and breaks the circuit. This is your signal to find and correct the overload and to
replace the fuse.

Another device that protects circuit from

overloads is a circuit breaker. One type of circuit
breaker is a switch attached to a bimetallic strip of
FUSE BOX
metal. When the metal gets hot, it bends, which
opens, or “trips”, the circuit. This action does not
harm the circuit breaker. After the problem has
been corrected, the circuit breaker can be reset.

Circuit Breaker

24
E. Power Transmission

Thousands of powerful generators across the country produce electricity for

use in houses and businesses. This energy is fed through a network of transmission
lines called power grid.

All these generators supplying you with electricity work on the basis of
Faraday’s law of induction.

Let’s recall:

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states

that current can be induced in a loop by changing
magnetic field that is passing through the loop.

A power plant like an electric lamp works in

the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When a loop of wire spin within a magnetic
field, current is induced in the wire.

What you will do

Activity 4.2

Read the comic strips below. Answer the following questions:

1. How is power distributed from the power plant to the consumer?

2. Why is power transmitted at high voltage and low current through long distance?
3. To decrease power loss, transmission lines must have low resistance. What materials
are used as transmission lines?
4. Transmission lines are large diameter wires made of several stranded thinner wires.
Why are they made this way?

25
Source: Conceptual Physics by Paul Hewitt

Key to answers on page 34

This common sight is a transformer. This transformer

lowers the voltage of electric current from power plants
of about 30,0000 volts to 220 volts that are received in
your houses.

Large white ceramic insulators prevent high

voltage from arching to the ground.

26
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1

Match the function in COLUMN A with the parts in COLUMN B

COLUMN A COLUMN B

1. part of a transformer A. electromagnet

2. prevents short circuiting B. primary coil
3. voltage transmitted to houses C. magnetic fields
4. used as ground wire D. black wire
5. Increases voltage E. magnetic north
6. decreases voltage F. step-up transformer
7. wire that supplies the voltage G. 220 volts
8. network of transmission lines H. step-down transformer
9. assembly of fuse in a fuse box I. white wire
that help avoid overloading J. magnetic poles
10.ends of a bar magnet K. circuit breaker
L. fuse
M. power grid

Key to answers on page 34

Let’s summarize

1. Magnets are objects that attract materials containing iron and that always face the
same direction when moving freely

2. Natural magnets are made of an iron ore called magnetite, or lodestone. They are
permanent magnets. Artificial magnets, which are made by induced magnetism, are
either permanent or temporary, depending upon the material they are made of.
Materials such as iron that are strongly attracted by magnets are called ferromagnetic
substances. Paramagnetic substances are only slightly attracted by magnets.
Diamagnetic substances are slightly repelled by magnets.

3. Magnetic lines of force indicate the presence and strength of magnetic force field.
They extend from the magnetic north pole to the magnetic South Pole. Like poles of

27
magnet repel, unlike poles attract. The cause of magnetism is explained by the idea
of magnetic domains.

4. Magnetic and electric fields may induce one another. Coiling a conductor around an
iron core makes electromagnets.

5. Motors used electromagnetism to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.

6. Transformers and generators are based on electromagnetic induction. A conductor

cutting magnetic lines of force induces a current. A step-up transformer increases the
voltage. A step-down transformer decreases the voltage.

7. Generators used electromagnetism to convert mechanical energy into electrical

energy.

8. A coil of wire with a current through it is an electromagnet that reverses when the
current reverses direction. Alternating current and direct current are two types of
current.

9. A fuse and a circuit breaker are two devices that protect household circuits.

10. Most electronic devices run on direct current. Rectifiers change alternating current
into direct current.

11. In all power plants, a large generator is connected to a turbine through a drive shaft.
As the turbine rotates, it brings the generator with it, which generates electrical
energy. Electrical energy from the power plant is transmitted at high voltage and low
current to minimize power losses. Step-up transformers raise output voltage from
generators before transmission.

12. Electrical energy distribution begins at the first substation where the transmission
voltage is initially reduced. At subsequent substations, voltage is further cut down.
The final reduction of the voltage to 220 volts occurs at distribution transformers
found on electric poles. From there, power is brought to houses through service
wires.

28
Posttest

I. Encircle the letter of the BEST ANSWER.

1. Materials that are strongly attracted to magnets are

a. diamagnetic
b. ferromagnetic
c. paramagnetic
d. All of the above

2. According to Michael Faraday,

a. magnetic field produces current
b. current produces magnetic field
c. current is always present in a magnetic field
d. wire carrying current produces magnetic field

3. How do you weaken a magnet?

a. By heating it
b. By banging it on a table
c. By soaking it on a mercury
d. By placing it near a compass

4. A piece of copper cannot be made into a magnet because

a. copper cannot be charged.
b. copper atoms have no charge.
c. the domains are already aligned.
d. electrons spinning in opposite direction in copper cancel each other.

5. To decrease the strength of an electromagnet

a. add iron center to the coil.
b. decrease the number of loops of wire in the coil.
c. increase the number of loops of wire in the coil.
d. All of the above

6. If the N pole of a magnet is brought near a magnet suspended on a string, the

a. N poles attract each other
b. N poles attract the S poles
c. S poles attract each other
d. N poles repel the S poles

29
7. In sending electric energy over long distance, the main cause of energy
loss is
a. the use of transformer.
b. the size of the wires.
c. the high current.
d. the use of direct current.

8. A material that allows the electromagnet in a motor to move is the

a. amplifier. c. commutator.
b. armature. d. semiconductor.

9. A device that turns electric energy into a sound energy is

a. a speaker. c. a CRT.
b. a transformer. d. generator.

10. A material that is slightly repelled by a magnet is called

a. diamagnetic. b. ferromagnetic.
c. paramagnetic. d. all of these

11. In a magnet the regions of greatest magnetic force are the

a. magnetic domains. b. magnetic poles.
c. lodestones . d. magnetic field.

12. A compass needle points to the ________ pole.

a. magnetic b. geographic c. closer d. at any point

13. Clusters of many atoms that can be thought of as tiny magnets are
a. insulators. c. magnetic poles.
b. magnetic domains. d. geographic poles.

14. In a household electric circuit, a short circuit occurs when

a. two hot wires touch.
b. a hot wire is grounded.
c. a fuse blows or a circuit breaker trips the circuit.
d. a ground wire touches the metal shell of an appliance.

15. High potentials are used in long-distance transmission of electricity because

a. they are safer to use.
b. there is no other way to make current flow.
c. there is less loss of power when currents are small.
d. generators produce high potentials with greater efficiency.

30
II. Match column A with column B

COLUMN A COLUMN B

1. the combined effects of electricity and a. electromagnetic induction

magnetism b. magnetic poles
2. A magnet in which magnetism is produced c. battery
by an electric current
3. The creation of a current by a changing d. electromagnetism
magnetic field
4. A machine that changes kinetic energy into e. electric motor
electric energy f. electromagnet
5. A machine that changes electric energy g. electric generator
into kinetic energy h. voltage
6. A device that increases or decreases voltage i. Transformer
7. Tiny permanent magnets j. magnetism
8. Magnets made from alloys of aluminum, k magnequench
cobalt and nickel l. magnetic field
9. Region in the space around a magnet in m. temporary magnetism
which a magnetic force acts on other n. magnetic lines of force
magnet brought into the region o. magnetites
10. magnet made mostly of iron, with little p .permanent magnets
neodynmium and boron q. alnico magnet

Key to answers on page 21

31
Key to Answers

Pre-Test
I. 1. d 6. d 11. b
2. a, b, d 7. b 12. a
3. c 8. d 13. c
4. b 9. d 14. b
5. b 10. d 15. b

II. 1. South 6. domains

2. permanent 7. electromagnetism
3. south-seeking pole 8. repel
4. poles 9. ferromagnetic
5. magnetic field 10. lodestone

Lesson 1

Self-Test 1.1
1. lodestone
2. magnetic
3. Magnes
4. magnet
5. Thales

Lesson 2

Possible answers to:

Activity 2.1a:

3. The paper clips were attracted to the screw driver

Activity 2.2
1. The S pole of the suspended magnet is attracted to the N pole of the other
magnet
2. The N pole of the suspended magnet repelled the N pole of the magnet
3. The N pole of the suspended magnet was attracted to the S pole of the
other magnet
4. The S pole of the other magnet repelled the S pole of the suspended
magnet.

32
Self-Test 2.1:
1. ALNICO
2. DOMAINS
3. MAGNETIC FIELD
4. MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE
5. FERROMAGNETIC
6. DIAMAGNETIC
7. PARAMGANETIC
8. MAGNET
9. MAGNETIZATION
10. POLES

Lesson 3

Possible answers to Activity 3.1

1. The iron nails, paper clips and pins were attracted to the iron coil when the
circuit is connected to the dry cell.
2. The iron nails, paper clips and pins dropped when the circuit is
disconnected to the dry cell.

Possible answers to Activity 3.2

In diagram A, the pointer of the galvanometer deflected to the right

In diagram B, the pointer of the galvanometer deflected to the left
There is current when the magnet in placed in between the poles of the magnet.

What you will do?

Use a step-up transformer. Because the output here in the Philippines is 220 volts.
So, to make the voltage 220, a step-up transformer is needed.

Self-Test 3.1
1. h 6. f 11. l
2. p 7. k 12. e
3. b 8. s 13. t
4. q 9. u 14. a
5. o 10. r 15. n

33
Lesson 4

The answers to ACTIVITY 4.1 are in the discussion.

Possible answers to Activity 4.2

1. Electric power is transmitted and distributed at high voltage and low current from the
power plant to the consumer through transmission lines.
2. Output voltage from generators is first increased through step up transformer at the
power plant before the electric power is transmitted. The voltage of the electric power
is reduced to a value suited to the consumer’s needs. Transformers are used to step
up and step down the voltage in substation.)
3. Electric power is transmitted at high voltage and low current to minimize power loses.
Copper wires are used as transmission lines.
4. The transmission lines need to be big diameter wires because they carry large
current. But big solid wires are difficult to handle. Hence, thinner wires are stranded
to have flexible strong diameter wires.)

Self-Test 4.1

1. B 5. F 9. K
2. L 6. H 10. J
3. G 7. D
4. I 8. M

Posttest

I. Multiple Choice
1. b 6. b 11. b
2. d 7. b 12. b
3. c 8. c 13. b
4. d 9. a 14. a
5. b 10. a 15. c

II. Matching Type:

1. d
2. f
3. a
4. g
5. e
6. i
7. o
8. q
9. b
10. k

34
-End of Module-

References

Murphy & Smooth, (1998). Physics principles and problems, Toronto, Canada: Charles E. Merill Publishing Co.

Eby & Horton, (1986). Physical science, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company

Jones & Childers, (1992). Contemporary college physics, 2nd Ed, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company

Paul Hewitt, (1998). Conceptual physics, CA: Saunders Publishing

35
Module 9
Going Places

What this module is about

Loops and roller coasters are very interesting rides. Have

you ever tried one? Did you experience the sudden jerks and
lurks? And what about the sudden turn around the loops? Aren’t
they amazing? We never fall off our seats! That’s Physics.

Physics is a very interesting course. It is usually

described as the study of matter and energy, which includes
several branches such as mechanics, thermodynamics,
electricity and magnetism, waves and optics, and relativity and
atomic physics. Mechanics includes the concepts about motion
and its causes. Kinematics is said to be the quantitative
description of the motion of the objects. Dynamics, on the other
hand, includes concepts about the causes of motion. Mechanics
provides explanations of many phenomena such as the motion of
skydivers, the parachutes, and why we jerk when the vehicle suddenly stops.

In this module you will learn many things about Physics particularly about motion.
This module includes four (4) lessons such as:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Describing Motion

ƒ Lesson 2 - Linear Motion
ƒ Lesson 3 - Curvilinear Motion
ƒ Lesson 4 - Physics and Transportation

Read, enjoy, and discover the secrets of Physics!

What you are expected to learn

After going through the module, you are expected to:

1. define the fundamental principles of mechanics, specifically motion;

2. apply the concepts and principles in mechanics to practical situations and
problems;

1
3. trace the development in transportation facilities from the animal-driven to engine-
powered vehicles.
4. solve problems in a logical and organized manner; and,
5. develop appreciation of physics.

How to learn from this module

Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module.

1. Read and follow the instructions very carefully.

2. Take the pretest. It is a simple multiple-choice test provided at the start to
determine how much you know about the content of this module.
3. Check your answers against the correct answers provided at the last page of the
module.
4. Be very honest in taking the test so you know how much knowledge you already
have about the topic.
5. Read the different lessons about the earth, sun and moon.
6. Perform all the activities, as these will help you have a better understanding of the
topic.
7. Take the self-tests at the end of each lesson to determine how much you
remember about the lesson.
8. Finally, take the posttest at the end of this module.

Good Luck and have fun!

What to do before (Pretest)

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. When you look at the speedometer in a moving car, you can see the car’s ________.
a. average speed
b. average acceleration
c. instantaneous speed
d. instantaneous acceleration

2. Suppose you are in a car that is going around a curve. The speedometer reads a
constant 30 km/h. Which of the following is NOT true?
a. Your speed is constant
b. Your velocity is constant
c. You and the car are accelerating.

2
3. A ball is thrown straight up. At the top of its path its acceleration is ______________.
a. 0 m/s2
b. about 5 m/s2
c. about 10 m/s2
d. about 20 m/s2

4. If you drop a feather and a coin at the same time in a tube filled with air, which will
reach the bottom of the tube first?
a. The coin
b. The feather
c. Neither – they will both reach the bottom at the same time.

5. At what part of a path does a projectile have minimum speed?

a. when it is thrown
b. half-way to the top
c. at the top of its path
d. when it returns to the ground

6. A ball is thrown straight up. What is its acceleration before it strikes the ground?
a. 0 m/s2
b. about 5 m/s2
c. about 10 m/s2
d. about 20 m/s2

7. A ball is thrown straight up. After 2 seconds what is the acceleration of the ball?
a. 0 m/s2
b. about 5 m/s2
c. about 10 m/s2
d. about 20 m/s2

8. In the absence of air friction, the vertical component of a projectile’s velocity doesn’t
change as the projectile moves.
a. always true
b. always false
c. sometimes true

9. If a freely falling object were somehow equipped with an speedometer, by how much
would its speed reading would increase each second?
a. about 5 m/s
b. about 10 m/s
c. about 15 m/s
d. A variable amount

10. A ball is thrown vertically upward. What is its velocity at the top of its path?
a. 0
b. 5 m/s

3
c. 10 m/s
d. 10 m/s2

11. A ball is thrown vertically upward. What is its acceleration at its maximum height?
a. 0
b. 5 m/s
c. 10 m/s
d. 10 m/s2

12. A ball is thrown vertically upward. What is its acceleration after about 1 second?
a. 0
b. 5 m/s
c. 10 m/s
d. 10 m/s2

13. A ball is thrown vertically upward, with an initial velocity of 50 m/s and caught back at
the same level as when it was thrown. What is the velocity of the ball at that point?
a. 50 m/s
b. 50 m/s, downward
c. 9.8 m/s
d. 9.8 m/s2

14. What force is exerted on the ball at the top of its path?
a. 9.8 N
b. 9.8 N
c. Gravitational force
d. Force exerted by the hand that threw the ball

15. What do you call the motion of an object with a constant acceleration?
a. Motion
b. Uniform Motion
c. Constant Motion
d. Uniformly Accelerated Motion

16. A ball is thrown vertically upward. What is its instantaneous speed at its maximum
height?
a. 0
b. 5 m/s
c. 9.8 m/s
d. 9.8 m/s2

17. If you whirl a tin can on the end of a string and the string suddenly breaks, the tin can
will
a. fly directly toward you.
b. fly directly away from you.
c. spiral away from your hand.
d. fly off tangent to its circular path.

4
18. Which of the following would not be considered as projectile?
a. A cannonball rolling down a slope.
b. A cannonball thrown through the air.
c. A cannonball rolling off the edge of a table.
d. All of the above.

19. A ladybug rests at the bottom of a tin can that is being whirled horizontally on the end of
a string. Since like the tin the ladybug can moves in a circle, there must be a force on
it. What exerts this force?
A. gravity
B. your hand
C. the tin can
D. the string

20. Acceleration is defined as the CHANGE in ______________.

a. distance divided by the time interval
b. velocity divided by the time interval
c. time it takes to move from one speed to another
d. time it takes to move from one place to another

Key to answers on page 32

Lesson 1 Describing Motion

Motion is everywhere. We can see it in the everyday

activities of people, of vehicles in the road, in the plants
that sway and even in the smallest particles – the atoms
that vibrate and jostle. We can move because of the
contraction and expansion of our muscles. Everything
moves. Even the things that are physically at rest are in
motion (jostling molecules). Like in our case, even when
asleep our lungs and heart continue to vibrate and pump.

The number of times our heart beats in a minute is called

Fig 1.1 The Heart our heartbeat. The normal heartbeat is equal to or less
than 100 times per minute for adults. A heartbeat
consists of 2 parts: diastole and systole. During diastole,
the heart muscle relaxes, allowing blood to flow into the atria and ventricles. During systole,
the ventricles contract pumping blood to the different parts of the body. The “lub dub” sound
of the heartbeat that is heard in an instrument called stethoscope is caused by the closing of

5
the heart valves. They move with respect to or relative to certain objects like the sun, the
stars and the moon. This means that motion is relative.

Motion is very easy to recognize but has been very hard to describe. There are
several physical quantities that can quantitatively describe the motion of objects. Some of
them are distance and displacement.

Distance vs. Displacement

Distance is usually described as the total path length. It is the length between an
identified reference point and a designated position. It is a scalar quantity, which means that
distance is expressed as magnitude only. It is expressed in units such as meter, kilometer,
feet and the like. However, the standard (SI) unit for distance is meter. Here are some
examples of distances.

Example 1.1 The distance between the tower and the boy is 10 m. This means that the
length between the reference point (the tower) and the identified position (boy) is 10 m.

d = 10 m
Identified position Reference point

Example 1.2. The distance between the house and the church is about 5 m. This means
that the total path length between the reference point (the house) and the identified position
(church) is the sum of the different lengths (1m, 0.5m, 2m, and 1.5m), which is equal to 5 m.

1.5 m

2m

0.5 m

1m

6
REMEMBER THIS! Displacement, on the other hand, is the
measure of how far an object has moved in a
Distance
– total path length
particular direction from its original position. This
– symbol: d is usually described as the length between the
– SI unit: m initial and the final position or the change in
Total Distance position including the sign of the change.
– Sum of different length of a given Displacement is a vector quantity. This means
path
that displacement is expressed as magnitude
with the corresponding direction. It is usually
given a symbol d, which is a symbol for a vector quantity. It is also expressed in units such
as meter, kilometer, feet and the like. However, the standard (SI) unit for displacement is
meter. Here are some examples of displacements.

Example 1.3. When the boy move from point A to point B, the distance of the boy from the
tower is 10 m but the boy’s displacement from the tower is 10 m, W. This means that the
length between the initial position of the boy (point A) and the final position of the boy (point
B) is 10 m moving toward the west. In symbols;

d = 10 m ,W

d = 10 m
Point B Point A

Example 1.4. However, if the boy who started from the tower (point A) moved to point B
then went back to point A (tower), then the boy’s initial position is point A (tower) while his
final position is still point A (tower). Then the length between the initial and the final position
is 0 m. Therefore, his displacement from the tower is 0 m.

d = 0m

d = 10 m

Point B Point A

Displacement can also be described as the difference between two distances.

7
d1 = 10 m

d2 = 10 m

d = ∆d
= d2 - d1
= (10 m) – (10 m)
= 0m

What you will do

Activity 1.1 Measuring Displacement

Objective:
To measure and determine displacement of a 10-centavo coin or a washer

Materials: washer or 10 centavo-coin, centimeter ruler paper

Procedure:

1. Place a washer or a 10-centavo coin on the number line with the

center of the washer or the 10-centavo coin at the position
marked zero.
2. Draw a circle around the inside of the washer or the 10-centavo
coin.
3. Mark the center of this circle with the letter I for the word "initial"
position of the washer.
4. Move the center of the washer 5.0 cm to the right. Label this circle
F for the "final" position of the washer.

Guide Questions:

1. What was the initial position of the washer?

2. What is the final position of the washer?
3. What is the distance traveled by the washer?
4. What is the displacement of the washer?
5. Which of the underlined quantities (final position, distance traveled,
and displacement) are numerically equal?

Key to answers on page 32

8
Speed and Velocity

The idea of rate is also a good tool in the description of motion. A rate is a quantity
divided by time. It tells how fast something happens, how much something changes in
certain amount of time. Speed is one example of a rate. It is a measure of how fast
something is moving. It is also known as the rate at which distance is covered. In symbols;
d
ν =
t
where:
v = speed
d = distance covered
t = time of travel

The SI units used for speed is m/s, km/h, m/min, etc.

d Here’s a good way of remembering this equation and all other equations
that can be derived from the given equation. If you need an equation for
distance then cover distance and write the symbol d in your paper. In such
ν t a case, ν and t are adjacent thus they are expressed as products.

Hence,

d = νt

If you want to have an equation for t, then cover t on the triangle and write the symbol t in
your paper, then since d is written above ν, then they appear as quotient. Thus, d and ν
must be written as ratio. In symbols,

t = d/ν

Are you now ready to take a look at the example below and see how we can use the
different equations?

Example 1.5

Elma Muros, the fastest female sprinter in the South East Asia can run along a 200-m
distance in 24.42 seconds. What is Elma’s speed?

Given: d = 200 m
t = 24.42 s
RTF: v

9
d
Solution: ν =
t
100m
ν =
10.49s
ν = 9.53 m/s

Instantaneous Speed and Average Speed

Take a look at the dashboard of car or a jeep when

you ride in one of them. The circular gauge encircled in
figure 1.2 is called a speedometer. A speedometer is an
instrument that determines the instantaneous speed of a
vehicle. Does the speedometer always register the
same speed? At a red light, the car has a 0 km/h speed,
and along the highway, its speed is probably 80 km/h.
These individual speeds are known as instantaneous
speeds. Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object
at an instant. Fig 1.2. Car Dashboard

Average speed, on the other hand, is the total distance

covered by an object in a certain period of time. It is the
representative speed of the whole course of travel. Using the
sample of instantaneous speeds above, the average speed can
be computed by getting the sum of all the individual speeds and
dividing the sum by the number of instantaneous speeds. In the
case above, the average speed is about (80 km/h + 0 km/h)/ 2,
40 km/h. On the other hand, a much easier way of determining
the average speed is to look at the odometer. An odometer like
the one encircled in figure 1.3 is an instrument that informs the
Fig 1.3 Car Dashboard total distance traveled by the vehicle. Average speed is the ratio
of the total distance traveled and the total time of travel. In
symbols,

dT
ν =
tT
where:

vave = average speed

dT = total distance traveled
tT = total time of travel

Our blood, which flows from one part of the body to another, has an average
speed of about 0.6 m/s

10
Velocity

In everyday situations, speed and velocity are just the same. They only describe how
fast an object moves. In physics, however, they are a lot different. Velocity is a speed in a
given direction. It is known as the distance traveled in a particular direction in a given time
interval. In symbols,
d , dir
(3) ν =
t int
where:
ν = velocity
d, dir = distance in a given direction
tint = time interval

More often than not, d + dir which means distance in a given direction is also called
displacement. Both speed and velocity are expressed in units such as m/s, km/h, m/min,
etc. Thus,
d
ν =
t int
where:
v = velocity
d = displacement
tt = time interval

Example 1.6.

Karen drove to the city to pick up a friend. She went 280 km east in about 9.6 hours.
Calculate her velocity.

Solution:
1. Given Required to Find
d = 280 km, E vave
tt = 9.6 hr

d
1. Equation: vave =
t int
d
2. Solution: vave =
t int
280km, E
vave =
9.6hr

11
What you will do
Activity 1.2 Determining Average Speed and Average Velocity

Objective:

A. To determine the average speed and the average velocity of a skier

B. To differentiate average speed and average velocity

Procedure:

1. Below is a diagram of a man who is skiing. Ski is a sport that is done on

places where we have snow.

Use the diagram to determine the average speed and the average velocity of the skier
during these three minutes.

Results:

Distance Distance Distance Total Total Average

(0-1) (1-2) (2-3) Distance Time Speed
min min min

100 m 3 min

Initial Final Displacement Total Average

Position Position (0-3) min Time Velocity

A D 3 min

12
Guide Question:

1. Differentiate average speed and average velocity.

Key to answers on page 32

Acceleration

Imagine yourself driving your bicycle along the road when suddenly a man crosses
the road. What would you do? Definitely you step on the brake! What happens to the bicycle
as you step on the brake? When an object changes its velocity the object is said to
accelerate. Acceleration is a measure of how fast the velocity changes with respect to time.
This means that a body accelerates whenever there is a change in speed; a change in
direction, or a change in both the speed and direction. Acceleration is expressed in units
such as m/s2, km/h2, m/min2, etc. Blood flow also exhibits acceleration. When the heart
pumps the blood is pushed away from the heart. The sudden surge or push to the blood
makes the flow of the blood change in speed or direction.

∆ν
a =
t int
where:
a = acceleration
∆v = change in velocity
tint = time interval

or
νf −νi
a =
t int
where:
vf = final velocity
vi = initial velocity

13
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1

Oops! Before you go on, try this one!

A. Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.

1 Which of the following is an example of acceleration?

A. 5 m/s
B. 5m/s2
C. 5 km/h
D. 5 m/min

2. Suppose you are in a car that is going around a curve the speedometer reads a constant
30 km/h. Which of the following is NOT true?
A. Your speed is constant
B. Your velocity is constant.
C. You and the car are accelerating

3. Which of the following exhibits acceleration?

A. A body at rest
B. A body at uniform speed
C. A body with uniform velocity
D. A body moving with constant speed in a circle

4. Which of the following instruments measures the distance traveled by a vehicle?

A. Odometer
B. Manometer
C. Speedometer
D. Anemometer

5. Which among the following is an example of velocity?

A. 50 km/h
B. 40 km/h
C. 50 mi/h
D. 40 mi/h, E

B. Direction: Write ”A” if the situation shows an accelerated motion and write “B” if
the situation shows that the motion of the object is not accelerated.

1. The initial velocity of a boy in a bike is about 5 km/h E while his final velocity is about
7 km/h E.
2. A boy on his bike moves around a curve with a constant speed of 5 km/h.
3. A man initially running at 7 km/h E, moves west at the same speed of 7 km/h.

14
4. A boy initially running at around 3 km/h suddenly stops because of a truck.
5. A girl initially sitting on a bench stood up and started running.

Key to answers on page 33

Lesson 2 Linear Motion

Take a look at the parachuters. Are they falling? Are

they moving horizontally? Motion comes in 2 forms: linear
motion and curvilinear motion. Linear motion refers to the
movement of an object along a straight path. Examples of
these are vehicles and other objects with a constant
acceleration and freefall. Curvilinear motion is the motion
of bodies along curved paths. Projectile and object moving
along circular paths are some examples.

Fig 2.1. Parachuters

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

If a vehicle maintains a constant or a uniform change in its velocity in a given time

interval along a straight line, then the vehicle is said to have a constant acceleration. Its
motion is known as uniformly accelerated motion. This constant acceleration could be
derived using the equation:

vf − vi
a =
t int

15
Free Fall

Are there waterfalls in your vicinity? How would you

describe them? The water is usually called a freely falling
body. Its motion is known as free fall. Freefall is an example
of a uniformly accelerated motion. In such a motion, the
only force acting on the body is the gravitational pull of
the earth which is also called the earth’s gravity. For an
object in freefall, the acceleration is a constant popularly
known as gravitational acceleration or acceleration due

Fig 2.2 Water falls to gravity also directed downward (-g). On the earth’s
surface at sea level the exact magnitude is 9.8 m/s2. Ten
(10 m/s2) is used, however, for easier analysis of motion. This means that the velocity of an
object in freefall changes by 9.8 m/s or 10 m/s every second of fall.

If an object is dropped a certain distance from the ground, then its motion is also
known as freefall. In such a case the initial velocity of the object dropped with respect to the
vertical axis is zero (0). νi = 0

Did you know that the concept of freefall helps determine our reaction time? Reaction
time is the time it takes for the information sent to the brain to travel to the different parts of
the body for execution. Here’s one way of determining your reaction time

What you will do

Activity 2.1 My reaction time

Here’s a great task that you can do.

1. Ask a friend to help you.

2. Have a 12-in ruler and let your friend hold its tip for you.
3. Position your hand on the zero-mark of the ruler but take extra care not to
touch the ruler.
4. When your friend releases the ruler, catch it with your fingers initially
positioned at the zero-mark.
5. Note the distance covered from the zero mark to where your fingers are when
you caught the ruler. This represents the distance covered.
6. Determine your reaction time using the equation:

t = √(2d)/g

where: tr = reaction time

d = distance covered
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

16
Another example of a freely falling body is an object thrown vertically downward. For
convention, the initial velocity of such case is always expressed as a negative value
(downward, -νi). νi = -ν

Objects thrown vertically upward are also considered freely falling bodies. Whether
the object goes up or goes down the only force acting is the pull of earth’s gravity. The
initial velocity of the object is only a result of the initial force exerted by the launcher.

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1

Answer the following very carefully. Write your answers on a separate sheet.

A ball is thrown vertically upward.

a. What is the acceleration of the ball after 1 s? ___________

b. What is the acceleration of the ball at its maximum height? _____________
c. What is the velocity of the ball at the top of its path? _____________
d. If the ball is thrown with an initial velocity of 50 m/s, what is the final velocity of the
ball at a point at the same level as when it was thrown? ___________
e. What force was exerted on the ball 1 second after it was thrown? ___________
f. What exerts this force? _____________
g. What is the acceleration of the ball 10 seconds after being thrown up?
___________
h. If the ball took 5 s to reach its maximum height, how long will the ball go back to
where it was initially launched?
i. What is the acceleration of the ball at the top of its path? ___________
j. What is the speed of the ball at the top of its path? _____________

Key to answers on page 33

17
Lesson 3 Curvilinear Motion

Projectile Motion

When the player hits the “Sepak”, the motion of the

“Sepak” is called projectile motion. The “Sepak” itself is
called projectile. The “Sepak” will follow a parabolic path
called trajectory especially if air resistance is negligible. Two
coordinates are usually used to describe projectile motion:
horizontal and vertical axes. The horizontal distance traveled
by the projectile is called the range. While the vertical
distance, that is, the distance from where it was launched to
the top most point of its path is called its height.
Fig 3.1 Sepak Takraw
Players
Examples of projectiles are cannon ball launched by a
cannon, golf ball hit by a golfer, and an ice skater jumping over some barrels. Usually, a
strong, abrupt force initiates the motion of a projectile. Following this force, the projectile
moves through the air and is influenced only by the earth’s gravitational force pulling it down
and by air resistance. If the effect of air resistance is ignored, equations in free fall are
readily used to analyze the motion
of a projectile – how high it will
travel, how far it will go and so on.

A remarkable thing to note

is that the same range is obtained
from two different projection angles
– complementary angles. An object
thrown into the air at an angle of
75o, for example, will have the
same range as if it were thrown at
the same speed at an angle of 15o. Range
An object thrown at 60o will have
the same range as when the object
is launched at 30o. As you can see, Fig 2.4 Angle of Projection vs. Range
when we get the sum of 75o angle
and 15o angle, 60o angle and 30o
angle, in both sets we would obtain a 90o angle. This means that 75o angle and 15o angle
are called complementary angles. Similarly, 60o angle and 30o angle are also
complementary angles. Thus, complementary angles (angles whose sum is equal to 90o)
would result to equivalent range. For smaller angles, object remains in the air for a shorter
time. A maximum range is attained when an object is launched 45o from the horizontal.

18
Projectile motion is a very helpful
and practical concept in Physics. For
example, if there are floods and rescuers
could not reach the place, a rescue plane
is usually used to drop a package of
emergency rations to the victims

Fig 3.2 Plane to the rescue

Circular Motion

Have you experienced riding the merry-go-round?

Which moves faster – the horse near the outside rail or the
horse near the inside rail? Have you tried swinging a tin can
overhead? When the string breaks, how does the can move?
Does it move directly outward or does it move tangent to the
circle?

You and your friends would probably answer the

Fig 3.3 Merry-go-round questions differently. Some may chose the horse near the
inside rail, while others the horse near the outside rail. That’s
because some of you maybe are thinking about linear speed while others rotational speed.

All objects that turn around on axis located within the object is said to be rotating.
When an object turns about an external axis the rotational motion is called revolution.

Linear speed is what we have been calling simply “speed” – the distance traveled
per unit of time. A point outside the merry-go-round moves a greater distance in one
complete rotation than a point inside it. Linear speed is thus greater on the outside of a
rotating object than closer to the axis.

Rotational speed (angular speed/velocity) refers to the number of rotations or

revolutions per unit of time. All parts of a rotating object share the same rate of rotation. This
rate of rotation is usually expressed in revolutions per minute (RPM). A common
phonograph record, for example, rotates at 33.33 RPM.

However, linear and rotational speeds are related. Linear speed is directly
proportional to rotational speed. This relationship is expressed in an equation as

ν = rω
where:
ν = linear speed
r = radius of the circular path
ω = angular/rotational speed

19
From the equation above, we note
that linear speed also depends on the
In any rigid rotating system, all parts have the
same rotational speed. Linear speed varies as.
distance from the center. The greater the
it depends on the rotational speed and the radius the greater the linear speed if the
distance from the axis of rotation. rotational speed is kept constant. At the
very center (the axis of the rotating object)
you have no linear speed but you still
rotate.

What you will do

Activity 3.1 Whirling cans

Objective:

To observe circular motion.

Materials: tin can, string, cutter or scissors

Procedure:

1. Tie a long string to a tin can.

2. Whirl the tin can at the end of the string above your head until you are
able to make horizontal circles.
3. Observe how the tin can moves while traveling along the circular path.
4. Observe how your hand holding the string tied to the tin can behave.

What do you notice? Did you notice that you kept on pulling the string to maintain its
circular motion? This force that causes the tin can to follow a circular path is called
centripetal force. Centripetal force means “center-seeking” or towards the center. In the
case of the can your hand exerts the centripetal force.

20
Gravitational force is the centripetal force exerted on moon by
earth to maintain an almost circular path. The same centripetal force
(gravitational force) is responsible for keeping the planets in their orbit
about the sun. And in an atom, the electron orbits the nucleus
because of the electrical force between them.

Centripetal force depends on the mass (m), the tangential

speed (ν), and the radius of curvature (r) of the circularly moving
object. In symbols;
mv 2
Fc =
r
where:
Fc = centripetal force
Fig 3.4 (upper) Solar System m = mass
(lower) Atom r = radius of curvature
ν = tangential speed

What you will do

Activity 3.2 Whirling cans

Objective: To observe circular motion.

Materials: tin can, string cutter or scissors

Procedure:

1. While whirling the tin can, cut the string.

2. Observe the motion of the can while it moves away from the circular
path.

If the string breaks how does the tin can move? In the early years people thought that
a “center-fleeing” force counteracts the centripetal force. This is known as centrifugal
force. It is believed that centrifugal force pulls the can from its circular path. But the fact is
that when the string breaks, the can goes off in a tangent, straight-line path because no
force acts on it! Similarly, if you are in a car that rounds a sharp corner to the left, you tend
to pitch outward to the right – not because of an outward force but because of the absence
of centripetal force holding you in circular motion (as a seatbelt provides).

21
Lesson 4 Physics and Transportation

Which among the following vehicles do

you often use? Does it make traveling more
convenient or it is better to travel on foot. Which
do you prefer?

Have you ever tried riding on one of the following forms of transportation? Do you
have any idea what forms of transportation were used by your ancestors like your
grandmother or great grandmother?

Brief Account of Transportation

No one basically knows when humankind first

tamed the ox, the burro, the horse and the carabao.
All we know is that we do move from one place to
another to trade using our feet. American Indians
shipped copper, iron oxide and other valuables from
Minnesota to Alabama on foot over “forest highways”
or downriver.

22
The principal innovation on land transportation was
the construction of roads where horses and riders
could keep a message moving at the speed of about
two hundred miles a day. Freight was carried by a
camel, an elephant, a burro or an ox. Human
porters, on the other hand, carried cargos in China.
In the Philippines, the most famous animal is the
carabao (kalabaw). It carries freight for its owner
who is usually a farmer. Later, carriages were
connected to these animals to improve the transport
of goods and people..

In the Philippines, we call a horse-driven

carriage as “kalesa”. The kalesa or karitela was
introduced during the 18th century. Spanish officials
and nobles used it as a chief means of
transportation. The illustrados, the rich Filipinos who
had their own businesses, used the kalesa not only
for traveling but as a means of transporting their
goods.

In 1867, the motorcycle was first invented. By the

1880’s inventors tried very hard to make cars that
would run well enough to use everyday. Since the
cars replaced the horses and they ran on steam,
they were called “Iron Horses” (steam-powered
cars). By 1890’s Europeans were buying and driving
cars by Benz.

In the United States, automotive progress was

exemplified by the Old Motor Works, which mass
produced 425 cars in 1901. In 1908-1927 Henry
Ford made the Ford Model T, which was ran by
gasoline but costs much less than other cars. It
ran well on dirty and bumpy roads. During this era,
the Wright brothers invented the first heavier-than-
air flight.

23
By the 1930’s transoceanic “flying boats” were
plying the ocean of the world at speeds greater
than 150 miles an hour. Aircraft played a
dominant role in World War II. In the Philippines,
the exotic jeepney is a post-war creation
inspired by the GI jeeps that the American
soldiers brought to the country in 1940’s.
Enterprising Filipino salvaged the surplus
engines and came out with a unique vehicle of
art.

Then the jet passenger aircraft came. These

were followed by supersonic transport. Not long
after, the aerospace planes and spaceships
came.

In land transportation, one of the fastest vehicles

is the bullet train or the MagLev (Magnetically
Levitated) Trains. These are run by electricity,
which also creates magnetism on both the rails
and the road. Since both (rail and road) are like
poles they then repel each other causing the train
to be levitated or to be at a vertical distance
(floating) from the road. In such a case, friction is
decreased and the velocity of the train is
increased.

Today, there are many modes of transportation

available in the Philippines. There are buses, taxi,
jeepneys, the LRT (Light Rail Transit) and MRT
(Metro Rail Transit).

24
What you will do
Activity 4.1 Transportation: a history

Objective: To be able to complete the timeline below.

Materials: worksheet, pencil

Procedure:

Complete the timeline illustrated below. You may do this by illustrating or identifying the
means or form of transportation according to the passage Brief Account of
Transportation.

Timeline:

Bicycle (1790)

Motorcycle (1867)

Ford Model T (gas-powered, 1908)

Jeepneys (1940’s)

Key to answers on page 34

MagLev Trains

25
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1

Answer the following very carefully. Write your answers on a separate sheet.

A B

C D
Which among the sets of vehicles would your prefer? Cite the advantages and
disadvantages of your choice.

Key to answers on page 34

26
What you will do
Activity 4.2 Physics of Transportation

Objective: To identify basic physics principles that are related to transportation.

Materials: worksheet, pencil

Procedure:

1. Below is a picture of a vehicular accident. Identify as many physics concepts related

to the accident as you can.

Physics concepts:

Key to answers on page 35

Understanding transportation accidents requires knowledge of the physics of moving

bodies. Although these physical laws were discovered largely by Galileo and by Sir Isaac
Newton in the 1600's, they were not always clearly understood. However, they really are
very simple, and depend only on a few key principles, which are familiar to you Newton's
laws of motion. Newton correctly explained the behavior of most objects. Transportation
problems require the application of Newton's Second Law, which states that the
acceleration of a body is proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to the
body's mass.

Acceleration is not just "gaining speed." Gaining speed is only one form of
acceleration. Braking or losing speed is another form, and it is usually expressed as
negative acceleration. Regardless of its type, acceleration requires force and is resisted by
mass.

27
The law of friction states that the frictional force between two surfaces is proportional
to the "normal" force between them times the coefficient of friction. The normal force is the
force tending to press the surfaces together. In automotive situations, the normal force is the
weight of the car on the tires. In normal operation, the frictional forces of the tires are the
main acceleration and braking forces on an automobile, and those forces limit the
acceleration, braking and cornering ability of the automobile. With these ideas and concepts
it is possible to predict the braking distance of an automobile when the speed and coefficient
of friction with the road are known.

Clearly, researches in physics brought about many inventions such as airbags,

computerized fuel injection, electric sensors, General Pocket Radio Service (GPRS) and the
likes which are very helpful in upgrading both the efficiency of the engine and the safety of
the passengers. Physics has helped transportation a lot.

Let’s summarize

1. Distance is usually described as the total path length. It is the length between an
identified reference point and a designated position
2. Displacement is the length between the initial and the final position.
3. Motion is relative. It is easy to recognize but hard to describe.
4. Rate, which describes motion, is a quantity per unit time.
5. Speed determines how fast an object moves. It is the ratio of the distance traveled
and unit time.
6. Velocity describes how fast an object moves in a given time in a particular direction.
7. Acceleration is the change in velocity that happened in a period of time.
8. The two types of motion are linear motion and curvilinear motion
9. Uniformly accelerated motion and freefall are examples of linear motion.
10. Projectile and circular motions are examples of curvilinear motion.
11. A body is said to be moving in a uniformly accelerated motion when it maintains a
constant acceleration throughout the motion.
12. The motion of a body on which the only force acting on it is the gravitational pull of
the earth is known as freefall.
13. Projectile is a motion of an object when the only force acting on it is gravity. It
includes both horizontal and vertical components of motion.
14. Circular motion occurs when there is a force exerted on an object that is directed
towards the center. This force is known as centripetal force.
15. Linear speed is what we have been calling simply as “speed” – the distance traveled
per unit of time.
16. Physics plays an important role in the advancement of transportation.

28
Posttest
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper

1. Which statement is true?

A. Speed indicates the direction of motion.
B. Velocity indicates the direction of motion.
C. Velocity measures the rate of motion only.
D. The magnitudes of velocity and speed are always equal.

2. A projectile is thrown 30o above the horizontal. What happens to its acceleration as it
moves upward?
A. It decreases because its velocity is directed upward
B. It increases because its velocity is directed upward
C. It decreases because its velocity is decreasing
D. It remains the same

3. Which of the following is an example of acceleration?

A. 5 m/s
B. 5m/s2
C. 5 km/h
D. 5 m/min

4. Suppose you are in a car that is going around a curve and the speedometer reads a
constant 30 km/h. Which of the following is not true?
A. Your speed is constant.
B. Your velocity is constant.
C. You and the car are accelerating.

5. Which of the following exhibits acceleration?

A. A body at rest
B. A body at uniform speed
C. A body with uniform velocity
D. A body moving with constant speed in a circle

6. Which of the following instruments measures the distance traveled by a vehicle?

A. Odometer
B. Speedometer
C. Anemometer
D. Manometer

29
7. When you throw a ball directly upward, it is accelerated ______________.
A. at all times
B. only as it falls
C. during the instantaneous stop and during fall

8. Which of the following instruments measures the instantaneous speed of a vehicle?

A. Odometer
B. Speedometer
C. Anemometer
D. Manometer

9. Suppose an object is in freefall. The object falls each second _________________.

A. with the same average speed
B. with the same change in velocity
C. with the same instantaneous speed
D. with the same distance as in the second

10. If you drop a feather and a coin at the same time in a vacuum tube, which will reach the
bottom of the tube first?
A. The coin
B. The feather
C. Both will reach the bottom at the same time

For Nos. 11-16 the choices are:

A. 0 m/s2
B. 9.8 m/s
C. 9.8 m/s2
D. –50 m/s

11. A ball is thrown vertically upward. At the top of its path what is its velocity?

12. A ball is thrown vertically upward. At the top of its path what is its acceleration?

13. A ball is thrown vertically upward, with an initial velocity of 50 m/s and caught back at the
same level as when it was thrown. What is the velocity of the ball at that point?

14. A ball is thrown vertically upward. What is its instantaneous speed at its maximum
height?

15. A ball is dropped from a cliff. What is the acceleration of the ball before it touches the
ground?

16. A ball is thrown vertically upward. What is the change in velocity of the ball after 1
second?

30
17. The positions of two blocks at successive 0.20-second time intervals are represented by
the numbered squares in the figure below. The blocks are moving toward the right. Do
the blocks ever have the same speed?
A. No.
B. Yes, at instant 2.
C. Yes, at instant 5.
D. Yes, at instants 2
and 5.
E. Yes, at some time during the interval 3 to 4

18. A steel ball is attached to a string and is swung in a circular path

in a horizontal plane as illustrated in the accompanying figure.
At the point P indicated in the figure, the string suddenly breaks
near the ball. If these events are observed from directly above
as in the figure, which path would the ball most closely follow
after the string breaks?

19. A bowling ball accidentally falls out of the cargo bay of an

airliner as it flies along in a horizontal direction. As
observed by a person standing on the ground and viewing
the plane as in the figure at right, which path would the
bowling ball most closely follow after leaving the airplane?

20. If you whirl a tin can on the end of a string and the string
suddenly breaks, the tin can will
A. fly directly away from you.
B. fly off tangent to its circular path.
C. fly directly toward you.
D. spiral away from your hand.

Key to answers on page 35

31
Key to Answers

Pretest
1. C 11. D
2. B 12. D
3. C 13. B
4. A 14. C
5. C 15. D
6. C 16. A
7. C 17. D
8. B 18. D
9. B 19. B
10. A 20. C

Lesson 1

Activity 1.1
1. 0 cm-mark
2. 5 cm-mark
3. 5 cm
4. 5 cm, right
5. distance and displacement

Activity 1.2

Distance Distance Distance Total Total Average

(0-1) (1-2) (2-3) Distance Time Speed
min min min
140.00
180 m 140 m 100 m 420 m 3 min
m/min

Initial Final Displacement Total Average

Position Position (0-3) min Time Velocity
46.67
A D 140 m 3 min m/min,
right

* Velocity is the rate of displacement while speed is the rate of distance.

32
Self-Test 1.1

A. B.
1. B 1. B
2. B 2. A
3. D 3. A
4. A 4. A
5. D 5. A

Lesson 2

Self-Test 2.1 e. Gravity

f. Earth
a. 9.8 m/s2 g. 9.8 m/s2
b. 9.8 m/s2 h. 5s
c. 0 i. 9.8 m/s2
d. –50 m/s j. 0

Lesson 4

Self-Test 4.1

Choice A Choice C

Advantages Advantages
• no use of fuel or • faster than animal
gasoline driven
• lesser accidents • much more convenient
Disadvantages • carry more load and
• slow passengers
• tiring Disadvantages
• use fuel and gasoline
Choice B • pollutes air
Choice D
Advantages Advantages
• no use of fuel or • very fast
gasoline • very convenient
• lesser accidents • carry lots of load and
• faster than on foot passengers
Disadvantages
• slow Disadvantages
• tiring • high use of fuel
• pollution

33
Activity 4.1

Animals

Carriage/Kalesa

Bicycle (1790)

Motorcycle (1867)

Iron Horse (Steam-powered, 1880)

Ford Model T (gas-powered, 1908)

First Airplane

Flying boats (1930’s)

Jeepneys (1940’s)

Jets and spacecrafts

MagLev Trains

34
Activity 4.2
1. Newton’s Laws
2. Friction
3. Momentum
4. Impulse
5. Energy

Posttest

1. B 11. A
2. D 12. C
3. B 13. D
4. B 14. A
5. D 15. C
6. A 16. B
7. A 17. A
8. B 18. B
9. B 19. D
10. C 20. B

-End of Module-

References:

Carter, J. (1974).Physical science:a problem-solving approach. Massachusetts: Gin and Company.

Cohen, M. (1992). Discover science. Metro Manila: Academe Publishing House.

Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Krane, K. (1994). Fundamentals of physics. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons
Inc.

Hewitt, P. (1989). Conceptual physics (6th Ed.) London: Scoot, Foresman and Company

Heuvelen, A. (1986). Physics: a general introduction (2nd Edition). Sta. Cruz, Manila: UNI-ED Inc.,

Jones, E. and Childers, R. (1999). Contemporary college physics. New York: Mc Craw-Hill Co.

Morales, M.P. (2000). Worktext in physical sciences. Manila: PNU Press.

Young, Hugh. D. (1996). University physics (9th Edition). NY : Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.

Transportation Physics
By Norwood S. Wilner
Published on 2004, Retrieved last December 11, 2004 from
www.spohrerwilner.com/transpor.htm

35
Photo credit

Carabao
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.atbp.com/philippines/festiva.htm

horse.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.expage.com/chhsale

camel.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.islamnet.it/arte/paesaggi/pages/camel.htm

ford_school_bus_LG.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.1-87vehicles.org/photo46/ford_school_bus.php

car_3.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.lucas-houston.com/silver35th.htm

246_austhug_10_tricycle.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.sailfish.de/ontour/asien/alonabeach_bilda_2002.htm

bicycle.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.Latis.ex.ac.uk/cfarchive/copyrightfree0004.htm

death_march_M_to_S.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.proviso.w-cook.k12.il.us/Bataan%20Web/Death%20March.htm

Maglev3.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.mhasd.k12.wi.us/teacherpages/nemes/maglev.html

roll_a3.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.pavillon.co-uk/lcs/projects/spacecraft.htm

am728ar.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.worldaircorps.com/airplane/am728.html

PI_Jeepney_WL.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.jarsoftware.com/PI_Jeepney_WL.html

RtW_Scan_1915FordModelT.jpg
Retrieved last December 7, 2004 from
www.bergoiata.org/fe/vieilles-vortures/10.htm

36
Module 10
Force and Motion

What this module is about

A lot of Physics can be observed in playing

tug-of-war where both ends of the rope are being
pulled in opposite directions. If the players on
one end of the rope suddenly release the rope,
the players on the other end will definitely tumble
to the ground! Force and Motion!

In this module you will learn many things

about Physics particularly about forces that are
the primary cause of changes in motion. This
module includes these lessons such as:
Fig. 1 Tug-of-War
ƒ Lesson 1 - Forces: The Secrets Unfold!
ƒ Lesson 2 - Friction
ƒ Lesson 3 - Newton’s Laws of Motion
ƒ Lesson 4 - The Universal Law of Gravitation
ƒ Lesson 5 - Impulse and Momentum

Read, enjoy, and discover the secrets of Physics!

What you are expected to learn

At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to;

1. define and describe the fundamental principles of force and motion;

2. state the laws of motion;
3. apply the laws of motion to land transportation.
4. explain road safety measures using the concept of impulse and momentum
5. appreciate the contributions of Aristotle, Galileo, and Newton in the study of
motion; and,
6. appreciate physics through its application to practical situations.

1
How to learn from this module
Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module:

1. Read and follow the instructions very carefully.

2. Take the pretest. It is a simple multiple-choice test provided at the start to
determine how much you know about the content of this module.
3. Check your answers against the correct answers provided at the last page of the
module.
4. Be very honest in taking the test so you know how much knowledge you already
have about the topic.
5. Read the different lessons included in this module.
6. Perform all the activities, as these will help you have a better understanding of the
topic.
7. Take the self-tests at the end of each lesson.
8. Finally, take the post-test at the end of the module.

Good Luck and have fun!

What to do before (Pretest)

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. The law of inertia applies to _______________.

A. moving objects C. both moving and nonmoving objects
B. objects that are not moving

2. If you were in a space ship and fired a cannon ball into frictionless space, the amount of
force needed to keep it going would be ________.
A. twice the force with which it was fired
B. the same amount of force with which it was fired
C. one half the force with which it was fired
D. zero, since no force is necessary to keep it moving

3. Which has more mass, a kilogram of feathers or a kilogram of iron?

A. feathers
B. iron
C. They both have the same mass
D. Cannot be determined from the given information.

2
4. The force required to maintain an object at a constant speed in free space is equal to
________________.
A. zero C. the weight of the object
B. the mass of the object D. the force required to stop it

5. You would have the largest mass of gold if your chunk of gold weighed 1 N on the
__________.
A. Moon C. planet Jupiter
B. Earth

6. An object weighs 30 N on earth. A second object weighs 30 N on the moon. Which has
greater mass?
A. The one on earth C. They have the same mass
B. The one on the moon

7. Suppose the force of friction on a sliding object is 10N. The force needed for it to maintain
a constant velocity is _______________.
A. more than 10 N C. 10 N
B. less than 10 N

8. Compared to its weight on earth, a 10-kg object on the moon will weigh ________.
A. less C. the same amount
B. more

9. An apple weighs 1N. When held at rest above your head, the net force on the apple is
_____________.
A. 0 N C. 1 N
B. 0.1 N D. 9.8 N

10. An apple weighs 1N. The net force on the apple when it is in free fall is _________.
A. 0 N C. 1 N
B. 0.1 N D. 9.8 N

11. When a woman stands with two feet on a scale, the scale reads 500 N. When she lifts
one foot, the scale reads _____________.
A. less than 500 N C. 500 N
B. more than 500 N

12. A block is dragged without acceleration in a straight-line path across a level surface by a
force of 6 N. What is the frictional force between the block and the surface?
A. less than 6 N C. more than 6 N
B. 6 N D. Needs more information to say.

3
13. As a 500 N lady sits on the floor, the floor exerts a force on her equal to
______________.
A. 1000 N C. 250 N
B. 500 N D. 50 N

14. An unfortunate bug splatters against the windshield of a moving car. Compared to the
force of the car on the bug, the force of the bug on the car is _____________.
A. larger C. the same
B. smaller

15. An unfortunate bug splatters against the windshield of a moving car. Compared to the
deceleration of the car on the bug, the deceleration of the bug on the car is
_____________.
A. larger B. smaller
C. the same

16. The person is attracted towards the center of the earth by a 500-N gravitational force.
The force with which the earth is attracted toward the person is ______________.
A. very very small C. 500 N
B. very very large

17. Two people pull on a rope in a tug-of-war. Each pulls with a 400 N force. What is the
tension in the rope?
A. 0 C. 600 N
B. 400 N D. 800 N
18. What is the minimum resultant possible when adding a 3-N force to an 8-N force?
A. 24 N C. 8 N
B. 11 N D. 5 N

19. How does the acceleration of an object change in relation to its mass? It is
_________.
A. directly proportional
B. inversely proportional
C. acceleration doesn’t depend on mass at all

20. Forces always occur _____________.

A. by themselves
B. in pairs
C. as single quantities
D. in triplets

Key to answers on page 38

4
Lesson 1 Forces: The Secrets Unfold!

(by mpem)
In the beginning there was Aristotle Did you know how the word “force”
And the objects at rest tend to remain at rest has come about? Who were the scientists
And the objects in motion tend to come to rest and great men behind the concept? Here’s
And God saw that it was boring although restful a very good poem. Try reading it so you
would have a good glimpse of who were
Then God created Newton behind the development of forces and
motion!
And objects at rest tend to remain at rest
And objects in motion tended to remain in
motion
And energy was conserved and momentum was
conserved,
And matter was conserved
And God saw that it was conservative…

What you will do

Activity 1.1 Men behind forces

Objective: To be able to come up with a timeline of force and motion.

Materials: washer or 10 centavo-coin, centimeter ruler paper

Procedure:

1. The pictures, dialogues and dates on the next page show significant moments in the
development of the concepts of force and motion.

2. Label the picture, dialogue, and date with 1 if you think the set of picture, dialogue
and date occurred first. Label the next set as 2 and so on until all sets are labeled
forming a timeline.

5
Johannas
No. _____ Philoponus Hey guys look at this. If I
(550 A.D.) exert an impetus on an All right! And when that
object moves. Ha! A new impetus diminishes, motion
discovery indeed! also diminishes. When the
Impetus keeps a body impetus is removed, the
moving. object stops moving!
No. _____ No. _____
No. _____

Aristotle Let’s rename impetus as force. I believe

I don’t think that the force is that force affects the velocity of moving
proportional to the velocity. Velocity objects. Thus, force is proportional to
remains constant if no force, including the velocity. If no force is applied an
No. _____ friction, is applied. Force that affects object has no velocity for an object.
vertical motion creates constant Thus, the object is at rest.
acceleration.
No. _____ No. _____
Newton

What if I push an object which is already moving horizontally?

No. _____ Wouldn’t its velocity change and cause acceleration in the
object? Thus, force would cause acceleration in horizontal
motion. The natural acceleration actually observed in vertical
motion must be the result of a vertical force on the body,
Galileo without this force the natural vertical motion would also be at a
constant speed, just like natural horizontal motion. This
vertical force is of course the force of gravity.
No. _____ Jean No. _____
Buriden
(355 A.D.)

Key to answers on page 41

Terms to Remember! So, now you know who coined the word “force”.
Mass Let’s now take a close look at what force is. Force is
ƒ Amount of matter in an commonly described as a push or a pull. A body with mass
object. is capable of interacting with another body. This interaction
Bodies in direct contact between two (2) bodies is known to be a force.
ƒ Two bodies touching on
another Force is not something a body has, like mass, but it
is an interaction between one body and another.

6
Depending on the circumstances, a body may posses a capability of exerting force on
another body but it cannot possess force as a thing in itself.

Forces can be contact or non-contact. Contact forces are forces that result when two
(2) bodies in direct contact (touching each other) interact with one another. Direct contact
must happen between two (2) bodies for the two (2) bodies to interact with each other.

Now try this one so you will have a better understanding of what contact force is!

What you will do

Activity 1.2 Contact and non-contact forces

Objective: To be able to understand the concept of contact force.

Materials: chair, paper, bag

Procedure:
1. Push a chair.
2. Pull a paper out of your bag.
3. Lift your bag.

Guide Questions:

1. In which of the following cases were you able to have a direct contact with each of
the three objects (chair, paper, bag)?
2. Were you able to exert a contact force? Why do you say so?

Key to answers on page 39

In all these cases, contact forces occur. To be able to push a chair your hand should
be placed in contact with the chair. To be able to pull a paper out of your bag you must use
your hand, and your hand must be touching the paper. To lift your bag, you must hold the
bag.

7
Terms to Remember! Non-contact forces, on the other hand, are forces that
Field occur when the fields around objects (e.g. gravitational field,
ƒ Space surrounding electric field, or magnetic field) interact with another field
objects with mass or located around another body. It is a non-contact force since
objects which are the bodies themselves are not directly touching each other
electrically charged rather only their fields interact with one another.
or have magnetic
properties
We may see the earth
as constantly kept in orbit by the sun. But behind that
scene we can actually attribute this effect to the
gravitational fields of both the earth and the sun as
interacting with each other. Thus, gravitational forces
are examples of non-contact forces. Gravitational
forces are always attractive in nature. This means that
while the earth is attracted to the sun, earth also pulls
the sun. However, since earth has a smaller mass than
the sun, the earth tends to move around the sun instead Fig. 1.1. Earth-Sun
of the other way around. System

Magnetic fields also interact with each other. The

magnetic fields may be pulling each other as in the case
where opposite poles (North and South Poles) of the
magnet are facing each other. They may also be pushing
each other as in the case where the same poles of the
magnets are facing each other. This interaction is called
the magnetic force, is another example of a non-contact
force.
Fig. 1.2. Magnets and their
Charged bodies are bodies whose number of magnetic field
electrons is not equal to the number of protons. Bodies
that are not charged are called neutral
bodies. These bodies have the same
number of protons and electrons. It
may have happened that some
electrons left the atoms of the object
thus causing the object to have
protons than electrons. This body is
said to be a negatively charged body.
A body, which captures excess
electrons, will eventually have more
number of electrons and protons and
are known as positively charged Fig. 1.3. Electric field of charged particles

8
bodies. Around every charged object is an electric field, which interacts with the electric field
of another charged body. The interaction between the electric field of one charged body to
another charged body is known as electrostatic force. Since only electric fields of two
charged bodies interact and no direct contact can be observed between the two bodies,
then electrostatic force is also considered a non-contact force. Take a look at how charges
interact in Figure 1.3.

Here’s an illustration of an atom. (Figure 1.4). Can

you identify some of the subatomic particles? As you can
see protons and neutrons are inside the nucleus of an
atom. Protons are positively charged while neutrons are
neutrally charged. Since like charges repel each other,
protons inside the nucleus must be repelling each other.
How then are they able to stay together inside the
nucleus? This is because another non-contact force,
believed to be the strongest among the non-contact
forces keeps the protons inside the nucleus of the atom.
This force is known as the nuclear force. Nuclear force is
usually categorized as a weak or strong.
Fig. 1.4.An Atom

Remember Newton? He was the one who said that a

vertical force directed towards the center of an object is
called gravity. Both gravity and horizontal forces can be
quantified using a force meter of a spring balance. The
standard International (SI) unit of force is newton (N) to pay
tribute to Sir Isaac Newton who was able to conceptualize
the effect of forces on motion. In the English system,
however, the standard unit of force is called pound (lb),
which is defined in terms of Newton as:

1 lb = 4.45 N
1N = 0.225 lb Fig. 1.5 Newton

9
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1

Direction: Write “F” if a contact force has been exerted in the situation and “nF” if a
non-contact force has been exerted.

1. Pushing a cart
2. Touching a rock
3. Falling rock
4. Moon’s attraction to Earth causing tides
5. Your hair being attracted to your comb after stroking it with the same comb.
6. Tissue being attracted to a plastic sheet
7. Kicking a ball
8. Sitting on a chair
9. Your skin hair being attracted to the TV screen when you switch it on or off.
10. Pulling a cart.

Key to answers on page 39

Lesson 2 Friction
Did you ever experience slipping in a pavement?
Did you feel embarrassed? What conditions caused you
to slip? Did you slip when the pavement was wet or
dry? Most accidents happen during rainy days because
the road is slippery when wet. It is harder to stop a
vehicle on wet roads You yourself will most likely to slip
if you don’t wear your pair of rubber shoes. This
describes the effect of friction. What is friction?

Friction is a contact force that is present in

Figure 2.1. Road Intersection
walking, running, playing, writing and pushing objects
we still encounter friction.

10
What you will do
Activity 1.2 Friction: The opposing force!

Objective: To be able to understand the concept of friction as an opposing force

Materials: ball, clear pavement or pathway

Procedure:
1. Let a ball roll on a pavement or a clear path way.
2. Observe what happens to the ball as it rolls along the pavement.

Guide Questions:
1. When you rolled the ball on the pavement, did you exert a force?
2. What kind of force did you exert? (contact or non-contact)
3. While the ball is rolling along the pavement are you still exerting a force?
4. What happened to the ball’s motion after some time?
5. Why do you think the ball stopped rolling?

Key to answers on page 39

When you roll the ball on the pavement you did exert a contact force since your
hands were in contact with the ball before you released the ball. While on the pavement,
however, your hands were not anymore in contact with the ball thus there is no force was
exerted by your hands on the ball. Eventually, the ball stopped rolling after sometime.
Friction between the surface of the ball and the surface of the pavement caused the ball
to stop rolling. Friction is a force that opposes motion. It is the resistance an object meets
when its surface rubs against another surface like your feet and the floor when you’re
walking. It acts in a direction opposite the natural motion of the moving object.

Friction occurs because objects have bumps

and grooves on their surfaces. Take a look at the
microscopic view of a very smooth and shiny
surface. Even smooth and shiny surfaces have
bumps and tiny points on them, which catch and try
to stick together when they come in contact with
each other. Different objects have different bumps
and grooves on their surfaces. Some surfaces have
few points to catch and stick together. These are the
smooth surfaces.
Fig. 2.2. Grooves and bumps of
surfaces

11
The nature of friction force depends on the type of motion that occurs between two
surfaces. If there is no relative motion between two surfaces, friction force that exists
between their contact surfaces is called static friction. On the other hand, the type of
friction that opposes sliding motion is called kinetic friction. This type is weaker than static
friction. The friction force that exists in rolling motion is called rolling friction. This is the
weakest frictional force that opposes motion.

What you will do

Activity 2.2 Factors affecting friction

Objective: To be able to determine how the kind of surface and the weight of an object
affect friction.

Materials: plastic bag, 4 books, smooth floor (wooden) and a rough floor (concrete)

Procedure:

A. Friction and Weight

1. Place 2 books inside a plastic bag.
2. Drag the plastic bag containing 2 books along a smooth wooden floor. Observe
how you drag the plastic bag.
3. Place 4 books inside the plastic bag.
4. Drag the plastic bag containing 4 books along a smooth wooden floor. Observe
how you drag the plastic bag.

B. Friction and the kind of surface

1. Place 2 books inside a plastic bag.
2. Drag the plastic bag containing 2 books along a smooth wooden floor. Observe
how you drag the plastic bag.
3. Drag the plastic bag containing 2 books along a rough concrete floor. Observe
how you drag the plastic bag.

Guide Questions:

1. On which situation (plastic with 2 books or plastic with 4 books) did you experience
difficulty in dragging the plastic bag?
2. On which case is friction greater: plastic with 2 books and the floor or plastic with 4
books and the floor)?
3. On which situation (plastic bag on a smooth floor or plastic bag on a rough floor)
did you experience difficulty in dragging the plastic bag?
4. On which case is friction greater: plastic bag on a smooth floor or plastic bag on a
rough floor?

Key to answers on page 39

12
Basically, friction is less when the weight of the object is less. Friction is also affected
by the smoothness or roughness of the surfaces in contact. Rougher surfaces in contact
usually offer greater frictional force as compared with smooth surfaces. Sliding or rolling on
smooth surfaces is very easy because friction is less. Sliding and rolling on rough surfaces
is hard because there is more friction on them.

What happens when you try to start running on a wet pavement? It is difficult to stop
or start moving when little friction is around. But have you tried pushing a car or a tricycle in
which the brakes are set? Too much friction can also be a problem.

Friction is always present in our world. Sometimes it needs to be increased. At times

we need to decrease it. How do we do this? Did you notice the surfaces of the table tennis
racket? Usually, these are padded with rubber so that the tennis balls will not slip when they
hit the pad. While some handles of tennis rackets are wrapped with cloth to give a better
hold on the racket. This way the racket will not fly off when the player swings it. So it’s so
simple! If you want to increase the friction you just have to make the surface rough! Soccer
and softball players use spiked shoes so they can move with ease in slippery playgrounds.

There are cases when we do not need friction like when we want to move heavy
objects from one room to another. How do we decrease friction?

One way to decrease friction is by POLISHING.

Why do you think bowling lanes are shiny? Why do
bowlers wipe their bowling balls before rolling it on the
lanes? Polished lanes and shiny surfaces help
decrease or reduce friction. This way the balls roll very
quickly with much force to topple the bowling pins.

Figure 2.3 Bowling Alley

Streamlining

Have you tried running a 100-m dash through waist-

deep water? Probably you had a really hard time. Friction is
not restricted to solids sliding over one another. Friction also
occurs in liquids and gases. Liquids or gases are called
fluids thus they exhibit the ability to flow. Fluid friction occurs
when an object moving through a fluid pushes aside some of
the fluid. Air resistance is the friction that occurs when an
object moves through air. Racing yatch is polished to a
mirror finish so they can slide through the water very easily
without the water slowing them
down. How’s that done? Fig. 2.4 Submarine

13
Racing cars, airplanes, submarines, rockets, racing boats, and motorcycles are
designed specially to reduce friction with the air or with the water. They are specially
shaped or streamlined to move more easily in water or in air. Submarines are shaped
like fishes to let move easily in water. Airplanes are streamlined like birds so they could
glide through air better.

Oiling or lubricating

Why do we usually put oil and lubricant in machines and engines? Why do
lubricants and oil reduce friction? The oil we place in machines and car engines reduces
the friction between the moving parts. The oil serves as a protective layer that prevents
the moving parts from rubbing against each other. The lubricants like cream fill the
grooves and bumps of the two surfaces in contact preventing the two surfaces to come
in direct contact with each other. Thus, there will be less catching and sticking together
of the points of the two surfaces that result to lesser friction.

Using Bearings

Did you know that wheels are used to transport

heavy objects from one place to another? Ball bearings
are used in bicycle wheels so that the bicycle will roll
freely once it moves really fast (accelerates). Ball
bearings and roller bearings are used in many engines
and machines making the surfaces roll over one
another instead of sliding or rubbing against each
Fig. 2.5 Trolley
other. This reduces friction on the surfaces in contact!

Friction is a kind of force that acts between surfaces of materials that are moving past
each other. They occur because of the irregularities in the surfaces of sliding objects.
Galileo showed during his time that a force is needed to keep an object in motion.
Otherwise, objects need no force to continue its state of motion.

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Friction is a force that always acts _____________________.

a. opposite to the object's natural motion
b. in the same direction as the object's motion
c. perpendicular to the object's motion

2. Which of the following is the best description of friction?

14
a. Friction is never a total advantage
b. Friction can never be eliminated
c. Both a and b

3. Friction increases with ____________.

a. weight c. an increase in surface area
b. volume

4. All materials below can help reduce friction EXCEPT ____________.

a. ball bearings c. sand
b. lubricants d. wax

5. All materials below can help increase friction EXCEPT ____________

a. using rubber c. using rough surfaces
b. increasing the weight d. applying wax

Key to answers on page 39

Lesson 3 Newton’s Laws of Motion

Take a look at a ball on top of a pool table.

Imagine the ball roll and eventually slow down to
stop. How would Aristotle interpret the observation?
How about the interpretations of Galileo and Newton?
How would you interpret it yourself?

It was a common thought for nearly 2000 years

that if an object was moving “against its nature” then
a force of some kind was responsible. Such motion
was possible only because of an outside force. So the
proper state of motion is one of rest. Objects,
Fig. 3.1 Ball on top of a pool
therefore, would always tend to seek a rest state of
table
motion.

Let’s have a close look at our three scientists: Aristotle, Galileo and Newton and
see their contributions to forces and motion. Below are news bits about them.

15
Bulletin:
Yesterday, Yesterday
for Today

Aristotle: A Scientist?
Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stagira, a Greek town of the Aegean coast. His
father was a physician who looked after the King of Macedonia. As a child Aristotle lived
with his uncle. When he was a teenager (17) he moved south to Athens, a very important
city in the Greek world. He probably went alone. For some twenty (20) years Aristotle
studied at the famous Academy in Athens. The principal teacher at the Academy was
Plato, a Greek teacher of great reputation. Plato was interested in logical arguments.

In Middle Age, Aristotle turned his attention to writing books that would form an
encyclopedia of knowledge. By 335 BC Aristotle has returned to Athens and has
established the Peripatetic School in the Lyceum. In the course of his teaching at the
Lyceum, he discussed logic, epistemology, physics, biology, ethics, politics, and aesthetics.
The Posterior Analytics is Aristotle’s principal work on the philosophy of science. In
addition, the Physics and Metaphysics which contains some aspects of scientific method.
His work, the Physics contains the first principles which includes:

All motion is either natural or violent

All natural motion is motion towards its natural place.
Violent motion is caused by the continuing action of an agent.
A vacuum is impossible
There would be no motion without a cause.
The velocity of a body is inversely proportional to its own resistive
power and directly proportional to the motive force applied. Thus,
no force exerted, no motion for object.
The more earth the object has, the more it moves to the earth.
Objects with more earth tends to proceed to its natural rest place, earth

Due to political unrest in 323 BC he had to leave the city and move north to the
island of Euboea. He died there one year later at the age of 62.

16
What you will do
Activity 3.1 Find out about Galileo

Below are clues about Galileo. You may use all the clues to be able to
complete the data needed for his biography.

Biographical Note (Galileo)

1. What is the full name of Galileo? ___________________________

2. When and where was Galileo born?
a. date: ______________________
b. location: ______________________
3. In what universities, colleges, and institutions did Galileo study?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

4. How was Galileo called by his classmates and schoolmates?

Nickname: ____________________________________________

5. What were his discoveries in Mechanics?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
6. Did he encounter difficulties in life? What are these?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
7. How old was he when he died? ______________________________

17
CLUES

1. Galileo is universally known by the first name only.

Guilia Ammannati bore the son of Vincenzo Galilei on the 15th of February
2.
1564 at Pisa, Italy.

Vincenzo Galilei who was then a musician and a mathematician sent his
3. son to University of Pisa to pursue medical studies. This is because
physicians then receive salaries 30X that of mathematicians.

As a student, Galileo had a brilliant wit and he could not resist making bitter
enemies due to his argumentativeness and nonconformity. He even refused
4.
to wear academic robe which cost him several fines. Because of such "the
wrangler" was his pseudonym in school.

While Galileo was at the University of Pisa, he heard lectures on geometry

5. by accident and came upon the works of Archimedes and later pursued
mathematics and sciences.

Galileo performed an experiment on the inclined plane to prove that the rate
of fall of an object is independent of its weight. The velocity of a falling ball
6.
increases steadily with time under the continuous pull of earth, but the total
distance covered increases as the square of the time.
"As the explosion of a gun", a body could move under the influence of 2
forces at one time. One force applying an initial force horizontal could keep
7. a body moving horizontally at a constant velocity. Another force applied
constantly in a vertical direction could make the same body drop downward
at an accelerated velocity.
Galileo said in his published books entitled “Mechanics” that if a structure
8.
increased in all dimensions equally, it would grow weaker.
The volume, he said further, increases as the cube of linear dimension by
9.
the strength only as the square.
A deer expanded to the size of an elephant and kept in exact proportion
10.
would collapse. Its legs would have to be thickened out of proportion.
During 1500-1600 Harvard believed in all theories held by Aristotle and
11.
Ptolemy.
12. Ptolemaic system: Earth is the center of the universe.
13. Galileo was greatly opposed by the church.
In his book, “Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems, the characters
14. were (1) a man holding the Copernican view, (2) a man holding the
Ptolemaic view, and a spectator who is presented as a fool!
Galileo was recanted and was condemned to a penance of psalm recitation
15. each week for 3 years. Before having completed his renunciation he said
”Eppur si muove” (And yet it moves!)
He died in Arceti on January 8, 1642 while dictating his idea on the result of
16. a moving body striking an immovable one. The church refused to bury him
in consecrated ground.

Key to answers on page 39

18
And so you have met Galileo and Aristotle. Now, here’s Newton.

Sir Isaac Newton

“ In the beginning of 1665, I found the method of approximating series and the rule for reducing any
dignity (power) and any binomial to such a series. The same year in May I have found the method of
tangents of Gregory and Slusius, and in November (discovered) the direct method of Fluxion (elements of
differential calculus). And in the next year in January had the theory of Colours, and in May following I
had entrance into the Method of Fluxions (integral calculus), and in the same year I have began to think
of gravity extending to the orb of the moon ...... and having thereby compared the force requisite to keep
the Moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth, and found them to answer
pretty nearly .....”

Going back to our previous question, “How would Aristotle explain the
observation that a rolling ball eventually slows down until it stops?” Aristotle would likely
say that the ball comes to a stop because it seeks its proper state – rest. . How about
the interpretations of Galileo and Newton? Galileo would likely say that once the ball is
in motion, what prevents its continued motion is another force, called friction, between
the table and the ball. How would you interpret it yourself? Of course! Only you can
answer that!

In 1665, however, a new set of ideas has been established by the famous Sir
Isaac Newton who has made great revolution in the growth of Science primarily in
Physics with his famous Laws of Motion. His three (3) Laws of Motion include the 1st
law of motion more popularly known as the Law of Inertia. In his original manuscript it
was stated as:

In other words, an object at rest tends to stay at rest.

And an object in motion continues to move in a straight line
with a constant speed unless an external force acts on it. Law of Inertia

This means that things tend to keep on doing what Everybody preserves in its
they are already doing. Books on top of the table are in a state of rest, or uniform
state of rest, they tend to stay at rest even when you quickly motion in a right line,
snap the tablecloth. unless it is compelled to
change that state by
If you slide a penny or a coin along the road, the forces impressed thereon.
penny or the coin soon comes to rest. If you let is slide
along an ice, it slides for a longer time and distance. If
you let it slide along a table which constantly emits air it continuously moves. This is
because the table offers no friction. In the absence of a force, a moving object tends to
move in a straight line indefinitely!

19
What you will do
Activity 3.2 Going nuts!

Objective
To explore the concept of inertia.

Materials: 12-in wooden embroidery hoop, coke bottle (sakto), ten – ¼ -in nuts

Procedure

1. Carefully balance the embroidery hoop

vertically on the mouth of the coke-bottle.
Stack the nuts at the lower portion of the hoop.
Quickly remove the hoop from the bottle and
get as many nuts as possible into the bottle
without touching them. Do this twice.
Fig. 3.2 Hoop on top of
the bottle
2. Carefully balance the embroidery hoop
vertically on the mouth of the coke-bottle. This
time stack the nuts on top of the hoop. Quickly
remove the hoop from the bottle and get as
many nuts as possible into the bottle without
touching them. Repeat the same procedure for
the second trial.
Fig. 3.3 Hoop on top of
Data and Results the bottle

No of nuts inside the No. of nuts inside the

Condition bottle bottle
Trial 1 Trial 2 Ave Trial 1 Trial 2 Ave
Nuts placed at the
lower portion of the
hoop
Nuts placed on top
of the hoop

Guide Questions:

1. Describe the technique that you used in order to have the highest number of
nuts inside the bottle.
2. Relate your observation to the concept of inertia.

Key to answers on page 39

20
Objects “tend to keep on doing what they are already doing.” In fact, it is the natural
tendency of objects to resist changes in their state of motion. This tendency to resist
changes in their state of motion is described as inertia. Thus, inertia is the resistance
an object has to any changes in its state of motion. But how would we know how big
inertia is?

Mass: A Measure of Inertia

Have you ever tried kicking an empty tin can? Compare it when you kick a tin
can full of cement. Which tin can doesn’t move as much? Definitely, the solid tin can
(the one with cement). This is because the solid tin can is more inert and has more
mass than an empty tin can. This means that the greater the mass the object has, the
more inert the object is and thus, the greater is its inertia. A measure of inertia – MASS!

Mass vs. Volume

Most people believe that if an object has a large mass, it must have a large
volume. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. It is a constant for every object and
is usually expressed in kilograms. Volume, on the other hand, is the measure of the
space occupied by the object. It is expressed in units such as cubic meter or liter. A
kilogram of cotton in a pillow obviously has more volume than a kilogram of nail
although they have the same mass.

What you will do

Activity 3.3 Rolling Ball

Place a ball along the corridor. Push the ball lightly. While the ball is still moving along
the corridor, ask someone to push it again. Observe what happens to the ball’s speed.

What happened to the ball’s motion or speed right after the second push? In this
case the ball moved faster. Thus, the speed of the ball has changed. In other words,
the ball has accelerated. In symbols;

∆ν
a=
∆t Law of Acceleration

The acceleration of
When you pushed the ball, which was initially at motion is ever
rest and then the ball moved. Thus, the ball accelerated proportional to the motive
during that instance. Your friend pushed the moving ball force and is made in the
and the object changed its speed – accelerates. Forces direction of the right line
are what produce acceleration. When your hands are no in which that force is
longer in contact with the ball, the ball experiences no impressed..

21
force, thus it moves with a constant velocity. This is the second law of motion according
to Newton. He realized that the acceleration produced when something is moved
depends not only on how hard the exerted force is but also on the mass of the object.
The greater the force applied on the object the greater is its change in motion or
acceleration if the mass of the object is unchanged. However, as we increase the mass
of the object, the acceleration decreases if the force applied to the object is unchanged.

More often than not, the force applied is not a single force. Other forces may act
as well. The combination of all the forces that act on an object is called the net force.
The presence of an unbalanced force, usually called the net force, creates an
acceleration of an object. In other words,

Fnet
a=
m
where:

Fnet = sum of all the forces acting on the object

m
= expressed in newton (N) [ 1kg. 2 = 1 N]
s
m = mass of the object
a = acceleration

Here’s an example:

Problem: What acceleration is produced by a 3000-N force on a 1000-kg car?

Solution:

Given:
m = 1000 kg
Fnet = 3000 N

RTF: a?

Equation: Fnet
a=
m

3000 N
a=
1000kg
m
3000kg
a= s2
1000kg

22
m
a = 3
s2

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1

If a crate accelerates at 2.5 m/s2 and if the net force exerted is about 500 N,
what is the mass of the crate?

Key to answers on page 39

Mass vs. Weight

What is your weight? What about your mass? Many are usually confused
between mass and weight. We usually say something has a lot of matter if it is heavy.
Mass is a measure of the actual material in a body and is expressed in units like
kilogram or gram. It also depends on the number and kinds of atoms that compose it.
Weight, on the other hand, is a measure of the gravitational force that acts on the
material and is dependent on the location of the material relative to the center of the
earth. On higher grounds you encounter lesser weight. It is computed as the product of
your mass or the mass of the body and the acceleration due to gravity. In symbols;

Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity

where the value of the acceleration due to gravity is about 9.8

m/s2.

Weight, like force, is expressed in a unit known as newton.

Take for example a kilogram of rice. It has a mass equivalent to a
kilogram whether it is on earth or on the moon. But the weight of 1
kilogram of rice would be very different on earth and on the moon.

Fig. 3.4 Boy leaning on

a wall

23
Did you know that you could not touch without being touched and that we
always get even?

Imagine yourself leaning against a tree. Did you

Law of Interaction topple over while you are still in contact with the tree?
Definitely not! This is because while you push or exert a
To every action there is force on the tree, the tree pushes as hard back on you.
always opposed an equal That’s why you are supported.
reaction or the mutual
actions of two bodies Newton realized that force is not isolated. But it is
upon each other are a part of the mutual interaction between one object and
always equal, and another. Consider the interaction between a bat and a
directed to contrary parts. baseball. The bat exerts a force on the baseball and lets
it fly into the air. Of course, there must also be a force
on the bat. What exerts this force? – The baseball.

The third law of motion also known as the Law of Interaction is stated as:
“Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an
equal force on the first.”

One of the pair of forces is called the “action” force. The other is called the
“reaction” force. It is important to note that for every interaction, force always occur in
pairs.

The action force in a falling stone is the pull of the earth on the stone. The
reaction to this force is the pull of the stone on the earth. Interestingly enough, the pull
of the earth on the stone is the same in magnitude to the pull of the stone on earth. But
obviously, the earth will never move towards the stone.

What you will do

Self-Test 3.2

Identify the action and reaction forces while launching a rocket ship.

Key to answers on page 40

24
What you will do
Self-Test 3.3

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. The law of inertia applies to ____________.

a. moving objects
b. objects at rest
c. both moving and not moving objects

2. If you were in a spaceship and fired a cannonball into frictionless space, the
amount of force needed to keep it moving would be ___________.
a. twice the force with which it was fired
b. the same amount of force with which it was fired
c. one half the force with which it was fired
d. zero, since no force is necessary to keep it moving

3. An object maintains its state of motion because it has __________.

a. mass
b. velocity
c. speed
d. acceleration

4. You would have the largest mass of gold if your chunk of gold weighed 1 N on
the ________.
a. moon
b. earth
c. Jupiter

5. Suppose a cart is being moved by a force. If suddenly a load is dumped into the
cart so that the cart’s mass doubles, what happens to the cart’s acceleration?
a. It quadruples.
b. It doubles.
c. It halves.
d. It quarters.

6. A tennis ball and a solid steel ball of the same size are dropped at the same
time. Which ball has the greater weight?
a. tennis ball
b. solid steel ball
c. They both have the same weight.

25
7. An apple weighs 1N. When held at rest above your head, the net force on the
apple is __________.
a. 0 N
b. 0.1 N
c. 1 N
d. 9.8 N

8. An apple weighs 1 N. The net force on the apple when it is in freefall is _______.
a. 0 N
b. 0.1 N
c. 1 N
d. 9.8 N

9. An unfortunate bug splatters against the windshield of a moving car. Compared

to the force of the car on the bug, the force of the bug on the car is _________.
a. larger
b. smaller
c. the same
10. Two people pull on a rope in a tug-of-war. Each pulls with a 400-N force. What is
the tension in the rope?
a. Zero
b. 400 N
c. 600 N
d. 800 N

Key to answers on page 40

Lesson 4 Impulse and Momentum

What do you think is the purpose of a seatbelt?

Does it really prevent us from bumping into the dashboard
of a car? Did you know that it is a lot better for a falling
clay pot to break onto your head than bounce off your
head? Did you know that a “follow through” is very
important in playing golf, baseball, and boxing? Why are
karate experts able to brake several stacks of cement
bricks with their bare hands? Why do we need to strap our
seatbelts when inside a moving vehicle? All these are
concerned with momentum – the inertia of moving objects.

Fig. 4.1. Wearing seatbelts

26
Momentum

Which is harder to stop - a massive truck or a

bicycle moving at the same speed? Obviously, the truck
has more momentum than the bicycle. Momentum
means “inertia in motion”. It tells us how difficult it is to
stop a moving object. Operationally, momentum is
defined as the product of mass and velocity. It is
expressed in units like kg-m/s and N-s. In symbols.

p = mν
Fig. 4.2. Truck and
where:
Bicycle
p = momentum
m = mass of the moving body
ν = velocity of the moving body

A truck, for example has momentum. Since the truck has mass, m and velocity,
v then the momentum of the truck is p. In short p = m x v. A moving bicycle, on the
other hand, has mass, m and velocity, v equals the velocity of the truck. Thus the
momentum of the bicylcle is p. In short; p = m x v. In the case of the car and a
skateboard, the car has greater momentum because it is much more massive than the
skateboard. On the other hand, a truck parked on the side of the road has no
momentum at all. How would you make the momentum of the truck equal to the
momentum of the bicycle initially moving at the same speed?

Fig. 4.3 Car and a skateboard

If we make the
skateboard move
very fast, then its
veloctiy will
increase. In turn,
the magnitude of
its momentum will
p=mxv
increase and will

27
equal the momentum of the truck. Therefore, an object can have large momentum if its
velocity is increased.

p = m x v

Here’s a sample problem:

Example 1

a) Calculate the momentum of a 30-kg dog running at a speed of 8.0 m/s toward the
west. (b) How fast must a 70-kg person run to have the same momentum as the dog?

Solution:
1.
Given RTF
mdog = 30 kg V
v = 8.0 m/s
mman = 70 kg

2. Equation: p = mv
3. Solution:
p = mv
pdog = pman
mdogvdog = mmanvman

m dog v
vman =
m man

(30kg )(8.0m / s )
vman =
70kg
vman = 3.43 m/s

Impulse: The Change in Momentum

When a moving cart hits a
wall, the cart stops and so its
momentum changes. If the
momentum of an object changes,
either the mass or the velocity, or
both, changes. If the mass of the
object remains constant, as is
often the case, the velocity
Figure 4.4. Car on the road
changes, then acceleration occurs.

28
This acceleration is produced by an applied force. Hence, whenever a force is applied
on an object, the momentum of the object changes.

Time of contact or how long the force acts is also a significant factor. Apply a
force briefly to an automobile and it produces a small change in momentum. Apply the
same force for a longer time and a big change in momentum happens. A long-
sustained force produces large change in momentum. Thus, for the momentum of the
object to change, we consider both the applied force and the time of contact.

Impulse is a quantity, which is known as the force multiplied by the time of

contact. If impulse is present, definitely there is a change in momentum.

I = ∆p
where:
I = impulse
∆p = change in momentum
since I = Ft
where:
F = applied force
T = time of contact

= mν
thus: Ft = m∆ν

Therefore, the application of force over a certain period of time changes the
momentum of the body. In other words;

Impulse = Change in Momentum

The impulse-momentum relationship is a good tool in analyzing varied

circumstances where momentum is changed. This includes (1) increasing momentum
and (2) decreasing momentum over a long time and decreasing momentum over a
short time.

29
What you will do
Activity 4.1 Impulse and Momentum

Objectives
1. To find the relationship between impulse and change in momentum.
2. To determine how impact force works with the time of impact if the change in
momentum is constant.

Materials
2 balls of different masses, 1 raw egg, 1 piece of used fishing net, inclined plane,

Procedure
A.
1. Let your friend roll the ball on an inclined plane placed about 30o from the
horizontal. Stop the ball at the lower end of the inclined plane.
2. Repeat procedure 1 using the other ball released from the same position. Be
sure that its velocity is the same as that of the first ball just before it is
stopped.
B.
1. Ask a friend to throw the ball twice towards you.
2. The first catch should be done without moving your hands backwards. For
the second throw move your hands backwards. (Note: Be sure that you use
the same ball and that the force exerted by your classmate in throwing the
ball is the same.)

C.
1. Throw a ball horizontally against the concrete wall.
2. Mark the point where the ball first strikes the ground after hitting the wall.
3. From the same position, repeat procedure 1 with greater force.
4. Repeat procedure 2.

D.
1. Using a fishing net, try to catch a raw egg positioned from a height of about 3
meters.
2. Observe what happens.

Guide Questions
A.
1. Which ball is harder to stop? Why?
2. What can you do to make the less massive ball harder to stop than the other
ball?
3. What factors affect the ease or difficulty in stopping objects in motion?

30
4. Answer Q.1 in terms of momentum.

B.
1. In which catch do you feel greater stopping force?
2. Compare the amount of the first with the second impact force.
3. In which catch did you notice a stopping force of greater period of time?
4. What relationship exists between impact force and duration of time?

C.
1. In which throw did the ball land farther from the wall?
2. What does longer distance traveled from the wall indicate about the velocity
of the ball after impact with the wall?
3. Compare the momentum of the 1st and 2nd throw of the ball after it leaves the
wall?
4. In which instance is the impact force greater?

Key to answers on page 40

Increasing Momentum

A “follow through” is an important thing in playing golf,

baseball, and boxing. “Follow through” helps increase the
momentum of an object. In increasing the momentum of an object,
increasing the force is a requirement. But if the time of contact is
increased the greater the change in momentum occurs – the larger
the impulse.

The forces involved in impulses are usually not uniform,

they vary from instant to instant. A bat, for example, that strikes a
Fig. 4.5. Batter baseball exerts no force until it comes in contact with the baseball.
Then the force increases rapidly as the bat and the baseball are
distorted.

Decreasing Momentum over a Long Time and Decreasing Momentum over a

Short Time

If you were to catch a raw egg with your bare hands while playing egg catch and
throw, how would you do it without breaking the egg? Playing catch and throw is very
familiar to us. Usually we move our hands backward when the object thrown at us

31
starts touching our hands. Try moving your hands forward and you will end up washing
off the egg yolk from your hands. In these cases momentum is decreased by the same
impulse. The only difference is how long the egg touches the hand. The longer the time
of contact, the lesser the force applied; and the shorter the time of contact, the greater
force is applied.
Ft = Impulse

Ft = Impulse

For this reason, why seatbelts and air bags are used as safety devices in a
vehicle. They make the time of contact between you and the dashboard of the car
longer, which lessens the force of impact.

Conservation of Momentum

If one wishes to change the momentum of an object, impulse must be applied on

it. This impulse must be applied on the object by something located outside the object.
Internal forces, however, are not considered. Try pushing the seat of your car while it is
in motion and it doesn’t affect the motion of the car at all. This is because the force you
have just exerted is an internal force. Internal forces always occur in pairs (Law of
Interaction). They act and react within the body.

Consider a rifle being fired. The force that pushes on the bullet when it is inside
the rifle is equal and opposite to the force that makes the rifle recoil. These forces are
internal to the “system” comprising the rifle and the bullet, so they don’t change the
momentum of the system. The momentum of the rifle, which is at rest, is zero (0) before
firing. Since momentum is a vector quantity, after firing, the momentum of the rifle
cancels the momentum of the bullet. No external force act on the system before and
after firing. This means that no impulse is present to change the momentum of the
system. Momentum is said to be conserved.

Consider a box as our system. Inside the box are a

gun and a bullet. If at this moment the box is at rest,
then the momentum of the box is zero.

If the box is pushed sideward, the momentum

is changed. But if the box remains at rest and the gun
fires the bullet, still the momentum of the box is zero!
Thus we can conclude that the momentum of the
body in the absence of an external force before and
after firing remains unchanged.

32
The Law of Conservation of Momentum:

In the absence of an external force, the momentum of the system remains

unchanged.

When cars collide, when nuclei decay

and when stars explode, the net momentum
before and after the event is the same. An
explosion is actually a consequence of
Newton’s third law of motion. Since no external
force is applied on the bomb, then the
momentum of the bomb is conserved!

Fig. 4.7 Explosion

What you will do

Self-Test 4.1

1. A bug and a windshield of a fast-moving car collided. Tell whether the following
statements are true or false.

a. The forces of impact on the bug and on the car are the same. __________
b. The impulses on the bug and on the car are the same. ____________
c. The changes in speed of the car and of the bug are the same. ____________
d. The changes in momentum of the bug and of the car are the same.
___________

2. When you ride a bicycle at full speed, which has the greater momentum – you or the
bike?

3. You cannot throw an egg against a wall without breaking it, but you can throw it with
the same speed into a sagging sheet without breaking it. Why?

Key to answers on page 40

33
Let’s summarize

1. Force is described as the interaction between two (2) bodies.

2. Force can either be a contact or a non-contact force.
3. Contact force is the interaction between two bodies directly touching one another.
4. Non-contact force is the interaction of the fields that exist around the two bodies.
5. The Law of inertia states that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in
motion will continue to move in a straight line with a constant speed unless an
external force acts on it.
6. Mass is a measure of inertia.
7. The Law of acceleration states that the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force and is in the same direction as the net force but
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
8. The Law of interaction states that for every action there is an equal but opposite
reaction.
9. Weight is the gravitational attraction exerted by the earth on objects.
10. Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
11. Volume is the measure of space taken up by an object.
12. Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. In symbols; p = m x v.
13. If the velocity of a moving object is increased or decreased, the momentum of the
moving body changes.
14. All less massive objects can have the same momentum as that of more massive
objects if these less massive objects will move very fast.
15. For an equivalent change in momentum, the larger the time of impact results to
lesser force. This can be the reason why we use seatbelts and airbags in cars. -
To lessen the impact force!
16. The momentum of a system is conserved if no external force acts on it.
17. Conservation of momentum is also applicable in elastic and inelastic collisions.

Posttest
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. A large truck breaks down on the

road and receives a push back into
town by a small compact car as
shown in the figure below. While the

34
car, pushing the truck is speeding up to get up to cruising speed:

a. the amount of force with which the car pushes on the truck is equal to that with
which the truck pushes back on the car.
b. the amount of force with which the car pushes on the truck is smaller than that
with which the truck pushes back on the car
c. the amount of force with which the car pushes on the truck is greater than that
with which the truck pushes back on the car.
d. the car's engine is running so the car pushes against the truck, but the truck's
engine is not running so the truck cannot push back against the car. The truck is
pushed forward simply because it is in the way of the car.
e. neither the car nor the truck exert any force on the other. The truck is pushed
forward simply because it is in the way of the car.

2. A large truck breaks down on the road and receives a push back into town by a
small compact car as shown in the figure. After the car reaches the constant
cruising speed at which its driver wishes to push the truck:
a. the amount of force with
which the car pushes on the
truck is equal to that with
which the truck pushes back
on the car.
b. the amount of force with
which the car pushes on the truck is smaller than that with which the truck
pushes back on the car.
c. the amount of force with which the car pushes on the truck is greater than that
with which the truck pushes back on the car.
d. the car's engine is running so the car pushes against the truck, but the truck's
engine is not running so the truck cannot push back against the car. The truck is
pushed forward simply because it is in the way of the car.
e. neither the car nor the truck exerts any force on the other. The truck is pushed
forward simply because it is in the way of the car.

3. Student "a" has a mass of 95 kg and student "b" has a mass of 77 kg. They sit in
identical office chairs facing each other. Student "a" places his bare feet on the
knees of student "b", as shown. Student "a" then
suddenly pushes outward with his feet, causing both
chairs to move. During the push and while the
students are still touching one another:
a. neither student exerts a force on the other.
b. student "a" exerts a force on student "b", but "b"
does not exert any force on "a".
c. each student exerts a force on the other, but "b"
exerts the larger force.
d. each student exerts a force on the other, but "a"
exerts the larger force.

35
e. each student exerts the same amount of force on the other.

4. As a 500 N lady sits on the floor, the floor exerts a force on her equal
to______________.
a. 1000 N
b. 500 N
c. 250 N
d. 50 N

5. An unfortunate bug splatters against the windshield of a moving car. Compared to

the force of the car on the bug, the force of the bug on the car is _____________.
a. larger
b. smaller
c. the same

6. An unfortunate bug splatters against the windshield of a moving car. Compared to

the deceleration of the car on the bug, the deceleration of the bug on the car is
_____________.
a. larger
b. smaller
c. the same

7. The force required to maintain an object at a constant speed in free space is equal
to ________________.
a. zero c. the weight of the object
b. the mass of the object d. the force required to stop it

8. You would have the largest mass of gold if your chunk of gold weighed 1 N on the
__________.
a. Moon c. planet Jupiter
b. earth

9. An object weighs 30 N on earth. A second object weighs 30 N on the moon. Which has
greater mass?
a. The one on earth
b. The one on the moon
c. They have the same mass

10. Which has more mass, a kilogram of feathers or a kilogram of iron?

a. feathers
b. iron
c. They both have the same mass

36
11. A rifle with a muzzle velocity of 100 m/s is fired horizontally from a tower. Neglecting air
resistance, where will the bullet be 1 second later?
a. 50 m range
b. 98 m range
c. 100 m range
d. 490 m range

12. The reason a ball rolls down a slope is ______________.

a. there is no friction between the ball and the slope
b. gravity acts parallel to the slope pulling it along
c. there is a component of weight parallel to the slope
d. the ball is being pushed along by an unknown force

13. A Ping-pong gun is fired. Compared to the force on the ball, the force on the gun is
_____________.
a. larger
b. smaller
c. the same

14. A Ping-pong gun is fired. Compared to the impulse on the ball, the impulse on the gun is
______________.
a. larger
b. smaller
c. the same

15. Suppose a gun is made of a strong but very light materials. Suppose also that the bullet is
more massive than the gun itself. For such a weapon ________________.
a. the target would be a safer place than where the shooter is located
b. recoil problems would be lessened
c. conservation of energy would not hold
d. conservation of momentum would not hold.

16. Which has more momentum, a large truck moving at 30 km/h or a small truck moving at
30 km/h?
a. large truck
b. small truck
c. Both have the same momentum.

17. The momentum change of an object is equal to the ______________.

a. force acting on it
b. impulse acting on it
c. velocity change of the object
d. force acting on it times its velocity
e. object’s mass times the force acting on it

37
18. A heavy object and a light object are released from rest at the same height and time in a
vacuum. As they fall, they have equal _____________.
a. weights
b. momenta
c. energies
d. acceleration

19. Which of the following is the correct description of momentum?

a. The product of force and time
b. The change in velocity per unit time
c. The product of force and distance
d. The product of mass and velocity

20. Which of the following is the correct unit of momentum?

a. N.m2
b. N/m2
c. N.s
d. N/s2

Key to answers on page 42

Key to answers

Pretest

1. C 11. C
2. D 12. B
3. C 13. B
4. A 14. C
5. A 15. A
6. B 16. C
7. C 17. B
8. A 18. D
9. A 19. B
10. C 20. B

38
Lesson 1

Activity 1.2

1. chair, paper and bag

2. Yes. There was contact between me and the object

Self-Test 1.1
1. F 6. nF
2. F 7. F
3. nF 8. F
4. nF 9. nF
5. nF 10. F
Lesson 2

Activity 2.1
1. yes 4. ball stopped moving
2. contact force 5. friction
3. no

Activity 2.2
1. The one with 4 books 3. The one on the rough floor
2. The one with 4 books 4. The one on the rough floor

Self-Test 2.1
1. A 4. C
2. C 5. D
3. A

Lesson 3

Activity 3.1
1. Galileo A. Galilee 5. Uniformly Accelerated Motion
2. February 15, 1564 at Pisa, 6. Galileo was recanted and condemned to a
Italy penance of psalm recitation
3. University of Pisa 7. 77 years
4. Wrangler

Activity 3.2
1. The hoop should be removed very quickly.
2. If the hoop is removed very quickly, contact force is only applied on the hoop
and not on the nuts leaving the nuts undisturbed.

Self-Test 3.1
Given:
a = 2.5 m/s2

39
F = 500 N = 500 kg m/s2
RTF: m
Solution:

F
m=
a
m
500kg
m= s2
m
2 .5 2
s
m = 200 kg

Self-Test 3.2
1. Action Force: Push of the rocket on the ground
Reaction Force: Push of the ground on the rocket.

Self-Test 3.3
1. C 6. B
2. D 7. A
3. A 8. C
4. A 9. C
5. C 10. B
Lesson 4
Activity 4.1

A.
1. The more massive ball
2. Let the ball roll slowly or slower
3. Momentum of an object depends on its mass and velocity.
4. The lesser the momentum of an object the easier it is to stop.
B.
1. The one on which the hands were not moved backwards.
2. The first throw has greater impact force
3. The 2nd throw
4. The longer the time the lesser the impact force
C.
1. The one with greater time
2. The longer the distance means the more velocity it has.
3. The first throw has lesser momentum
4. The first throw.

Self Test.4.1

1. a) True b) True c) False d) False

2. It depends on which has greater mass
3. It makes the time of contact longer thereby decreasing the impact force.

40
Lesson 1

Activity 1.1

Johannas
No. __3__ Philoponus Hey guys look at this. If I
(550 A.D.) exert an impetus an object All right! And when that
moves. Ha! A new impetus diminishes motion
discovery indeed! also diminishes. When the
Impetus keeps a body impetus is removed, the
moving. object stops moving!
No. __1__ No. __2__
No. __1__

Aristotle Let’s not call it an impetus anymore.

I don’t think that the force is Instead a force. I believe that force
proportional to the velocity. All I know is affects the velocity of moving objects.
that the velocity remains constant if there Thus, force is proportional to the
No. __5__ is no force including friction is applied. velocity. If no force is applied no
Force that affects vertical motion creates velocity for an object. Thus, the
constant acceleration. object is at rest.
No. __4__ No. __3__
Newton

What if I push an object, which is already moving horizontally?

No. __4__
Isn’t it that its velocity would also change and acceleration will
be created? Thus, force would cause acceleration in horizontal
motion, the natural acceleration actually observed in vertical
motion must be the result of a vertical force on the body.
Galileo Without this force the natural vertical motion would also be at
a constant speed, just like natural horizontal motion. This
vertical force is of course the force of gravity.
No. __2__ Jean No. __5__
Buriden
(355 A.D.)

41
Posttest

1. A 11. C
2. A 12. C
3. E 13. C
4. B 14. C
5. C 15. A
6. A 16. A
7. A 17. B
8. A 18. D
9. B 19. D
10. C 20. C

- End of Module -

References:

Carter, J. (1974).Physical science:a problem-solving approach. Massachusetts: Gin and Company.

Cohen, M. (1992). Discover science. Metro Manila: Academe Publishing House.

Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Krane, K. (1994). Fundamentals of physics. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons
Inc.

Hewitt, P. (1989). Conceptual physics (6th Ed.) London: Scoot, Foresman and Company

Heuvelen, A. (1986). Physics: a general introduction (2nd Edition). Sta. Cruz, Manila: UNI-ED Inc.,

Jones, E. and Childers, R. (1999). Contemporary college physics. New York: Mc Craw-Hill Co.

Morales, M.P. (2000). Worktext in physical sciences. Manila: PNU Press.

Young, Hugh. D. (1996). University physics (9th Edition). NY : Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.

42
Module 11
Work, Energy, Power and Machines

What this module is about

Energy is an important concept in every day life. It appears as gravitational potential

energy of objects raised to a certain height, as elastic potential energy in a stretched rubber
band, as kinetic energy of moving objects, or as chemical energy in the food that we eat.
Closely associated with energy is the concept of work. Energy is transferred to another
system when you do work. Power provides a measure of the energy expended per unit time.
Efficiency of machines provides a measure of the energy converted into useful work.

This module is about work, power, and energy. It consists of the following lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Work
ƒ Lesson 2 - Energy
ƒ Lesson 3 - Machines and Power

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. define work in a scientific sense;

2. calculate the work done by a force that moves an object through a certain
displacement;
3. show that doing work on a body increases its energy;
4. distinguish between kinetic and potential energy;
5. calculate the kinetic energy and the potential energy of a free falling object;
6. show that mechanical energy of a free falling body is conserved;
7. identify some sources of energy;
8. show how simple machines like lever and inclined plane help us do work;
9. distinguish between ideal and actual mechanical advantages of machines;
10. calculate the mechanical advantages and efficiency of machines; and
11. compare the power ratings of some electrical appliances.

1
How to learn from this module

In order to achieve the objectives of this module, here’s a simple guide for you:

1. Read and follow instructions carefully.

2. Answer the pretest before going through the lessons.
3. Take note and record points for clarification.
4. Compare your answers against the key to answers found at the end of the
module.
5. Do the activities to fully understand each lesson.
6. Answer the self check to monitor what you learned in each lesson.
7. Answer the posttest after you have gone over all the lessons.

What to do before (Pretest)

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write this on your answer sheet.

1) In which of the following situations is work being done from a scientist’s perspective?
a. a person sitting on the chair c. a person walking with a load on its head
b. a person pushing the wall d. a person lifting a box

2) Which of these equations gives the amount of work done?

a. Work = F/d c. Work = Fd
b. Work = Fgd d. Work = F/t

3) How much work is done in holding a 1-kg object 2 m above the ground?
a. zero c. 9.8
b. 2 d. 19.6

4) How much work was done on an object when a constant force of 20 N pushed it 2 m
away?
a. zero c. 20
b, 10 d. 40

2
Refer to this situation in answering questions 5-7.

An object falls freely from a certain height.

5) Which of the following happens to the object? It

a. loses PE and gains KE. c. loses both PE and KE.
b. gain PE and loses KE. d. gains both PE and KE.

6) The PE of the object at the highest point compared to its KE at the lowest point is
a. lesser. c. equal.
b. greater. d. not related.

7) The total mechanical energy of the object at the highest point compared to its total
mechanical energy at the lowest point is
a. lesser. c. equal.
b. greater. d. not related.

8) What device expends the greatest amount of energy per second?(Use the data in the
table below)

Electrical Device Power Rating (W)

Flat iron 1000
Electric fan 75
Television set 70
Fluorescent lamp 20

a. flat iron c. television set

b. electric fan d. fluorescent lamp

9) Which device expends the least?

a. flat iron c. television set
b. electric fan d. fluorescent lamp

10) What is the efficiency of a machine with AMA of 2.7 and IMA of 3?
a. 27% c. 90%
b. 30% d. 111%

For questions 11 - 13, refer to the situation:

A box weighing 1500 N is pulled along an inclined plane 4 m long and 1.5 m
high. A force of 700 N is exerted in pulling the load.

11) What is the work input in joule?

a. 700 c. 2250
b. 1500 d. 2800

3
12) What is the work output in joule?
a. 700 c. 2250
b. 1500 d. 2800

13) What is the AMA of the inclined plane?

a. 1.5 c. 2.6
b. 2.2 d. 4

14. The power in watts when a 400 N weight is lifted to a height of 6 m in 2 minutes is
a. 10
b. 20
c. 30
d. 40
15. Which of the following is NOT a unit of power?
a. watt
b. horsepower
c. joule second
d. Newton meter per second

Key to answers on page 40

Familiarity with the following terms will help you get the most from this module:

Terms Definition
1. Work - The product of a constant force magnitude and the
magnitude of the displacement

2. Joule - The unit of work which is the special name for Newton
meter

3. Energy - The capacity to do work

4. Potential - The energy due to position

energy

5. Kinetic - The energy due to motion

energy

6. Power - The rate of doing work

7. Watt - The unit of power which is the special name for Joule
per second

8.Machines - Devices that help us do work

4
9. Actual - It determines the number of times a machine multiplies
Mechanical force
Advantage

10. Ideal - The ratio of the effort distance to the resistance

Mechanical distance
Advantage

11. Efficiency - The ratio of the actual mechanical advantage to the

ideal mechanical advantage, or the ratio of the work
output to the work input

Lesson 1 Work

Think of the many things you do at home. Do you wash dishes? Do you fetch water,
scrub or sweep the floor? What does your father or any member of your family do for a
living?

In everyday usage, work is done whenever force is applied. You do work if you exert
effort and earn for such effort. In science, however, work has a different meaning. Work is
done on a body when force is applied causing that body to move. To understand more
about work, do the following activity.

What you will do

Activity 1.1 Doing Work

1. Lift a book.
2. Push a table.
3. Answer the following questions
a. Did you apply force in lifting the book? in pushing a table?
b. If yes in each case, in what direction did you apply force?
c. Did the objects move?
d. If yes, in what direction was the book moved? In what direction was the
table moved?

Key to answers on page 40

5
When you lifted the book, force was applied upward. The force you applied has a
magnitude equal to the magnitude of the book’s weight. The book also moved upward. In
this case, work was done in scientific sense.
When you pushed a table causing it to move along the floor, work was also done.
The table moved along the same direction as the force applied.

In science, you do work by exerting force on the object through a distance. The force
you exert on the object moves the object from one place to another, that is, the object
undergoes a displacement.

Fig. 1.1. Work is done when a constant force F acts in the same direction as the
displacement, d.

Work done, W, on a body by a constant force, F, acting on the body is defined as the
product of the magnitude of the force and the distance through which the object moves, or in
equation,
W = Fd

From the equation, work done on the body is greater if F is greater, or if d is greater,
or if both F and d are greater. What is the SI unit of work? Yes, you are right! The SI unit for
work is
Unit of work = unit of F x unit of d
= newton x meter (N-m)

The unit N-m is given a special name, Joule, in honor of James Prescott Joule.
Therefore
1 joule (J) = 1 newton-meter (N-m)

What is the unit of work if F is in dynes and d is in cm? That’s right! The unit of work
is dyne-cm, which is given a special name of erg. So,

1 erg = 1 dyne-cm

Now consider the situation that follows. A bag is pulled as shown in Fig. 1.2. Is work
done on the bag?

6
Fig. 1.2 A bag pulled a distance, d

A force F acts along the handle of the bag and makes an angle θ with the surface of
the table. A component of this force, Fcosθ, moves the bag along the surface of the table.
The work done on the bag is the product of this component of the force and the magnitude
of the displacement, d, along which the bag moves.

W = Fcos θ d

where θ is the angle (180º or less) between the direction of F and the direction of d. The F
and d are the magnitudes of the force and displacement vectors, respectively. They are both
scalar quantities. Also, we assume that the force and θ are constant while the object is
having a displacement.

Now, going back to the first two examples, wherein the book is lifted and the table is
pushed, could the equation

W= F cos θ d
be used? Let’s analyze.

When the bag is lifted, the direction of the force and the displacement is the same.
Therefore, θ is 0, and cos θ = 1.

The equation

W= F cos θ d

becomes

W= Fd

7
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1

Let’s see if you understand the scientific meaning of work. Fill in the table by writing
W if work is done and N if no work is done on the object.

Activity Work, W or No work, N

1. pushing a jeepney a certain
distance
2. pushing a wall
3. holding a book
4. lifting a suitcase
5. taking a load upstairs

In pushing a jeepney a certain distance, lifting a suitcase and taking a load upstairs,
work is done on the jeepney, on the suitcase and on the load, respectively. In holding a
book, although force is exerted, this force does not move the book. It only supports the
book, otherwise it will fall. Hence, no work is done on holding a book. In pushing the wall,
although force is also applied, there is no displacement, so no work is done on the wall as
well.

Remember this:

Work is done only when force applied on the object causes the object to
have a displacement in the same direction as the direction of the force, or the
component of a force.

8
Example 1
How much work is done when a force of 500 N is used to slide a heavy cabinet 1
meter across the floor?
Solution: a) Write the given quantities.
The given quantities are:
F = 500 N
D = 1m
b) Write the equation.
The equation for work is
W = Fd
c) Substitute the given quantities into the equation
W = 500 N x 1m
d) Do the mathematical operation required in the problem
Multiply to find the answer: 500 N-m
e) Answer: W = 500 N-m or 500 joules

Example 2
How much work is done in lifting a 2 kg book onto a shelf 1.5 m high?
Solution: a) Write the given quantities.
The given quantities are:
m = 2 kg
d = 1.5 m
b) Write the equation.
The equation for work is
W = Fd
But the magnitude of F = magnitude of the weight which is
W = mg
Substitute the equation for the weight into the equation
W = Fd
= mgd
The equation W = mgd is the working equation

9
c) Substitute the given quantities into the working equation
W = 2 kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 1.5 m
d) Do the needed mathematical operation:
W = 19.6 kg m/s2 x 1.5 m
= 29.40 kg m/s2 x m
e) Answer: W = 29.40 N-m or
29.40 joules
Example 3
A cart load of sand is pulled 5 m across the ground as shown below. The tension in
the rope is 300 N and is directed 30 degrees above the horizontal. How much work is done
in pulling the load?

5m

Figure 1.3 A cart load of sand is pulled across the ground

Solution: a. Write the given quantities.

The given quantities are:
d=5m
F = 300 N
θ = 30 degrees
b. Write the equation:
The basic equation is also the working equation, which is
Work = Fcos θ d
c. Substitute the given quantities into the working equation:
Work = 300 N x cos 30o x 5 m
= 300 N x 0.866 x 5 m
= 1 299 joules

10
What you will do
Self-Test 1.2

Let us see if you can follow the solutions given in the sample problems. Below are
simple problems for you to solve. Follow the procedures in solving the problems.
Problems:

1. Suppose you lift a 3 kg book from the table onto a shelf 2 m high. a) What force
must you apply to move the book at constant velocity? b) What work is done by
this force?

2. How much work is done to carry a 3 kg book from one shelf to another 4 cm
away but at the same level?

Key to answers on page 40

Are you through solving the problems? If yes, please go over your solutions to
make sure you did not make any mistake. If you are sure your solutions are correct, refer to
the answer key. If you have an error in your solution, go over the sample problems again,
then study the concepts discussed in the lesson. Review your solution. This time, I am sure
you will get the right answer. Keep working!

11
Lesson 2 Energy
You always hear the word energy. Comments like “You feel tired because you do
not have energy” or “You could not raise your hand because you do not have energy” are
quite common. In this lesson you will learn more about energy. Are you ready to do the
following activity?

What you will do

Activity 2.1 Energy: an ability to do work

1. Get a big nail and push its sharp end on a wooden block or on the soil to
make it stand.
2. Hold a piece of rock above the nail about half a meter from the nail’s head.
3. Let the rock fall straight onto the nail. Be careful. You might drop the rock
onto your foot.
4. Observe what happens to the nail.

When you dropped the rock onto the nail, you observed that the nail was pushed
down the wood or the soil. You could not push the nail if you just held the rock close to the
nail. What you did was to raise the rock and to let it fall on the nail. Did you exert force
when you raised the rock? How much force did you exert? Was work done on the nail?

When you raised the rock to a certain height, you actually exerted force to
overcome its weight. The force you exerted had the same magnitude as the rock’s weight
but opposite in direction. Since the rock was moved in the same direction as the force
applied, work was done on the rock. In that raised position, the rock had the ability to do
work. So, when you let the rock fall on the nail, the nail was pushed onto the ground or onto
the wooden block. The rock did work on the nail. The rock, in its raised position, had the
ability to do work or its energy increases. This energy was gravitational potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy is energy due to the object’s position with reference to the
earth’s surface.

12
What you will do
Activity 2.2

1. Get a plastic ruler that could be bent without breaking.

2. Hold it on the table, then, bend it. Place a piece of chalk near the bent end of the ruler.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1 a) A ruler is bent with a piece of chalk near the bent end. b) The bent end is
released

3. Release the bent end of the ruler. Describe what happened to the chalk.

Key to answers on page 41

Work was done when you bent the ruler. Energy is transferred from you to the
ruler. Because of its bent position, the ruler possesses energy. This energy due to its bent
position is elastic potential energy. If you place an object beside the bent end of the ruler,
and then, release the bent end of the ruler, the object would be hit and pushed to a
distance.
A slingshot with its rubber stretched also has elastic potential energy. If a stone is
placed in between the stretched rubber, the slingshot can do work by releasing the rubber
from your hold.

Gravitational Potential Energy

One of the most familiar forms of potential energy is gravitational potential energy.
In the previous section of this lesson, you learned about potential energy. You also learned
about what gravitational potential energy is. In this section, you will learn how to determine
gravitational potential energy. Consider again an object of mass, m, lifted to a certain height,
h. Work done on the object gives this object gravitational potential energy. The change in

13
the object’s gravitational potential energy is the work done in raising it to that height. Since
the work done on the object to raise it at that height is given by the equation,

W = mgh
then, the change in the object’s gravitational potential energy is

∆PE = mgh

where h = the height above the reference level. If the object is raised from the ground, the
reference level is the ground. If the object, however, is raised from the table, the table is the
reference level.

Using the equation we have derived, could you give the unit of gravitational
potential energy? Yes, you are right! The unit of gravitational energy is the same as the unit
of work, joule. To understand more about gravitational potential energy, let us use the
equation in solving problems. Study very well the following sample problems.

Example 1

How much potential energy is gained by a 2-kg book when it is raised 1.5 m above
the table?

Take note that we are looking for the increase in gravitational potential energy with
reference to the table top. So, the zero level is the table top.

Solution:

Let h = height above the table top

1. Write the equation that relates the given quantities and the unknown
quantities. This equation is ∆PE = mgh
2. Substitute the given quantities into the working equation. The basic
equation is also the working equation

∆PE = mgh
∆PE = (2 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(1.5 m)
= 29.4 joules

Example 2

A book with mass of 1.5 kg on a table that is 1.2 m high is raised onto a shelf. The
shelf is 2 m from the table top. a) What is the gravitational potential energy of the book
relative to the table top? b) What is the gravitational potential energy of the book relative to
the floor?

a) The zero level is the table top.

14
Solution:

1. The equation is: ∆PE = mgh

2. Substitute the given quantities into the equation.

∆PE = (1.5 kg)(9.8m/s2)(2m)
= 29.4 joules

b) The zero level is the floor.

Solution:

1. The equation is: ∆PE = mgh

2. Substitute the given quantities into the equation, then do the necessary
mathematical operations. We have

∆PE = (1.5 Kg)(9.8 m/s2)( 3.2 m)

= 47.04 joules

Are you ready to do the practice exercises? If not, go over the examples and study
the solutions. Once you are ready, go on with the practice exercises.

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1

Read and understand the problems very well. Write your answers on a piece of paper.

1. A bag of groceries with mass of 5 kg is lifted to a height of 1 m. What is the increase

in potential energy of the bag at this point?

2. What is the increase in potential energy of a 5-kg barbell when it is lifted by the
weightlifter 2 m above the floor?

Key to answers on page 41

15
Kinetic Energy

The total work done on a body is related not only to the body’s displacement but also
to the changes in its speed. Work done is transformed into energy due to motion, or kinetic
energy.

To derive an expression for kinetic energy, let us analyze what happens to a body
when a constant force, F, is exerted on it along the horizontal. Due to this force, the body
moves a distance, d. We say work is done on the body, which is, W = Fd. Using Newton’s
second law, we can replace the force by the product of mass and acceleration giving us

W = (ma)(d).

If the body was initially moving in the direction of F with a speed v1, then after moving
through a distance d it will have a speed v2. Using the equation for motion you studied in the
previous modules, this speed may be expressed as

v22 = v12 + 2ad

Rearranging the last expression and multiplying by m/2, we have,

2ad + v12 = v2
2ad = v22 - v12
(2ad = v22 - v12) m/2
mad = ½ mv22 – ½ mv12.

But, the expression (ma)(d) = W, so,

W = ½ mv22 – ½ mv12.

Recall that work done on the body in this case changes the body’s motion. The
quantity ½ mv2 is called kinetic energy, KE. The equation W = ½ mv22 – ½ mv12 means that
the work done on a body by the net force acting on it is equal to the change in kinetic energy
of the body.

Think about it!

What is the SI unit of kinetic energy?

Using the equation KE = ½ mv2, we can derive the SI unit of kinetic energy. Since the
SI unit of m is kg and the SI unit of v is m/s, then, the SI unit of KE is

KE = ½ mv2

16
joule = kg(m/s)2
= kgm2/s2

The unit, kgm2/s2 may also be written as (kgm/s2)(m), or N-m. Do you still recall that
the unit N-m was given a special name, joule?

Let us use the equation we just derived to solve problems on kinetic energy.

Example 1

A 5-kg body moves with a speed of 7m/s. What is its kinetic energy?

Solution:
1.
The basic equation is KE = ½ mv2
2. Substitute the given quantities into the equation. We have

KE = ½ mv2
= ½ (5 kg)(7 m/s)2
= 122.5 joules

Example 2

What is the kinetic energy of a baseball with mass of 2kg moving at a speed of 4m/s?

Solution:

1. The basic equation is KE = ½ mv2.

2. Substitute the given quantities into the equation:

KE = ½ mv2
= ½ (2 kg)(4 m/s)2
= 16 joules

What you will do

Activity 2.3

Study the example problems using the equation for kinetic energy. Then, try solving
the problems that follow.

1. A 2-kg fish is swimming with a speed of 0.1 m/s. What is its KE?

2. What is the KE of a 5-kg object moving at a speed of 4 m/s?

Key to answers on page 41

17
What you will do
Self-Test 2.2

Tell whether each statement is true or false:

1. When work that is done on a body increases its velocity, then, there is an increase in
the kinetic energy of the body.
2. The kinetic energy of a more massive object at rest is greater than that of a less
massive moving object.
3. If the velocity of a moving object is doubled, its kinetic energy is also doubled.
4. The unit of kinetic energy is the same as the unit of work.
5. The unit kg m2/s2 is also a unit of energy.
Key to answers on page 41

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Let us try to examine what happens to the mechanical energy of a free falling body.
But, before that, let us first recall the concept of free fall.

What you will do

Activity 2.4

Look at Fig. 2.2 below showing the position of a free falling body. Using
the data in the figure, answer the following questions:

1. What is the speed of the object when it is still held at the starting point?
2. What happens to the speed of the object as it falls?
3. What is the change in velocity per unit time or the acceleration of the object?

44.1 m

Fig. 2.2 An object held a certain height is released

4. What is the total distance of the object from the ground when it is at the
starting point (t = 0 s)?
5. What happens to the object’s distance from the ground as it falls?

Key to answers on page 42

18
Did you observe that the speed of the object increased as it falls? The speed
increased at the rate of 9.8 m/s every second or its acceleration was 9.8 m/s2. Do you
remember that this is the acceleration due to gravity?

Did you also observe that the total distance of the object from the ground at the initial
position was 78. 4 m, and as the object fell, its distance from the ground decreased?

Now let us determine what happens to the free falling object’s kinetic energy and
potential energy.

What you will do

Activity 2.5

1. Study the solution in determining the kinetic energy and the potential energy at t = 0 s
and t = 1 s. Then, compute the KE and PE at the other remaining positions. Enter
your results in the summary in Table 2.1 (Assume mass of the object is 1.0 kg).

2. Compute also the change in PE and the change in KE at every position and enter
results in Table 2.1

Example 1

At t = 0 s, the object is 78.4 m from the ground. Assuming that the mass of the object
is 1 kg, and using the equations for PE, we have

PE = mgh
= (1 kg)(9.8 m/s2 )(78.4 m)
= 768.32 J
The KE at t = 0 s is,

KE = ½ mv2
= ½ (1kg)(0)2
=0
The total mechanical energy of the free falling object at t = 0s is

TME = PE + KE
= 768.32 + 0
= 768.32 J

19
At t = 1 s, the potential energy is,

PE = mgh
PE = (1 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(78.4 m – 4.9 m)
PE = (9.8kg m/s2)(73.5 m)
PE = 720.30 J

The kinetic energy at t = 1 s is,

KE = ½ mv2
KE = ½(1 kg)(9.8 m/s)2
KE = 48.02 J

The total mechanical energy is,

TME = PE + KE
TME = 720.30 J + 48.02 J
TME = 768.32 J

Table 2.1 Summary of the Mechanical Energy of a Free Falling Body

Time (s) PE (J) KE (J) TME (PE + KE) Change in Change in

J PE (J) KE (J)
0 768.32 0 768.32 0 0
1 720.30 48.02 768.32 48.02 48.02
2
3
4

Key to answers on page 42

Were you able to complete the table correctly. If yes, congratulations! You may
proceed to the next activity. If not, go over your solutions again. Do not stop unless you
master the computations, and you have completely filled up the blank spaces in the table.
Keep working! Have patience! You may also ask your teacher to help you in case you have
difficulty completing the table.

20
What you will do
Activity 2.6

Using the data on Table 2.1 of a free falling object, answer the following questions:

1. What happens to the potential energy as the object freely falls?

2. What happens to the kinetic energy as the object freely falls?
3. Compare the change in potential energy with the change in kinetic energy
as the object freely falls.
4. Describe the total mechanical energy as the object freely falls.
5. Is mechanical energy conserved? Explain your answer.

Key to answers on page 42

Did you observe that the potential energy decreased as the object fell? Did you
also observe that in a freely falling body, as the potential energy decreases, the kinetic
energy increases? Notice that as the object freely falls, the change in potential energy
equals the change in kinetic energy. For example, at t = 1 s, the decrease in potential
energy, 48.02 J, is the same as the increase in kinetic energy. At all positions, the change in
kinetic energy is equal to the change in potential energy. We may conclude that mechanical
energy is conserved. What is lost as potential energy becomes kinetic energy. What you
observed is a good example of conservation of energy.

From the activities can you now give a general definition of energy? How do you
differentiate potential energy from kinetic energy?

Energy is the ability to do work.

The two basic forms of energy are potential energy and kinetic energy.
Potential energy is energy due to position while kinetic energy is energy due to
change in position.

21
Think about this!

As an object falls, will the change in kinetic energy be always the same as the
change in potential energy? What do you think will happen if air friction acts on an object as
it falls?
If air friction acts on the object, potential energy still decreases, but the decrease in
potential energy is no longer equal to the change in kinetic energy. Actually, it will be greater
than the change in kinetic energy. Potential energy lost is not totally converted to kinetic
energy. Some of the energy is converted into thermal energy of the molecules of air the
object encounters. If you could measure the temperature of the air around the object, there
would be a little increase in the temperature of the air.

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that in an isolated system, the

total amount of energy is conserved.

The law of conservation of energy tells us that, although energy changes to other
forms in a given system, the total amount of energy cannot change. For example, when an
object freely falls, the total energy gained when it is raised from the ground to a certain
height remains the same. It is only transformed from gravitational potential energy to kinetic
energy. When it rests on the ground, the kinetic energy is transformed to thermal energy of
the ground and the part of the object that touches the ground.

What you will do

Activity 2.7

Tie a stone at the end of a string. Hold the string at the other end. Set the stone
into vibration. This will be your swinging pendulum.

1. Explain how conservation of mechanical energy is involved in the swinging of the

pendulum.
2. What enables the Space Shuttle in the Enchanted Kingdom to loop a loop?

Key to answers on page 42

Sources of Energy

Conservation of energy happens everywhere. Energy constantly changes from one

form to another and the flow of energy never stops. But, the total energy remains the same.
When you turned on the electric lamps, energy changes from electrical to light and heat.

22
But, if you trace where this electrical energy comes from, you will find that there are many
sources of energy.

Sources of Electrical Energy

The most common source of electrical energy worldwide is coal. It is burned in coal
fired power plants. The heat obtained from burning coal is used to boil water and produce
steam. The steam runs the turbines where electricity is generated. Electricity, in turn, is
distributed to the community by electric companies. When you turned on the electric lamps,
you tapped into that energy.

Heat from under the earth is another source of electrical energy being harnessed in
geothermal power plants. Steam from underneath the earth is tapped. It is used to turn the
blades of the turbines. The generator converts the mechanical energy in the turbines to
electrical energy.

Another source of electrical energy is the energy released by atomic nucleus

during controlled nuclear reaction in nuclear power plants. A large amount of energy is
released during the fission of the nucleus of an atom of a radioactive element like uranium.
This tremendous amount of energy is used to run the turbines in nuclear power plants.
Electricity is thus generated and distributed to the community.

Generally, the basic processes in power plants are the same. The blades of the
turbines must be made to turn to generate electricity. Thus, mechanical energy is converted
to electrical energy. The difference among these power plants is the source of energy that
turns the blades of the turbines.

What you will do

Activity 2.8

Answer the following questions:

1. Identify the sources of electrical energy discussed in this module.

2. What are the basic processes common to all power plants?

Key to answers on page 42

23
Research Work

1. Are there power plants in your locality? What are the sources of electrical
energy in these power plants?
2. Aside from producing electrical energy, what are the other uses of energy
derived from fuels such as coal?

Nonrenewable Resources

Fuels are substances that may be burned to produce heat, light, or power. The
most commonly used fuels are dried dung or animal wastes, wood, peat, and coal. There
are also manufactured fuels such as charcoal, coke, and water gas. Lately, petroleum and
natural gas have come in widespread use.

Fossil fuels are carbon–rich deposits of ancient life that burn with flame. These
have been the most important energy source during the past centuries. Fossil fuels include
coal, oil or petroleum, and natural gas. They account for approximately 90% of all energy
consumed by industrial nations.

Estimates by geologists reveal that it takes millions of years to form fossil fuel
deposits. Although the natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels still
continue today, the rate of using fossil fuels is very, very much greater than the rate of their
formation. They are, therefore, classified as nonrenewable resources. They cannot easily be
replaced.

What you will do

Activity 2.9

Answer the following questions:

1. Give one nonrenewable energy source.

2. What form of energy is present in the following?
a. a swinging pendulum
b. a uranium atom underneath the earth
c. water in dams
c. fossil fuels
3. How do you think can you help to solve the problem of energy shortage?

Key to answers on page 43

24
Lesson 3 Machines and Power
You may have observed some people pushing a heavy rock using a piece of wood.
There are also those who carry water in a pail using a piece of wood. A pail of water is hung
at each end of the pole with its middle resting on the shoulder. Have you noticed the device
used at the top of the flag pole to raise the flag? These are simple machines. Simple
machines are tools with one or two parts that make work easier.

What are machines? These are devices that help us do work easier. In what way
do machines help us do work easier? Suppose that you want to transfer a heavy rock in
your garden. You could not do this using your bare hands. Probably, you will use a long
piece of wood or a crowbar, if you have. Look at the picture below to see how a lever, like
the crowbar works.

(a)

Fig. 3.1 a)A rock being transferred using a long piece of wood or crowbar. b)
Schematic diagram for a).

Basic Types of Machine

There are only two basic types of machines. These are the lever and the inclined
plane. The other simple machines are modifications of the lever or the inclined plane.

The Lever

A lever has a fulcrum. This is the point where the lever is supported. Can you
identify in the picture (Figure 3.1) where the fulcrum is? Notice that the man pushes down

25
on one side of the bar. The opposite side of the bar pushes up on the rock and lifts one side
of the rock. The distance from the man’s force (effort) to the fulcrum is the effort arm. The
distance from the rock (the resistance) to the fulcrum is the resistance arm. In using a
lever, you apply less effort, but this is used to lift heavy load. The lever helps us do work by
increasing the force we exert.

What you will do

Activity 3.1

1. Find a heavy rock in your backyard. Try to lift and move it 0.5 m across.
2. Place one end of the bamboo pole or any wooden pole under the rock and pull up on
the end not under the rock. What do you observe?
3. Repeat #2 until the rock is moved 0.5 m across the ground.
4. Compare the force you exerted to move the rock.
5. How did the lever (the bamboo pole) help you do work?

Key to answers on page 43

Did you notice that you exerted less effort in transferring the rock across the
ground using the lever? However, you could move the rock only a little distance at a time.
The lever helps you do work by increasing the force you apply, but this is done at the
expense of speed. Using the lever, you do the work easier, that is, you exert less effort, but
you do the work slowly.

Three Classes of Lever

Think of the tools you used at home that are examples of lever. Aside from the
seesaw, there are many tools used at home and in your community that are lever. There are
three classes of levers: first class, second class and third class levers (Fig. 3.2)
The seesaw is a first class lever. The fulcrum is between the effort and the
resistance. The wheelbarrow is an example of a second class lever. The resistance is
between the effort and the fulcrum. The ice tong is a third class lever. Effort is exerted at the
middle to close the open ends in picking up the ice. The other end joined by a screw is the
fulcrum.

Fig. 3.4 Three Classes of lever

26
The Inclined Plane

Suppose that you want to raise a heavy load unto the truck. To do this, you use a
wooden plank, one end of which is on the ground while the other end is resting on the rear
of the truck. The load is pushed up or pulled up along the plank. You would probably find out
that it is easier to push the load up the plank than to lift it. To find out how this plank helps
you do work, do the activity that follows.

What you will do

Activity 3.2

1. Get a heavy load, let’s say, one sack of rice or one sack of sand.
2. Try to lift this onto a platform as shown in Figure 3.3 (a)

a.

3. Now, place a plank or a piece of wooden board to a support as shown (Fig.

3.3 b ).
4. Place the heavy load on the lower end of the plank, and then push this
along the plank onto the raised end. Feel the force that you apply.
5. Compare the force you need to exert in lifting the load with the force
needed to push it along the plank.

The plank is an inclined plane. The plank helps you do work by exerting lesser
force than when lifting the object. The force you apply in using an inclined plane is used to
lift heavy load.

27
To have more quantitative results and to understand very well how the inclined
plane works, do this activity in school. Ask your teacher to help you get the materials for this
activity.
What you will do
Activity 3.3

1. Place an inclined plane to a support as shown (Fig. 3.6)

1.
2. Fig. 3.6 An inclined plane

3. Pull a cart with a 500-g load along the inclined plane with a spring balance.
While pulling the load constantly, get the reading on the spring balance and
record it.
4. Multiply the load of 500 grams by 980 cm/s2. This is the weight of the load.
This is also the resistance force.
5. Compare the resistance with the force obtained in no.2.

In the activity, notice that the force applied in pulling the load up the inclined plane is
less than the weight of the load. The inclined plane helps us do work by exerting less effort
in moving a heavy load to a certain height. This simple machine helps us do work by
increasing the force we apply.

Work on an Inclined Plane

Lifting the load directly requires a large force acting through a small distance, such
as the height of the truck. If the load is pushed up the inclined plane onto the truck, a
smaller force is needed, but the load moves a greater distance, the length of the inclined
plane. The force exerted in pushing the load is the effort, E. The length of the inclined plane
is the distance the effort is moved. This is the effort distance, dE. If the magnitude of this
force is multiplied by the distance the effort is moved, what do we have? You are right! Work
is done. This work is the input work. In equation,

28
Input work = E x dE

What is the effect of doing this work? Very good! The load is moved to the top of
the inclined plane, and onto the rear of the truck. The load is raised to a certain height. The
weight of the load is the resistance, R while the height of the inclined plane is the distance
the resistance is moved. This is the resistance distance, dR. If the magnitude of this force is
multiplied by the resistance distance, the product is the output work or the work done by
the machine. In equation,

Output work = R x dR

It is a common observation that it is easier to walk or push or pull up a long gentle

slope than a short, steep one. Less force is exerted on the long slope than on the short one.

Other uses of Machines

The bicycle helps us do work by increasing the speed. However, this is done at the
expense of force. When you step in the pedal and exert force, the pedal rotates around the
crank axle. The pedaling action is transmitted to the rear wheel causing it to rotate and drive
the bicycle forward. You need to exert greater force than the force you exert when you just
walk. But work is done faster.

Do you notice how a single fixed pulley at the top of the flagpole operates? How
does a single-fixed pulley help us do work? To raise the flag to the top of the flagpole, the
rope to which the flag is attached is pulled down. The rope passes through the grove of the
pulley. The magnitude of the force applied is no greater than the force due to the flag’s
weight. Force applied is not increased using the single-fixed pulley. Instead, the pulley helps
us do work by changing the direction of the force.
Another way by which a machine helps us do work is by transforming energy. A
generator transforms mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Think about it!

How else do machines help us do work?

29
Mechanical Advantage

In the activity on the inclined plane, notice also that the force applied in pulling the
load up the inclined plane is less than the weight of the load. The inclined plane helps us do
work by exerting less effort in moving a heavy load to a certain height. Do you recall that this
simple machine helps us do work by increasing the force we apply? The number of times a
machine multiplies force is its mechanical advantage. To determine this, we divide the
resistance force by the effort. This is the actual mechanical advantage, AMA. In equation,

Resistance
AMA = -------------------- or
Effort

R
AMA = --------------------
E

If friction is neglected, the mechanical advantage is the ratio of the effort distance
to the resistance distance. This is the ideal mechanical advantage, I.M.A. , or

length
I. M.A. = --------------, or
height

L
I.M.A. = -------------
H

Other Simple Machines

The other simple machines like the wheel and axle, wedge, screw, and the pulley
are modifications of the lever and the inclined plane. You have seen one use of the pulley,
that of changing the direction of the force. Combination of two or more pulleys has another
use. Have you seen how a car mechanic raises the engine of a car that is to be repaired? A
system of pulleys is used for this purpose. To find out how a combination of pulleys work, do
the activity below.

30
What you will do
Activity 3.4

Ask your teacher to help you secure the materials you will need in this activity.
You will need the following:
ƒ 2 pulleys
ƒ strong string about 3 m long
ƒ 1 500 - g standard mass
ƒ 1 spring balance

Procedure:

1. Arrange the pulleys as shown in figure 3.7

2. Lift a 500-g load, and as you lift it determine the reading in spring balance.
3. Record data on a sheet of paper.
4. Do steps 1-3 but use a different load.

Answer the questions that follow:

1. Compare the readings in the spring balance with the weight of the load.
2. What does the reading in the spring balance represent?
3. What does the 500-g load represent?

The force obtained by multiplying the 500-g load by the acceleration due
to gravity is the resistance force. The reading in the spring balance is the effort.

Fig. 3.7 A single fixed-pulley

31
What you will do
Activity 3.5

1. Study Fig. 3.8 showing how pulleys are used to lift objects.

a b c d
Fig. 3.8 Different types of pulley

1. Answer the questions that follow:

a. How many strands support the weight in Fig. a? What is its IMA?
b. How many strands support the weight in Fig. b? What is its IMA?
c. How many strands support the weight in Fig. c? What is its IMA?
d. How many strands support the weight in Fig. d? What is its IMA?

Key to answers on page 43

Notice that in figure a, there is only one strand supporting the load. The IMA is 1. In
figure b, there are two strands supporting the load and the IMA is 2. In figure c, there are
three strands supporting the load and the IMA is 3. In figure d, there four strands supporting
the load and the IMA is 4.

Generally, the IMA of a pulley system is the number of

strands supporting the load.

32
What you will do
Self-Test 3.1

Fill in the blanks with the correct words or phrases to complete the statements:
1. _________ are devices that help us do work.
2. The two basic types of machines are the _________ and ________.
3. There are ________ classes of lever.
4. The point where the lever is supported is called _________.
5. The effort multiplied by the effort distance gives the machine’s _________.
6. _______is the product of the resistance and the resistance distance.
7. The number of times a machine multiplies force is its________.
8. ________ determines the IMA of the pulley system.

9. The IMA of a pulley system is determined by counting the ___________ supporting

the load.
10. The single fixed pulley has an IMA equal to _______.

Key to answers on page 43

You often hear somebody saying that an athlete is more powerful than another, or
that animals are more powerful than humans. What really is power?

Power provides a measure of both the amount of work done or the amount of energy
expended and the time it takes to do it. If you do a physical task quickly you have more
power than when you do the same task slowly.

In science, power is defined as the rate at which work is done or the rate at which
energy is expended, or is transferred, or transformed. In equation,

Power = work/time
or
Power = energy/time

What is the SI unit of power? Since the SI unit of work is joule and the SI unit of time
is second, the SI unit of power is Joule/second. This is given a special name, watt, in honor
of James Watt. So,

1 watt (W) = 1 joule (J)/second (s)

33
A bigger unit, kilowatt (kW) is also commonly used. This is the commonly used unit of
electrical power. However, we still use the English system unit of power which is the
horsepower. The power of some electrical devices like the motor of air-condition is still
expressed in horsepower.

1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts

You might be familiar with the unit kilowatt hour (kWh) seen on electrical bills. What
quantity has this as the unit? The equation defining power as energy divided by time maybe
written as
Energy = power x time

Using the above equation, if power is expressed in kilowatt and time is in hour, the
unit of energy is kilowatt-hour.

What you will do

Self- Test 3.2

Fill in the blank to complete each statement:

1. ________ is defined as the rate at which work is done.
2. The SI unit of power is j/s which is given a special name _________.
3. A horsepower is equivalent to _________watts.
4. _______ is equal to power x time.
5. Kilowatt-hour is a unit of ________.

Key to answers on page 43

34
What you will do
Activity 3.6

Look at the power rating in the electrical devices you use at home. Indicate
this opposite the electrical device in the table below:

Electrical Device Power Rating (W) Power Rating (hp)

Electric fan
Refrigerator
Rice cooker
Flat iron
Television set

Key to answers on page 43

Many power tools are still in horsepower. Some air conditioners, for example, have
power rating of 1 hp, others with power ratings of 2 hp. An electric household mixer uses a
motor with a power of ¼ hp.

Which is more powerful?

Suppose that hollow blocks are to be loaded onto a truck. What are two ways of
doing this? First, a person could lift the hollow blocks one at time and place them on the
truck. Second, a forklift could be used to lift the hollow blocks all at the same time. Compare
the work done when a person is able to lift all the hollow blocks one at a time and the work
done using the forklift.

You are right! The same amount of work is done. The force on each hollow block is
equal to the magnitude of the weight of the hollow block. The total force exerted to lift all the
hollow blocks times the distance they are moved (the height of the truck) is the same
whether the blocks are loaded one at a time or all at the same time. But, the power in lifting
the hollow block one at a time is lesser than when the blocks are loaded at once.

35
Example Problem 1

Suppose that the mass of all the hollow blocks is 900 kg. If the truck bed has a weight
of 1.3 m, how much work is done in lifting the hollow blocks onto the truck bed? If the forklift
does the work in 15 seconds, what is the power? If the person does the same work in 1
hour, what is the person’s power? In which situation is power greater?

Solution:

The amount of work done in lifting the hollow blocks is

Work = mgd
= 900 kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 1.3 m
= 11 466 J

The power of the forklift is

Power = Work/Time
= 11446 joules/15 seconds
= 764.4 W
The power of the person is

Power = Work/time
= 11 446 J / 1 h
= 11 446 J / 3600 s
= 3.185 W

Notice that in problem 1, the forklift has greater power than the person. The same
amount of work is done, but work was done in a shorter time using the forklift.

What you will do

Activity 3.7

Read and understand the following problems. Then, solve. If you are through,
check your solution.

1. How much electrical energy per second is consumed in an incandescent bulb that
has a power rating of 50 watts?

2. What is the power of an engine that does 3000 joules of work in 4 seconds?

Key to answers on page 44

36
Let’s summarize

1. Work is done on a body when force is applied causing that body to move.
2. Work is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force and the distance
through which the object moves. In equation,
W = F x d, or
W = F cos Ө d.
The SI unit of work is Nm or joule.
3. Energy is the ability to do work. Doing work on a body increases its energy.
4. Kinetic energy is energy due to motion. To calculate the increase in kinetic energy
of a body, we use the equation

KE = ½ mv2
5. Potential energy is energy due to position. To determine the gravitational energy
we use the equation
PE = mgd.
The SI unit of energy is the same as the unit of work which is joule.
6. The kinetic energy of a free falling body increases while its potential energy
decreases.
7. The total mechanical energy of a free falling body remains the same or is
conserved. The loss in potential energy equals the increase in kinetic energy.
8. Some sources of energy are heat from under the earth, energy released by atomic
nucleus and fossil fuels.
9. Machines help us do work by multiplying force, changing the direction of force,
transferring energy, transforming energy, and increasing speed.
10. Mechanical advantage is the number of times a machine multiplies force. Actual
mechanical advantage is the ratio of the resistance to the effort while ideal
mechanical advantage is the ratio of the effort distance to resistance distance.
11. Power is the rate of doing work. In SI it is expressed in watts.

37
Posttest

I. Complete each of the following sentences with a word or phrase that will make the
sentence correct.

1. ____________ is the ability to do work.

2. The energy stored in a stretched spring is called ____________.
3. The total mechanical energy of a body is the sum of its potential energy and
____________ energy.
4. In the presence of _____________, the final mechanical energy is less than the initial
mechanical energy.
5. When a basketball and a pingpong ball are thrown with the same velocity, the kinetic
energy of the basketball is ____________ the kinetic energy of the pingpong ball.
6. The mechanical energy of a free-falling body is ____________.
7. Efficiency of a machine is the ratio of its actual mechanical advantage to its
____________.
8. ____________ is the amount of work done per unit time.
9. ____________ is the rate of doing work.
10. A ¾ -hp motor has a power equal to ____________ watts.

II. Choose the letter of the best answer and write this on a piece of paper.

1. In science, which statement correctly describes work?

a. Work is done whenever force is applied.
b. Work is done when you are paid for the effort exerted.
c. Work is done when force applied moves the object through a distance.
d. Work is done when force is applied for a longer time.

2. In which situations shown in the figures below is work done equal to zero?

(a) (b)

38
(c) (d)
3. A force of 25 N is used to slide a 150-N sofa, 5 m across a floor. How much work is
done on the sofa?
a. 0 joule b. 125 joules c. 245 joules d. 750 joules
4. How much work is done in holding a 2-kg book 2 m above the ground?
a. 0 joule b. 4 joules c. 19.6 joules d. 39.2 joules

5. An object lifted to a height of 5 meters gained 1000 J of potential energy. Then, it is

allowed to freely fall. What is its kinetic energy when it hits the ground?
a. zero J c. 5000 J
b. 1000 J d. 50000 J

6. A 1-kg ball rolling with a speed of 2 m/s has a kinetic energy equal to
a. 1 J c. 4 J
b. 2 J d. 8 J

7. If air resistance is zero, the kinetic energy of a falling object at the lowest position is
________ its potential energy at the highest position.
a. less than c. greater than
b. equal to d. not related to

8. Which description of the following machines is INCORRECT?

a. wheelbarrow – 1st class lever
b. seesaw – 1st class lever
c. ice tong – 3rd class lever
d. human arm – 1st class lever

9. How does the pulley in the flagpole help us do work? It

a. increases the force applied.
b. makes work faster.
c. changes the direction of force.
d. transforms energy.

10. The rate at which work is done is called

a. power.
b. displacement.
c. kinetic energy.
d. potential energy.

Key to answers on page 44

39
Key to Answers

Pretest
1. d
2. c 9. d
3. a 10. c
4. d 11. d
5. a 12. c
6. c 13. b
7. c 14. b
8. a 15. c

Lesson 1

Activity 1.1
3. a. Yes. Force is applied in lifting the book. Force is also applied in pushing the table.
b. The force in lifting the book is directed upward while the force in pushing the book is
directed parallel to the floor.
c. Yes. The objects moved.
d. The book was moved in the same direction as the force applied on it. The table was
also moved in the same direction as the force applied on it.

Self-Test 1.1
1. W
2. N
3. N
4. W
5. W

Self – Test 1.2

1. a. Given:
m = 3 kg
Required:
F
Equation:
F = mg
= 3 kg x 9.8 m/s2
= 29.4 N
b. Given:
F = 29.4N
d=2m
Required:
W

40
Equation:
W=Fxd
= 29.4 N x 2 m
= 58.8 J

Lesson 2

Self – Test 2.1

1. Given:
m= 5 kg
h= 1 m
Required: ∆PE
Solution:
∆PE = mgd
= mgh
= 5 kg X 9.8 m/s2 X 1 m
= 49.0 Joules
2. Given:
m= 5 kg
d= 2 m
Required: ∆PE
Solution:
∆PE= mgd
= 5kg X 9.8 m/s2 X 2 m
= 98 Joules

Activity 2.2
3. the chalk was pushed forward when the ruler was released from being bent.

Activity 2.3

1. Given:
m= 2 kg
v= 0.1 m/s
Required: KE
Solution:
KE = ½ mv2
= ½ (2kg)(0.1 m/s)2
= 1 kg (.01 m2/s2 )
= .01 kg m2/s2 or
= .01 J

2. Given:
m= 5 kg
v= 4 m/s
Required: KE

41
Solution:
KE= ½ mv2
= ½ (5 kg) (4m/s)2
= 40 J

Activity 2.4

1. speed = 0
2. The speed of the object increases as it falls.
3. Acceleration = 9.8 m/s2
4. Total distance of the object when it is at the starting point is 78.4 m.
5. The object’s distance from the ground decreases as it falls.

Activity 2.5
Table Summary of the Mechanical Energy of a Free Falling Body

Time PE (J) KE (J) TME (PE +KE) Change in Change in

(s) J PE (J) KE (J)
0 768.32 0 768.32 0 0
1 720.30 48.02 768.32 48.02 48.02
2 576.24 192.08 768.32 192.08 192.08
3 336.14 432.18 768.32 432.18 432.18
4 0 768.32 768.32 768.32 768.32

Activity 2.6
1. The potential energy decreases as the object freely falls.
2. The kinetic energy increases as the object freely falls.
3. The change in potential energy is equal to the change in kinetic energy at every
position as the object freely falls.
4. The total mechanical remains the same as the object freely falls.
5. Yes. Mechanical energy is conserved. Although the potential energy decreases, the
kinetic energy increases. Whatever is lost as potential energy is gained as kinetic
energy, so the total mechanical energy remains the same.

Activity 2.7
1. There is a continuous change of PE to KE to PE as the object swings back and forth.
2. The change in potential energy as the space shuttle moves down is converted to kinetic
energy that enables it to move upward. Energy is conserved.

Activity 2.8
1. The sources of electrical energy are coal, geothermal or heat from under the earth,
nuclear energy or energy from fission of nucleus.
2. The blades of the turbines must turn to generate electricity.

42
Activity 2.9
1. The nonrenewable energy source is fossil fuel like coal.
2. a) PE and KE c) mechanical energy
b) nuclear d) chemical energy
3. We can help solve the problem of energy shortage by living a simple life. Use electrical
devices when needle. Ride a bus instead of driving car when alone. Join car pools.

Lesson 3
Activity 3.4
1. The reading in the spring balance is equal to the magnitude of the weight of the load.
2. The reading in the spring balance represents the effort force.
3. The force obtained by multiplying the 500 – g load by the acceleration due to gravity
represents the resistance force.

Activity 3.5
2. a. There is one strand supporting the weight in Fig. a. The IMA of the pulley is 1.
b. There are two strands supporting the load, so the IMA is 2.
c. There are 3 strands supporting the load in Fig. c, so the IMA is 3.
d. There are 4 strands supporting the load in Fig. d, so the IMA is 4.

Self –Test 3.1

1. machines
2. lever; inclined plane
3. three
4. fulcrum
5. input work
6. output work
7. actual mechanical advantage
8. number of strands supporting the load
9. number of strands
10. one

Self –Test 3.2

1. power
2. watt
3. 746
4. work or energy
5. work or energy

Activity 3.6
Sample answer

43
Electric Fan
Power rating = 75 watts
Power rating in hp = 75 W x 1hp / 746 W
Power rating = .10 hp

Activity 3.7
1. Given:
P= 50 W
T= 1 s
Required: E
Solution:
E= Pt
= 50 W X 1s
= 50 J/s X 1s
E= 50 J

2. Given:
Work= 3000 J
t= 4 s
Required:
Power
Solution:
Power= work/time
= 3000 J/4 s
Power= 750 watts

Posttest

I. 1. Energy
2. Elastic Potential energy
3. Kinetic
4. friction
5. greater
6. conserved
7. ideal mechanical advantage
8. power
9. power
10. 559.3

2. 1. c 6. b
2. d 7. b
3. b 8. a
4. a 9. c
5. b 10. a

-End of Module-

44
References
Young, Hugh D. and Friedman R.G.(2004). University physics (11th ed). Addison Wesley, San Francisco, CA:
Pearson Education South Asia PTE Ltd.

Hewitt, P. (2002). Conceptual physics: the high school physics program. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice – Hall, Inc.

45
Module 12
Mechanical Properties of Matter

What this module is about

Matter is usually described as anything that occupies

space and has mass. It is made up of molecules. There are
basically four (4) states or phases of matter namely solid,
liquid, gas and plasma. Molecules that make up a solid
material usually have a specific crystalline structure like the
one shown in figure 1. This is the crystalline structure of ice.
Liquids, gases and plasma have different molecular
arrangements. Nonetheless, these molecules that make up
matter exert intermolecular forces on one another.

Fig 1. Crystalline Structure of Ice

In this module you will learn many things about Physics particularly about the forces on
matter. This module includes the following lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Elasticity: A Property of Solids

ƒ Lesson 2 - Fluids
ƒ Lesson 3 - Pressure in Fluids
ƒ Lesson 4 - Archimedes’ Principle

Read, enjoy, and discover the secrets of Physics!

What you are expected to learn

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1. describe completely the mechanical properties related to solids, liquids and

gases;
2. solve problems in hydrostatics; and
3. explain how the concepts of stress and strain, pressure and the Archimedes’
principle apply to air/or sea transport.

1
How to learn from this module
Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module.

1. Read and follow the instructions very carefully.

2. Take the pretest. It is a simple multiple-choice test provided at the start to
determine how much you know about the content of this module.
3. Check your answers against the answer key provided at the last page of the
module.
4. Be very honest in taking the test so you know how much knowledge you already
have about the topic.
5. Read the different lessons about the earth, sun and moon.
6. Perform all the activities to help you have a better understanding of the topic.
7. Take the self-tests at the end of each lesson to determine how much you
remember about the lesson.
8. Finally, take the post-test at the end of this module.

Good luck and have fun!

What to do before (Pretest)

A. Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. Density is described as
a. length divided by time.
b. mass times acceleration
c. length divided by volume
d. mass divided by volume

2. Which has more density, a lake full of water or a cup full of lake water?
a. the cup c. Both have the same density
b. the Lake d. Cannot be determined

3. Which has more density, a loaf of bread just after it comes out of the oven or
the same loaf of bread that has been squeezed into a small volume?
a. the fresh loaf
b. the squeezed loaf
c. They both have the same density.

2
4. Which of the following is made of an inelastic material?
a. a bow
b. a spring
c. a tennis ball
d. a piece of cookie dough

5. What is the reason why an I-beam is nearly as strong as a solid bar?

a. The I-beam weighs less.
b. An “I” is a really strong shape.
c. Objects are placed on top of the beam.
d. The stress is predominantly at the top and the bottom parts.

6. Pressure in a liquid depends on the ____________

a. density of the liquid.
b. volume of the liquid.
c. mass of the liquid.
d. amount of the liquid.

7. Archimedes’ principle states that an object is buoyed up by a force that is

equal to ____________.
a. the mass of the object.
b. the mass of the fluid displaced.
c. the weight of the fluid displaced.
d. the volume of the fluid displaced.

8. Suppose a stone weighs 3 N in the air, but in water it weighs only 2 N. What
is the buoyant force acting on the stone?
a. 5 N c. 2 N
b. 3 N d. 1 N

9. If an object has a density greater than the density of water, it will

____________
a. float
b. sink
c. neither float nor sink, but stay anywhere it is put.
d. need more information to say.

10. Pascal’s principle says that changes in pressure at many points in an

enclosed fluid __________.
a. are transmitted to all points in the fluid.
b. quickly diminish from point to point in the fluid.
c. remain only at the point.
d. are transmitted only to points below it.

3
11. The main difference between gases and liquids is that in a gas
____________
a. molecules move faster.
b. forces between molecules are larger.
c. distances between molecules are larger.
d. All of the above.

12. Which of the following is the proper unit for pressure?

a. joule
b. newton
c. pascal
d. watt

13. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is about ___________.

a. 100 kP c. 100 P
b. 20 kP d. 10 P

14. At the top of a barometer there is a space that is filled with ____________
a. air c. water vapor
b. helium d. dense mercury

15. An aneroid barometer is an instrument used to measure _____________.

a. liquid pressure c. atmospheric pressure
b. well pressure d. none of the above.

B. Direction: Write “True” if the statement is true and “False” if the statement is
false. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. The density of an object is its mass divided by its volume.

2. Elasticity is the property of an object that allows it to return to its original shape when
deformed.
3. The stretch of a spring is inversely proportional to the applied force.
4. Pressure in a liquid depends on the direction the pressure gauge is pointing.
5. The buoyant force on a submerged rock is equal to its weight in the water.
6. An object will sink in water if its density is greater than the density of water.
7. The weight of fluid a floating object displaces is equal to the weight of the object.
8. Pressure in a fluid is inversely proportional to the depth at which the pressure
measurement is taken.
9. A fish moves up or down in water by changing its density.
10. The buoyant force on a submerged rock depends on the weight of the rock.

Key to answers on page 28

4
Lesson 1 Elasticity: A Property of Solids

Did you know that elasticity is one of the

properties of a solid? It determines whether a
material will return to its original size and shape after
the force exerted on the object is removed. Spring,
bow, rubber band and steel are some examples of
highly elastic materials. In reality, all materials are
Elastic Materials elastic. However, these materials differ in the degree
of elasticity. A wooden stick easily breaks when a
large force is exerted on it. On the other hand, steel
usually bends when a large force is exerted on it.
This means that steel is more elastic than wood.
Those materials that tend to break or be distorted
Inelastic Materials permanently when subjected to a force are known as
inelastic materials. Examples of such materials are
putty, clay and dough.

Fig 1.1 Elastic and Inelastic materials

What you will do

Activity 1.1 Force vs. Elongation

Objective: To be able to relate restoring force and displacement.

Materials: Ruler, 20 pieces of P1.00 coin, plastic cup, spring

Procedure:
1. Hang the spring on a nail placed on the wall of your house.
2. Hang the plastic cup at the bottom of the spring.
3. Determine the original length (Lo) of the spring using the ruler.
4. Place 5 pieces of P1 coins on the plastic cup.

Determine the new length of the spring. Record the result on the table
provided.
5. Place another 5 pieces of P1 coins on the plastic cup. Determine the
new length of the spring. Record the result on the table provided.
6. Repeat step 5 until all the 20-pieces P1 coins are inside the cup.

5
Data and Results

Lo = ______________

New Length Elongation

Number of Coins
L (cm) ∆L (cm)
5
10
15
20

Guide Questions

1. What happens to the length of the spring as more P1.00 coins are placed on the cup?
2. What quantity is represented by the weight of the P1.00 coins?
3. How would you relate this quantity to the change in length of the spring?

Key to answers on page 28

Robert Hooke, a British physicist did come up with the same

relationship between force and elongation as you did. As the force
or the load on the spring is increased, the elongation is also
increased. Further, he stated that since the weight of the load (F)
corresponds to the restoring force of the spring, then the restoring
force (Fr) is directly proportional to the elongation (x), which is
popularly known as Hooke’s law. In symbols,
Fig.1.3 Robert Hooke
F = -Fr
Fr ~ x

If we determine the ratio of Fr and x, then

-Fr/x = k

Fr = -kx (Hooke’s Law)

or Fr = -kx

6
Hooke’s law states, “The amount of stretch or compression, x, is directly proportional
to the applied force F. If an elastic material is stretched or compressed beyond a certain
amount, it will not return to its original state. Instead, it will remain distorted. The distance
beyond which permanent distortion occurs is called elastic limit. Hooke’s law holds true as
long as the force does not stretch or compress the material beyond its elastic limit.

Take a look at figure 1.4. The weight of the load

represents the force exerted on a unit area of the spring.
The ratio of the force and the unit area is known as
stress. In equation,

W Tensile Stress = Stretching Force/Area

Fig. 1.4. A load on a spring

If the spring is being compressed then the stress is specifically called compressive
stress,

Compressive Stress = Compressive Force/Area

In both cases, stress caused by the elongation or compression on the spring is

collectively called change in length of the spring. The ratio of the change in length of the
spring and its original length is known as strain. In equation,

Strain = ∆L/Lo

where: ∆L = change in length or elongation

Lo = original length

The ratio of stress and strain is a constant for every material known as Young’s
modulus of elasticity. In equation,

Y (Young’s Modulus of Elasticity) = Stress/Strain

The Young’s modulus of elasticity is a constant for every material. It determines if the
material is highly elastic or not. Large values of Y means that the material is highly elastic
and is capable of withstanding greater load as compared to materials of small Y.

7
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1

Bridges are usually made up of cement, rocks and iron or steel. Why do engineers
prefer to use iron or steel with concrete in building bridges rather than pure concrete alone?

Key to answers on page 28

If you were an engineer, which would you

prefer to use in building bridges and other buildings:
a solid beam or an I-beam of the same dimensions
and size?

Take a look at a load placed on top of a solid

beam on which the two ends of the beam is
supported as shown in figure 1.5. As you can see
Solid Beam the solid beam is compressed at the top while it is
being stretched at the bottom. You will notice that
the middle portion of the beam is a neutral layer.
This means that the middle portion can be of smaller
dimension as compared to the top and the bottom
parts of the beam. This, in turn, makes an I-beam.
Most of the materials in these I-beams are
concentrated in the top and bottom parts or flanges.
The piece joining the bars, called the web, is of
I-Beam thinner solid beams because of the fact that stress is
predominantly in the top and the bottom flanges
Fig. 1.5. Elastic and Inelastic Materials when the beam is used horizontally in construction.
One flange tends to be stretched while the other
tends to be compressed. The web between the top and the bottom flanges is a stress-free
region that acts principally to connect the top bottom flanges together. This is the neutral
layer, where comparatively little material is needed. An I-beam is nearly as strong as if it
were a solid bar, and its weight is considerably less.

8
Lesson 2 Fluids

Our body is filled with a lot of fluids. A fluid is any substance

that cannot maintain its own shape; in other words, they have the
ability to flow. Liquids and gases have the ability to flow thus, they
are called fluids. In our bodies, blood and water are examples of
fluids. Blood is a liquid tissue consisting of two parts: the plasma,
which is the intercellular fluid, and the cells, which are suspended in
the plasma. Plasma is about 90% water, 9% protein and 0.9% salts,
sugar and traces of other materials. They are usually responsible in
transporting nutrients to the different parts of the body.

Fluids, like solids, have different properties. Density is one of

Fig. 2.1. The Human the most familiar properties of fluids. How would you know if a
Body material or another fluid like oil could float in water or not? One
possible property of fluid that we can use to answer our question is
density. Density is usually thought of as the “lightness” or ‘heaviness” of materials having
the same volume. Quantitatively, it is described as the ratio of the mass and the volume of a
material. In symbols;

m
ρ=
v

where:
(rho) ρ = density
m = mass
v = volume

The mass is either expressed in grams or kilograms while volume is expressed in

cubic centimeters (cm3) or cubic meters (m3). Thus, density of a material is expressed in
g/cm3 or kg/m3. Saline solution used in the hospital has about 1.06 g/cm3 density which is
greater than the density of water (1.00 g/cm3).

9
What you will do
Activity 2.1 Density and Flotation

Objective: To relate the density of the material with water and its ability to float in
water.

Materials: glass jars (3), 0.5 L water, 0.5 L cooking oil, ice, and small piece of iron.

Procedure:

1. Place the ice cubes in the glass of water. Observe what happens. Tick
on the appropriate box on the given table.
2. Place a small piece of iron in the glass of water. Observe what happens.
Tick on the appropriate box on the given table.
3. Pour the cooking oil into the glass of water. Observe what happens. Tick
on the appropriate box on the given table.

Data and Results

Density of water = 1.0 g/cm3

Floats on Sinks on
Material/Substance Density
Water Water
Ice cubes 0.92 g/cm3
Small piece of iron 7.80 g/cm3
Cooking oil 0.90 g/cm3

Guide Questions:

1. Does the ice cube float or sink in water?

2. Compare the density of ice and the density of water.
3. Does the piece of iron float or sink in water?
4. Compare the density of iron and the density of water.
5. Does the cooking oil float or sink in water?
6. Compare the density of cooking oil and the density of water.
7. How would the density of the given material or substance be used in determining
whether the substance or the material could float or sink in water?

Key to answers on page 28

10
Objects with greater density than the density of water tend to sink. Mercury has
13.6 g/cm3 thus, mercury sinks in water. Objects with lesser density than water tends to
float e.g. oil, with a density of about 0.9 g/cm3. Materials with density equal to the density of
water tend to be submerged. Submarine is one example of a material with the same density
as that of water.

Here are the densities of some materials

Materials ρ ρ
(g/cm3) (kg/m3)

Liquids
Mercury 13.6 13,600
Glycerin 1.26 1,260
Seawater 1.03 1,025
Water at 4oC 1.00 1,000
Benzene 0.9 899
Ethyl Alcohol 0.81 806

Solids
Osmium 22.5 22,480
Platinum 21.5 21,450
Gold 19.3 19,320
Uranium 19.0 19,050
Lead 11.3 11,344
Silver 10.5 10,500
Copper 8.9 8,920
Brass 8.6 8,560
Iron 7.8 7,800
Tin 7.3 7,280
Aluminum 2.7 2,702
Ice 0.92 917

Gases (atmospheric pressure at sea level)

Dry air
0oC 0.00129 1.29
10oC 0.00125 1.25
o
20 C 0.00121 1.21
30oC 0.00116 1.16

11
A quantity known as weight density is also commonly used. It is the ratio of the
weight of the object and its volume. In symbols;

w
ρweight =
v

where:
ρweight = weight density
w = weight = mg = (mass x 9.8 m/s2)
v = volume

Specific gravity of a substance is related to the concept of density. It is defined as

the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water at 4oC. In symbols;

ρ material
s.g =
ρ water
where:
sg = specific gravity
ρmaterial = density of a material
ρwater = density of water at 4oC

Specific gravity is a pure number. This means that there are no units
for specific gravity. In other sources, specific gravity is termed as relative
density. The specific gravity of water is 1. If the specific gravity of the
substance is greater than 1, the substance will sink. If the specific gravity of
the substance is less than 1, the substance will float. If the specific gravity of
the substance is equal to 1 then the object is submerged.
Fig. 2.2. Hydrometer
Hydrometer is an instrument that measures density of liquid. It is a sealed tube with
a narrow part at one end and some very dense material such as lead at the other end. If
made correctly, such a tube floats "vertically" so that the narrow part sticks out of the liquid
while the heavy end sinks. The narrow part is calibrated for density. The hydrometer floats
higher in liquids of higher density and lower in liquids of lower density.

12
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1

Oops! Before you go on, try this one!

1. Which of the following statements is not correct?

a. Matter is composed of tiny particles called molecules.
b. These molecules are in constant motion.
c. All molecules have the same size and mass.
d. The differences between the solid, liquid, and gaseous states can be attributed
to the relative freedom of motion of their respective molecules.

2. In order for an object to sink when placed in water, its specific gravity must be
________.
a. less than 1
b. equal to 1
c. more than 1
d. any of the above, depending on the shape.

3. The density of fresh water is 1.00 g/cm3 and that of seawater is 1.03 g/cm3. A ship
will float __________.
a. higher in fresh water than in seawater
b. at the same level in fresh water and in sea water
c. lower in fresh water than in sea water
d. any of the above, depending on the shape of the hull

4. Which of the following materials will tend to float in oil?

a. Water
b. Iron
c. Mercury
d. Ethel Alcohol

5. Which of the following will sink in Mercury?

a. Brass
b. Gold
c. Ice
d. Iron

Key to answers on page 29

13
Lesson 3 Pressure in a Fluid

Take a look at the book lying on top of the table. The book
exerts a force on the table equal to its weight. This force is exerted
perpendicular to the surface area on which the book lies. The ratio
of this perpendicular force and the surface area is called pressure.
In symbols;
W F
P=
A
Fig 3.1. Book on top of the
table

where:
P = pressure exerted by the book on the table
F = force exerted by the book
A = surface area

Since force is expressed in newton (N) and surface area is expressed in square
meters (m2), pressure is then expressed as N/m2. One N/m2 is equivalent to 1 pascal (Pa).
This is in honor of Blaise Pascal who discovered the Pascal’s Principle. Pressure can also
be expressed in other units such as torr, mm of Hg, atm or millibars. Atmospheric pressure
is usually expressed in millibars.

Now, take a close look at the cylindrical

container filled with liquid. The weight of the liquid
itself exerts a force on the bottom of the cylinder.
This force results to a pressure on the bottom of
the cylinder. Since pressure is defined as the ratio
of the force and the surface area, thus;

F
Fig 3.2. Cylindrical P=
container with liquid A

Since the force applied on the bottom of the cylinder is equal to the weight of the
liquid, then

W
P=
A

14
but
W = mg
thus
mg
P=
A
but
m
ρ=
v
m = ρv
thus
ρVg
P=
A
but
v=Axh

ρAhg
P=
A

P = ρgh

where:
P = pressure
ρ = density of fluid
g = 9.8 m/s2
h = altitude/depth

This means that pressure exerted by fluids only

depends on the density of the fluid, acceleration due to
gravity of the place and altitude (for gasses) or depth (for
liquid). Pressure in fluids is independent of the amount of
fluid. Thus, separate containers of different sizes, holding
identical liquids of uniform density, have equal pressure at
equal depths. Even cross-sectional area doesn’t account for
the pressure exerted by the fluid. Thin containers experience
the same pressure at the bottom as wide containers as long
as they contain the same liquid of the same depth. Thus,

when liquid is poured into a transparent tube, liquid on both

Fig 3.3 Containers of different
cross-section
sides would always be of the same depth to attain equal
pressures. That’s why carpenters tend to say, “Water
seeks its own level”. When measuring depths carpenters often use this concept of
pressure.

15
What you will do
Activity 3.1 Fluid Pressure

Objective: To be able to relate the depth of the liquid and fluid pressure.

Materials: used plastic cup, nail, candle, match, water, ruler

Procedure:

1. Heat the pointed part of the nail in the candle flame.

2. Use the heated pointed part of the nail to make tiny holes on one side of
the plastic cup.
3. Label the holes as 1, 2, and 3 starting from the bottom of the plastic cup.
4. Determine the depth of each hole using a ruler.
(Depth is the length from the rim of the cup to the hole)
5. Place an amount of water up until the rim of the plastic cup. Observe
how the water flows out of the holes.

Data and Results

Hole # Depth (cm) Observation

1
2
3

Guide Questions

1. On which hole did you observe the fastest flow of water?

2. On which hole did you observe the slowest flow of water?
3. Which hole experiences the greatest fluid pressure?
4. How would you relate fluid pressure and the depth of the fluid?

Key to answers on page 29

16
Sample Problem

A nurse administers medication in a glucose solution to a patient by infusion into a

vein in the patient’s arm. The density of the solution is 1.0 x 103 kg/m3. The gauge pressure
inside the vein is 2.4 x 103 Pa. How high above the insertion point must the container be
hung so that there is sufficient pressure to force the fluid into the patient?

Solution:
Given: ρ = 1 x 103 kg/m3
P = 2.4 x 103 Pa
g = 9.8 m/s2
Required: h = ?
Solution:
P = ρgh
P
h=
pg
2.4 x10 3 Pa
h=
(1x10 3 kg / m 3 )(9.8m / s 2 )

h = 0.24 m
h = 24 cm

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1

Oops! Before you go on, try this one!

1. How does pressure differ from force?

2. What is the relationship between liquid pressure and depth of the liquid?
3. If a diver swims twice as deep in the water, how much more water pressure is
exerted on her/his ears?
4. If a diver swims in salt water, will the pressure at the same depth be greater than
in freshwater?

Key to answers on page 29

17
Pascal’s Principle

Did you know that Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician,

discovered the Pascal’s principle during his time (1623-1662)? He
said, “Changes in pressure at any point in an enclosed
container at rest is transmitted undiminished to all points in
the fluid and act in all directions. Due to his discovery, the SI
unit of pressure was named after him. For example, if the pressure
of city water is increased at the pumping station by 5 units of
pressure, the pressure everywhere in the pipes of the connected
Fig 3.5 Blaise Pascal system will be increased by 5 units of pressure provided that the
water is at rest.

Usually, a device known as hydraulic jack employs the Pascal’s

principle. It works just like a U-tube shown in the figure. The left
side of the tube has a smaller area than the right side of the tube.
In the figure, the piston on the left has an area of one square
centimeter and the piston on the right has an area fifty times as
great, in this case, 50 square centimeters.
Fig 3.6 Hydraulic jack

If there is one newton (1 N) load on the left piston then an

additional pressure of one newton (! N) per square centimeter
(N/cm2) is transmitted throughout the liquid and up against the
larger piston. This means that 1 N/cm2 is exerted against every
square centimeter. Since there are 50 square centimeters, the
total extra force exerted on the larger piston is 50 N. Thus, the
larger piston will support a 50-Newton load. This is fifty times the
load on the smaller piston! This means that we can multiply the
force with such a devise.
Figure 3.7 U-tube

Blood Pressure

Every time you go to a clinic for medical check-up, one of the nurses measures your
blood pressure. A cuff is wrapped around your arm, and then the cuff is inflated until it is
tight. Then, the nurse listens through a stethoscope held to your arm while letting the cuff
slowly deflate.

The two very significant pressures in the heart’s action are the systolic pressure,
when the beat is contracted, and the diastolic pressure, when the heart is relaxed between
beats. Normal heart action causes arterial blood pressure to oscillate between these two
valves.

18
The most direct way of measuring blood pressure is to insert a fluid-filled tube into the
artery and connect it to the pressure gauge. This is sometimes done but it is neither
comfortable nor convenient. The commonly used indirect method involves a device called
sphygmomanometer. A non-elastic cuff that has an inflatable bag within it is placed around
the upper arm, at the same level as the heart so as to measure the same pressure. When
the cuff is inflated, the tissue in the arm is compressed; if sufficient pressure is applied, the
flow of arterial blood in the arm stops. If the cuff is long enough and if it is applied smugly,
the pressure in the tissues in the arm is the same as the pressure in the artery. In effect,
Pascal’s principle holds for the system composed of the cuff, arm and artery.

After the blood flow has been cut off, the pressure in the cuff is reduced by releasing
some of the air. At some point, the maximum arterial pressure slightly exceeds the pressure
in the surrounding tissue and cuff, allowing the blood to resume flowing. The acceleration of
the blood through the arteries gives rise to a characteristic sound, which can be identified by
means of a stethoscope. When this sound occurs, the manometer indicates the maximum,
or systolic pressure. As the pressure in the cuff falls further, a second change in the sound
is heard which is characteristics of the drop below diastolic pressure. The two pressures are
reported such as 100 over 75, which corresponds to the blood pressure of a healthy person.

Lesson 4 Archimedes Principle

Can you carry the person in the figure while standing? Can
you carry him while in a swimming pool? Usually we tend to carry a
load easier in water than in air. This apparent loss of weight if
submerged is known as buoyancy.

The liquid tends to exert an upward force for objects submerged or

objects located underwater. This upward force exerted by the liquid
on the submerged object is called buoyant force, which is a
consequence of increasing pressure with depths.

Fig 4.1 Fat Man

19
Take a look at the load submerged in water. At greater
depth, there exists a large pressure of the liquid on the load.
This results to a large upward force.

F
P=
A

At the top of the load, lesser pressure is exerted by the liquid on

the load resulting to lesser downward force.
Fig 4.2 Submerged load
F
P=
A

Thus, there exists an unbalanced upward and downward force, which results to a net
upward force by the liquid on the load. This net upward force is called buoyant Force. If the
weight of the submerged object is greater than the buoyant force, the object sinks. If the
object’s weight is equal to the buoyant force, the object remains at any level. If the buoyant
force, on the other hand, is greater than the weight of the object then the object floats on the
liquid.

Read this:
Archimedes, one of the greatest scientists (287-212 BC) was given the task of determining
whether a crown made for King Heiron II was of pure gold or whether it was made of some cheaper metals.
Archimedes then knew the concept of density and if he could compute for the density of the old crown, he
could determine whether the crown was made of pure gold or not But the crown was an irregularly shaped
object, thus, he had difficulty determining its volume.

One day, his friends asked him to join them to have their bath at the public bath tubs. At first,
he was hesitant since he still had not found how to determine the volume of the crown. But his friends
insisted thus he went with them. When he immersed his naked body to the water in the tub, he realized
that he could do the same to the crown. Thus, story has it that he immediately rushed naked through the
streets shouting “Eureka, Eureka” (I have found it, I have found it)

What Archimedes had discovered was a simple and accurate way of finding
the volume of an irregular object – the water displacement method. When
an object is immersed in water, water is displaced by the immersed object.
The volume of the displaced water is equal to the volume of the
immersed object. Thus, Archimedes made use of the displacement method
to determine the volume of the crown and calculate its density.
Fig 4.3 Archimedes

20
Archimedes further studied on the concept of buoyancy. Later, he came up with the
relationship between buoyancy and displaced liquid. This is now known as the Archimedes’
Principle, which states that an immersed body is buoyed up by a force equal to the
weight of the fluid it displaces. This principle holds true of all fluids, both liquids and
gases.

B.F. = Wair – Wwater

Take a look at the figure. The resultant force along the y-

axis;
ΣFy = F1 – F2 – W

Since the liquid is in equilibrium,

ΣFy = 0

Fig 4.4 Object submerged

But

0 = F1 – F2 – W

F1 – F2 =W
But
B.F. = F1 – F2
Thus
B.F. = W
But
W = mg
m = ρv
Thus
B.F. = ρvg
where:

B.F. = buoyant force

ρ = density of the fluid
v = volume of object/volume of displaced liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity

For example, if we immerse a sealed 1-liter container halfway into the water, it will
displace a half-liter of water. If we immerse it all the way (submerge it), it will be buoyed up
by the weight of a full liter of water (9.8 N). Unless we compress the completely
submerged container, the buoyant force will equal the weight of one liter of water at any
depth due to the fact that at any depth, the container will displace the same volume of water.
The weight of the displaced liquid is the buoyant force exerted by the water.

21
Another way of determining the buoyant force applied by the water is to take the
difference between the weight of the object in air and its weight in water. If a 300-gram
block weighs about 3 N in air while its weight in water is about 1 N, then the buoyant force is
3 N minus 1 N. This means that the buoyant force is about 2 N. This also means that the
block displaces an amount of water, which weighs about 2 N.

What you will do

Activity 4.1

Objectives: To verify Archimedes’ principle.

Materials: 2 pieces of cardboard, ten 5-peso coins, basin, water

Procedure:
1. Crumple the first piece of cardboard.
2. Make a container of 5-peso coin using the second piece of cardboard.
(Note: make sure that you can make something that holds as many 5-
peso coins as possible).
3. Place the crumpled cardboard and the container made of cardboard on
a basin of water. Observe what happens.
4. Place the 5-peso coins one at a time on the container made of
cardboard until before the container starts to sink. Observe.

Guide Questions:

1. Which among the two cardboards was able to float for a longer time in water?
2. Why do you think that the cardboard you have specified in question #1 was able
to float for a longer time in water?
3. Relate your answers to how ships made of metals and iron are made.

Key to answers on page 29

22
Hundreds of years ago, if you had said that
you were going to build a ship made of iron,
everyone would have laughed at you because
everybody knew that since iron was denser than
water, it would sink. Now we know that if we are
going to re-shape the iron to have a large volume
(like a bowl) then most probably that piece of iron will
float.
Fig. 4.6 Block of iron and a ship

If the weight of the displaced water equals the weight of the bowl then the bowl floats.
This is because the buoyant force is now equal to the weight of the bowl. This is known as
the principle of flotation: A floating object displaces a weight of fluid equal to its own
weight.

Every ship must be designed to displace a weight of water equal to its own weight.
Thus, a 10 000-ton ship must be built wide enough to displace 10 000 tons of water before it
sinks too deep below the surface.

What you will do

Self-Test 4.1

Oops! Before you go on, try this one!

A.
1. A 1-L container, which is completely filled with mercury, has a mass of 13.6 kg
and weighs about 133.3 N. If it is submerged in water, what is the buoyant force
acting on it?
2. We know that if a sea creature such as a fish makes itself more dense (denser
than water) it will sink while if it makes itself less dense (less dense than water) it
will float or it will rise. In terms of buoyant force, why is this so?

B. Complete the following statements.

1. The volume of a submerged object is equal to the _________ of the liquid
displaced.
2. The weight of a floating object is equal to the _________ of the liquid displaced.

Key to answers on page 29

23
Let’s summarize!

1. Elasticity is one of the properties of a solid.

2. Elastic materials return to their original shape when a deforming force is applied and
removed, as long as they are not deformed beyond their elastic limit.

3. Hooke’s law states that the amount of stretch or compression is proportional to the
applied force (within the elastic limit)

4. Inelastic materials remain distorted after the force is removed.

5. Density is the ratio of mass and volume

m
ρ =
v

6. Weight density is the ratio of the weight and volume

w
ρweight =
v

7. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of water.

8. Pressure is the ratio of a force perpendicular to the surface area. It is expressed in

units such as Pa, atm, torr, mm of Hg, bar.

9. Fluid pressure depends on the density of the fluid, acceleration due to gravity and
depth.

P = ρgh
10. Pascal’s principle: The pressure applied at one point in an enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

11. Archimedes’ principle: A body, whether completely or partially submerged in a fluid, is

buoyed up by a force that is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid.

a. The principle of flotation: A floating object displaces a weight of fluid equal to

its own weight.

24
Posttest

A. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet.

1. When a solid block of material is cut in half, its density is ____________.

a. halved c. doubled
b. unchanged

2. Which has greater density, a lake full of water or a cup full of lake water?
a. The cup
b. The lake
c. Both have the same density

3. Compared to the density of a kilogram of feathers, the density of a

kilogram of lead is __________.
a. less c. the same
b. more

4. Water pressure on a submerged object is greatest against the

____________.
a. top of the object
b. bottom of the objects
c. sides of the object
d. Water pressure is the same against all surfaces of the object

5. The buoyant force on an object is least when the object is

_____________.
a. partly submerged
b. submerged near the surface
c. submerged near the bottom
d. None of the above.

6. What is the most probable reason why a life jacket helps you float in
water?
a. The jacket makes you weigh less.
b. The jacket has the same density as an average human.
c. The jacket repels water.
d. You and the jacket together have density less than your density
alone.

25
7. Lobsters live in the bottom of the ocean. The density of a lobster is
_________.
a. greater than the density of the seawater
b. equal to the density of seawater
c. less than the density of seawater

8. The density of a submerged submarine is about the same as the density

of __________.
a. a crab c. a floating submarine
b. iron d. water

9. An egg is placed at the bottom of a bowl filled with water. Salt is slowly
added to the water until the egg rises and floats. From this experiment,
one can conclude that ____________.
a. calcium in the eggshell is repelled by sodium chloride
b. the density of salt water exceeds the density of the egg
c. buoyant force do not always act upward
d. salt sinks to the bottom

10. Compared to an empty ship, the same ship loaded with Styrofoam will
float _________
a. higher in water
b. lower in water
c. at the same level
d. Need more information to say

11. When a boat sails from freshwater to seawater, the boat will float
___________.
a. lower in the seawater
b. higher in the seawater
c. at the same level

12. If the part of an iceberg that extends above the water were removed, the
__________.
a. iceberg would sink
b. buoyant force on the iceberg would decrease
c. density of the iceberg would change
d. pressure on the bottom of the iceberg would increase

13. When an ice cube in a glass of water melts, the water level
____________.
a. rises
b. falls
c. remains the same
d. Increase and then decrease

26
14. A floating ice cube in a glass of water contains a small piece of iron. After
the ice cube melts, the water level will ___________.
a. rise
b. fall
c. remain unchanged
d. increase then decrease

15. An ice cube floating in a glass of water contains many air bubbles. When
the ice melts, the water level will ___________.
a. rise
b. fall
c. remain unchanged
d. increase and then decrease

B. Write A if the statement is true and write B if the statement is false.

1. A barometer is used to measure water pressure.

2. Density of liquids is determined using hydrometer.
3. A fluid can either be a gas or a liquid.
4. Pascal principle states that changes in pressure at any point in an enclosed
container which may be at rest or moving is transmitted undiminished to all
points in the fluid and acts in all directions.
5. Archimedes’ principle states that a body, whether completely or partially
submerged in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force that is equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid

Key to answers on page 30

27
Key to Answers
Pretest
A.
1. d 9. b
2. c 10. a
3. c 11. d
4. d 12. c
5. d 13. a
6. a 14. a
7. c 15. c
8. d
B.
1. True 6. True
2. True 7. True
3. False 8. False
4. False 9. True
5. False 10. False

Lesson 1

Activity 1.1
1. The spring increases in length.
2. Force on the spring
3. The greater the force on the spring, the larger the elongation

Self-Test 1.1
1. Pure concrete alone has smaller modulus of elasticity than a bridge
constructed with iron or steel. Since bridges with iron or steel have
large modulus of elasticity they are capable of withstanding greater
load before permanent deformation takes place.

Lesson 2

Activity 2.1

1. The ice cube floats in water.

2. The density of ice cube is less than the density of water.
3. Iron sinks in water.
4. The density of iron is greater than the density of water.
5. Cooking oil floats in water.
6. The density of the cooking oil is less than the density of water.

28
7. When the density of a substance is greater than the density of
water, the substance/material sinks. When the density of the
substance or material is less than the density of water, the
substance or material floats.

Self-Test 2.1
1. c 4. d
2. c 5. b
3. c

Lesson 3

Activity 3.1
1. The last/bottom hole. (hole 1)
2. The first/topmost hole. (hole 3)
3. The last/bottom hole (hole 1)
4. As the depth of the liquid increases, the fluid pressure increases.

Self-Test 3.1
1. Force is a push or a pull while pressure is a force exerted per unit
area.
2. As the depth of the liquid increases, pressure exerted by the liquid
increases.
3. Twice.
4. Yes. This is because the density of salt water is greater than that
of the freshwater.

Lesson 4

Activity 4.1
1. The crumpled one
2. The smaller the volume, the larger the density than the density of
water.
3. Metals of small volume have densities larger than the water thus
they tend to sink.

Self-Test 4.1
A.
1. 9.8 N

Given:
Volume of container = 1 L = 1000 cm3 = 1 x 103 cm3
since 1 m = 100 cm
then 1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3 = 1 x 106 cm3
thus 1 L = 1 x 10-3 m3
density of water = 1 x 103 kg/m3

29
Solution:

Volume of container = volume of water displaced = 1 x 10-6 m3

Weight of water displaced (Ww) = volume of water displaced (Vw) x density of water (ρw)

Ww = Vwρw
= 1 x 10-3 m3 x 1 x 103 kg/m3
= 1 kg
but 1 kg = 9.8 N
therefore Ww = 9.8 N

2. When the fish increases its density by decreasing its volume, it

displaced less water, so the buoyant force decreases. When the
fish decreases its density by expanding, it displaced a greater
volume of water and the buoyant force increases.

B.

1. volume
2. weight

Post Test

A.
1. b 9. b
2. c 10. b
3. b 11. b
4. b 12. b
5. a 13. b
6. d 14. b
7. a 15. b
8. d

B.
1. B 4. B
2. A 5. A
3. A

-End of Module-

30
References

Carter, Joseph. (1974).Physical science:a problem-solving approach. Massachusetts: Gin and

Company.

Cohen, Michael. (1992). Discover science. Metro Manila: Academe Publishing House.

Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Krane, K. (1994). Fundamentals of physics. Singapore: John Wiley
& Sons Inc.

Hewitt, P. (1989). Conceptual physics (6th Ed.) London: Scoot, Foresman and Company

Heuvelen, A. (1986). Physics: a general introduction (2nd Edition). Sta. Cruz, Manila: UNI-ED Inc.,

Jones, E. and Childers, R. (1999). Contemporary college physics. New York: Mc Craw-Hill Co.

Morales, M.P. (2000). WorkText in Physical Sciences. Manila: PNU Press.

Young, Hugh. D. (1996). University physics (9th Edition). NY : Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.

31
Module 13
Transit Energies: Heat and Work

What this module is about

In everyday life, temperature and heat are usually used interchangeably.

Temperature is associated with hotness or coldness of a thing. In Physics, are these terms
really the same? What are the effects of heat? What do you mean by heat and temperature
in molecular level?
In this module, you will be able to answer these and many other questions that
may be bothering you. Concepts like internal energy, average kinetic energy of atoms and
molecules, transfer of heat, and expansion are discussed in the following lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 – Heat and Temperature

ƒ Lesson 2 – Consequences of Heat

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. differentiate heat from temperature;

2. differentiate thermal energy from internal energy;
3. define temperature in molecular level;
4. compare the commonly used temperature scales;
5. explain how heat transfers;
6. calculate the heat given off or added to an object during a change in temperature;
and,
7. calculate the heat given off or absorbed during a change of phase.

1
How to learn from this module

In order to achieve the objectives of this module, here are some tips for you:

1. Read and follow instructions carefully in each lesson.

2. Take note and record points for clarification.
3. Do the activities to fully understand each lesson.
4. Answer the self check to monitor what you already learned in each lesson
5. Answer the posttest.
6. Check your answer in the posttest against the key to correction

Familiarity with the following terms will help you get the most from this module:

Term Definition
Internal energy Grand total of all energies inside a substance
Thermal energy Energy resulting from heat flow
Thermometer An instrument used to measure temperature

Temperature The measure of the average kinetic energy

of molecule of a substance.
Heat Energy in transit from a body of high
temperature to a body of low temperature
Calorie Energy needed to raise the temperature of 1
g of water by 1 Celsius degree.
Joule SI unit of heat
Specific heat Energy required to change the temperature
of a unit mass of substance by 1 degree.
Melting Change from solid to gas
Melting temperature The temperature at which melting of a
substance takes place
Latent heat of fusion Energy required to melt a unit mass of solid
at its melting point.
Freezing Change from liquid to solid
Coefficient of linear Increase in length
expansion

2
What to do before (Pretest)

Directions: Select the letter of the option that correctly answers the question or
completes the statement.

1. If the absolute temperature of a gas is doubled, the average kinetic energy of its
molecules
a) remains the same. c) increases four times.
b) increases two times. d) decreases to ½ of its original value.

2. Decrease in temperature of a substance indicates that

a) the number of particles in it decreases.
b) the average velocity of its particles increases.
c) the average potential energy of particles decreases.
d) the average kinetic energy of its particles decreases.

3. The normal body temperature is 37 o C. What is this in Fahrenheit?

a) 32 ºF b) 98.6 °F c) 212 ºF d) 373 ºF

4. Which of the following happens when ice changes into a liquid?

a) The molecules move slower than before.
b) The temperature of the substance increases.
c) The potential energy of the molecules increases.
d) The average movement of the molecules increases.

5. The boiling point of water is 100 oC. What is this in K?

a) 173 b) 212 c) 373 d) 512

6. The natural direction of heat flow between two reservoirs depends on

a) their temperature. c) their internal energy contents.
b) their pressure. d) whether they are in liquid, solid or gaseous state.

7. When you accidentally put your hand near the kettle’s spout, you cried “ouch”. But when
you moved your hand a few inches away, you found that the steam was cool. Why?
a) The steam cooled as it expanded.
b) The steam condensed into liquid.
c) The steam absorbed energy from the surrounding air.
d) Energy transferred to your skin was greater when it was near the kettle’s spout.

8. Which of the following substances of equal mass warms faster?

a) aluminum b) brick c) copper d) water

3
9. The greater the rate of evaporation from the surface of seawater is,
a) the hotter the surface of the seawater becomes.
b) the cooler the surface of the seawater becomes.
c) the more massive the surface of seawater becomes.
d) the greater the energy absorbed by the surface of the seawater.

10. During warm days, you cool yourself by damping your skin with wet towel. Which of the
following takes place?
a) Your skin absorbs the coldness of the water.
b) Your skin releases energy when water from your skin evaporates.
c) The temperature of water on your skin decreases as it evaporates
d) The temperature of your skin increases as water evaporates from your skin.

11. How may calories of heat is required to melt 10 g of ice at 0 oC?

a) 80 b) 800 c) 540 d) 5400

12. How many calories of heat are required to change the temperature of 100 g of water at 5
C0?
a) 100 b) 250 c) 500 d) 5400

13. Contraction of a solid indicates that

a) the number of particles decreases.
b) the space between particles decreases.
c) the average velocity of particles increases.
d) there is a decrease in the average kinetic energy of particles.

14. Which of the following expands more when subjected to the same temperature change?

15. The average kinetic energy of the molecules of a body is a measure of the body’s
a. heat c. temperature
b. mass d. volume

Key to answers on page 32

4
Lesson 1 Heat and Temperature

You encounter heat everyday. When cooking food, you burn fuel such as liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG). You also see many people burn butane in cigarette lighter. When
fuels are burned, heat is generated. Heat is often associated with temperature. In this
lesson, you will learn more about heat and temperature.

Have you ever wondered why your body is hot even if you are at rest? Let’s first have
a short recall of past lessons. Do the activity that follows to find out if you still remember
some concepts you will need to understand why your body is warm even if you are at rest.

What you will do

Self-Test 1.1

Fill in the blank with word or words to complete the following statements:

1. _________ energy is associated with moving objects.

2. The energy an object possesses due to its position is ________ energy.
3. If an object is raised 5 m above the ground its ________ potential energy increases.
4. A stretched spring has ________potential energy.
5. As an object freely falls its ________ energy is transformed into _______ energy.

Key to answers on page 32

In the previous modules, you have learned about the kinetic energy possessed by big
moving objects such as a rolling ball or a running person, and the potential energy
possessed by big bodies such as that of a raised hammer or a stretched spring. In this
lesson the focus will be on energy of molecules and the atoms that make up these
molecules. Let’s call these atoms and molecules simply as particles.

Temperature

Have you ever experienced having a fever? Do you feel your forehead or your neck
to determine whether you have fever or not? When you feel you are warm, you often say
you have high temperature. Temperature is commonly associated with coldness or hotness
of a body. When a body is hot, we say its temperature is high, and when it is cold, we say its
temperature is low. How do we quantify this difference in hotness or coldness of a body?
You might have seen how doctors and nurses measure temperature. Have you seen a small
glass tube put in the underarm or under the tongue to determine temperature? This
instrument is called a thermometer.

5
Thermometers usually apply physical properties of matter which change with
temperature. An example of this property is the volume expansion of a liquid like mercury,
which is most commonly used in thermometers. To establish a temperature scale, a process
that occurs without a change in temperature is used as a fixed point on a temperature scale.
To understand how temperature scale is established and what fixed points are, do Activity
1.1.

What you will do

Activity 1.1

1. Look at the data below obtained in an experiment where 200 ml of pure water is
heated and boiled.
2. Observe what happens to the temperature as water is being heated.

Time Temperature Time Temperature

(min) (oC) (min (oC
0 30 16 66
1 32 17 69
2 34 18 74
3 35 19 76
4 38 20 79
5 41 21 80
6 44 22 83
7 46 23 86
8 48 24 88
9 51 25 90
10 53 26 94
11 55 27 96
12 58 28 98
13 60 29 100 water
boils
14 62 30 100
15 64 31 100

3. Answer the following questions:

a. What happens to the temperature of water as time passes?

b. What is the temperature of water when it begins to boil?
c. What happens to the temperature of water while it is boiling?

Key to answers on page 32

6
Have you noticed that the temperature increases as water is being heated? But,
when water is already boiling, no change in temperature occurs. When a substance
changes phase from liquid to gas its temperature remains the same.

Remember This!
Temperature of a substance increases as it is heated. Temperature of a
substance remains the same while it is undergoing a change of phase

This constant temperature is used as a fixed point in a temperature scale. For

example, the two fixed points used are the freezing point of ice and the boiling point of
water.

What you will do

Activity 1.2

1. Figure 1.1 shows thermometers in different temperature scales.

Fig. 1.1 a) Thermometer calibrated in Kelvin, b) Thermometer calibrated in Celsius and

Fahrenheit scales

7
2. Answer the following questions:

a. What are the temperature scales used in measuring temperature?

b. What is the freezing point of water in degrees Celsius? In degrees Fahrenheit?
In Kelvin?
c. At what temperature does water boil in degrees Celsius? in degrees
Fahrenheit? in Kelvin?
d. What is the temperature difference between the freezing point and the boiling
point of water in each of the three temperature scales?
e. Derive an equation to change the temperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit,
from Fahrenheit to Celsius, from Celsius to Kelvin, and from Kelvin to Celsius.

Key to answers on page 32

Did you notice that the freezing point of water in the Celsius scale is 00 while in the
Fahrenheit scale, it is 32 0. Did you also notice that the difference between the freezing
point and the boiling point of water in the Celsius scale is 1000? In the Fahrenheit scale, the
difference between the two fixed points is 180 0. To change the temperature from Celsius
scale to Fahrenheit scale, always remember that 00 is equivalent to 320 and that a range of
180 0 on the Fahrenheit scale is equivalent to 1000 on the Celsius scale. One Celsius degree
is equivalent to 180/100, or 9/5, of one Fahrenheit degree. The equation would be

TF = 180/100 TC + 32, or
TF = 9/5 TC+ 32

Example Problem 1

Change the normal body temperature which is 37 0 C to Fahrenheit.

Solution
1. The equation to be used is
TF = 9/5 TC+ 32
2. Substitute the given value into the equation,
TF = 9/5 ( 37) +32
= 98.6 0 F

8
Example Problem 2

A newscaster reports that the temperature in Korea is -15 0 C. What is this

temperature in Fahrenheit?

Solution

1. The equation to be used is

TF = 9/5 TC+ 32

2. Substitute the given value into the equation,

TF = 9/5 (-15) +32
= 5 °F
Can you derive the equation that will convert a temperature in the Fahrenheit scale to
Celsius scale? Rearranging equation 14.1, we have
TC = 5/9 (TF – 32).
3. The temperature of the room is 108 °F. What is this temperature in 0 C?

Solution

1. The equation to be used is

TC = 5/9 (TF – 32).

2. Substitute the given value into the equation,

TC = 5/9 (TF – 32).

= 5/9 (108 – 32)

= 42.2 0 C

What you will do

Self-Test 1.2

Get a clean sheet of paper and solve the following problems.

1. A nurse gets the temperature of a child using a mercury thermometer. The

thermometer reads 40 0 C. What is this temperature in the Fahrenheit scale?
2. Hydrochloric acid has a boiling point of -84°C. What is this temperature in Fahrenheit
scale? in Kelvin scale?
3. Tungsten, a material used as filaments in electric incandescent bulbs, has a melting
point of 6152 °F. What is this temperature in degrees Celsius?
4. What is the reading of a thermometer in Celsius scale when the temperature of the
air around us is 80 0 F? What is the temperature in the Kelvin scale?

Key to answers on page 33

9
Temperature and Kinetic Energy

Even if your body as a whole, when at rest, has zero kinetic energy, the molecules
which it is made of are moving. The particles move from one place to another. They rotate
or vibrate, hence, they possess kinetic energy. Temperature is associated with this
translational motion of molecules. It is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the
molecule of a substance. This means that if the temperature is high, the average kinetic
energy of the molecules is greater, or the average movement of the molecules is fast. The
temperature, however, is not directly affected by the rotational or vibrational motion of the
molecules.

Heat
Some objects are hot, others are cold. The flame of the candle is hot while ice is
cold. What makes some object hot and other objects cold?

Heat Transfer

If you get out of your house during cold days, you feel cold. This is because energy
passes out from your skin into the air. If you touch a piece of ice, energy passes out of your
hand into the ice. If, however, you touch the flame of a candle, energy passes out from the
candle into your hand.

When something hot is placed next to something cold, energy transfers from the hot
object to the cold object until both eventually come to the same temperature. In the system
of air and your skin, the warmer body is your skin. Energy transfer is from your skin to the
cooler air. In the ice and hand system, the direction of energy transfer is from the warmer
hand to the cooler air. In the flame and hand system, the direction of energy transfer is from
the hot flame to your hand. Generally, energy transfers naturally from a body of high
temperature to a body of lower temperature (Fig. 1.2). The energy transferred from one
body to another because of a temperature difference is called heat. Heat, therefore, is
energy in transit from a body of higher temperature to a body of lower temperature. Once
transferred, it can no longer be called heat. It becomes the internal energy of the body.
Transfer of energy from hot objects to cool object stops when the two attain the same
temperature. The objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium.

Fig 1.2 Direction of Heat Flow

10
Remember This!

Energy transfers naturally from a body of higher temperature to a body of

lower temperature.
The energy transferred from one body to another because of a
temperature difference is called heat.

What you will do

Activity 1.3

I. Study figure 1.3 showing two objects of different temperature. The white circles
represent particles in a hot object while the dark circles represent particles in a cold
object. The arrows indicate the movement of the particles.

II. Answer the following questions

1. Compare the movement of particles in hot and cold objects.
2. Compare the temperatures of the two objects.
3. When the two were placed in contact, what happened to their temperatures?
4. After sometime (Fig. 1.3 (c)) what happened to the temperature of the two objects?

Key to answers on page 34

In molecular level how does transfer of energy happen from a hot body to a cold
body? If you could view what happens in the area of interaction between the two objects,
you would see fast moving molecules in the hot object and slow-moving molecules in the
cold object (Fig. 1.3 a). The faster molecules in a hot object collide with the slow-moving
molecules in the cold object (Fig. 1.3 b). The collisions would cause the faster molecules to
slow down and the slow-moving ones to move faster than before.

11
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.3 (a) The particles in a hot object move faster than the particles in the colder object. (b)
The two objects come in contact. When the two objects are in contact, fast-moving molecules
collide with slow-moving molecules causing the slow-moving molecules to speed up and the
fast-moving one to slow down.
(c) Heat flows from hotter to colder object causing the particles in the hot object to slow
down and the particles in the colder object to speed up. The molecules move at the same
speed, a state of thermal equilibrium.

Think about this!

What happens to the kinetic energy of the fast-moving molecule that collides
with the slow-moving molecule?

Do you realize that the kinetic energy of the fast-moving molecule decreases when it
collides with the slow-moving molecule, thus increasing the kinetic energy of the slow-
moving molecule? So there is a transfer of energy from the fast-moving molecule to the slow
moving molecule. After sometime, the molecules in the two objects move with the same
average kinetic energy (Fig. 1.3c), thus, their temperatures are the same. No heat flows
between the two objects. The two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium.

12
What you will do
Self-Test 1.3

1. Which is warmer, a person’s skin or the air around you during cold days?
2. Which is warmer, your hand or the piece of ice?
3. Which is warmer, the flame of the candle or your hand?
4. What is the general direction of heat flow between the person’s skin and the cold air
around it? between your hand and the piece of ice? between the flame of the candle
and your hand?
5. Suppose two objects are placed in contact with one another in an insulated container.

T = 30 0 C T = 75 0 C

Object A Object B
Fig 2.3

a) Draw an arrow to show the direction of energy transfer between the two
objects.
b) Before the objects are placed in contact, which has greater kinetic energy, the
molecules in object A or the molecules in object B?
c) What happens to the temperature of the two objects after sometime?
6. In molecular level, explain the transfer of energy from a hot object to a cold object.
7. What effect does transfer of energy have on an object?

Key to answers on page 34

Thermal energy and internal energy

Atoms in molecules also move, so they also possess kinetic energy. The atomic and
molecular energy of a substance is called internal energy. Internal energy consists of
thermal energy, which is the random kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules, and the
potential energy of these tiny particles resulting from their bonds and interaction with each
other. Internal energy is, therefore, the total of all the energy in a body.

In the previous section of this module, you learned that temperature is the measure of
the average kinetic energy of molecules. Heat is a process whereby energy is transferred
from one body to another of different temperatures. During a heat transfer, fast-moving

13
molecules in a hot object collide with slow-moving molecules in a cold object. Thermal
equilibrium is reached when the average kinetic energies of the molecules in both objects
are the same. The kinetic energy of a slow-moving molecule increases upon collision with a
fast-moving molecule. Since the average kinetic energy of the molecules in the formerly cold
object increases, its temperature increases. On the other hand, the temperature of the
formerly hot object decreases due to a decrease in the average kinetic energy of the
molecules. Since there is an increase in the kinetic energy of the molecules in the formerly
cold object, the sum of the energies of this object increases, or its internal energy increases.
Since the kinetic energy of the molecules in the formerly hot object decreases, the internal
energy of the object decreases.

Lesson 2 Consequences of Heat

Measurement of Heat

Suppose you have 1 g of water at 28 0C and you want to heat it to a temperature of

29 0C. How much heat is needed? The unit of heat more commonly used is calorie. A
calorie is defined as the heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 10 C
degree. A bigger unit is the kilocalorie. A kilocalorie is equivalent to 1000 calories.

Remember this!

1 kcal = 1000 cal

Are you aware that the fuel value of food is also measured? The heat unit used to
label foods is actually the kilocalorie. Nutritionists and dieticians call this the big calorie or
Calorie (because this is written with a capital letter C). One Calorie is, therefore, one
kilocalorie or 1000 calories.

In the SI, the unit of energy is the joule. One calorie is equivalent to 4.18 joules. One
kilocalorie is equivalent to 4180 joules.

Remember this!

1 cal = 4.18 J
1 kcal = 4180 J

14
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1

Answer the following questions.

1. Nowadays, people are fond of doing aerobic exercises. Aerobic exercises are
believed to burn Calories from the food intake. A 150 – lb person playing volleyball,
for example, uses 34 Calories per 10 minutes from the food intake. Express this
energy in calories, in kilocalories, and in joules.
2. Most food energy goes into running your body and keeping it warm. The basal
metabolic rate, or the average energy used by the body just lying quietly in bed is
about 1400 Calories per day for women and 1600 Calories per day for men. What are
these in kilocalories/day? in calories/day?

Key to answers on page 34

Specific Heat Capacity

The sand in the beach heats faster than the water, but it also cools faster. At
noontime, especially during summer, the sand becomes so hot, it is difficult to step on it
barefooted, but you can immerse your body in seawater without being burned. In late
afternoon, however, the land cools faster than the seawater. Why? To understand why this
happens, do the activity that follows.

What you will do

Activity 2.1
A.
1. Ask your teacher to lend you three pieces of different metals of the same mass,
probably aluminum, iron and copper.
2. Place the metals in boiling water for about 10 minutes.
3. With metal tongs remove the metals from boiling water and place them on a tray of
paraffin. (Be careful in handling hot metals.)
4. Allow the metals to stay on the paraffin until they cool.

B. Answer the following questions and write your answer on a clean sheet of paper:
1. Which metal melted the most paraffin?
2. Which metal has the most energy? Explain your answer.
3. Compare the temperature of the three metals before they were transferred to the
paraffin.

Key to answers on page 35

15
Did you notice that among the three metals, aluminum melted the most paraffin and
copper melted the least amount of paraffin? Since heat is required to melt paraffin, what is
the source of this heat? The source of this heat is the metal. The metals got hot when
immersed in boiling water, and attained the same temperature as the boiling water. When
the hot metals were transferred to the paraffin, energy flowed from the hot metal to the
cooler paraffin. The energy they got from the water was transferred to the paraffin because
of temperature difference. Since aluminum absorbed the most energy, it also gave up the
most energy. Copper absorbed the least energy, so it gave up the least energy.

From the above discussion, it is clear that different metals of the same amount
absorb different amounts of energy .

What you will do

Activity 2.2

A.
1. Place a cup of tap water in the kettle and heat it until it boils.
2. Fill another kettle with tap water up to the brim and heat it also until it boils.
3. Get a timer or a watch and record the time it takes for the two samples to boil.

B. Answer the following questions:

1. Which takes a longer time to boil, a cup of water or a kettleful of water?
2. In which set up is the energy transfer greater?
3. Which has greater mass, a cup of water or a kettleful of water?
4. At constant temperature, how is the amount of energy transferred to a substance
related to the mass?

Key to answers on page 35

If you urgently need to drink hot coffee, and there is no available hot water, what do
you usually do? Do you boil a cup of water or a kettle of water? Of course, you boil just a
cup of water because it takes a shorter time. If the time it takes to boil a cup of water is
short, the energy transferred from the flame to the water is less. This indicates that mass is
a factor in determining the amount of energy transferred from one body to another. Results
of experiments show that the energy required to change the temperature of a substance by
one degree is directly proportional to the mass of the substance, or

Qαm

16
The equation indicates that for the same change in temperature, if mass is doubled,
the energy required to have that change in temperature is also doubled. If mass is tripled,
the energy required to change the temperature is also tripled, and so on.

What you will do

Self-Test 2.2

1. Which takes a longer time to boil, a cup of tap water or a kettleful of tap water?
2. If it takes a longer time to heat a given substance, what does that indicate about the
amount of energy transferred to the substance?
3. Compare the change in temperature of the boiled cup of water with that of the
kettleful of water.
4. At constant change in temperature, what possible relationship exists between amount
of energy transferred to a substance and its change in mass?

Key to answers on page 35

Which takes more time: boiling 1 cup of water or warming the same amount of water
if the two samples have the same initial temperature? Based on experience, boiling water
takes more time than just warming the same amount of water if the samples have the same
initial temperature. Since the samples are at the same initial temperature, the change in
temperature of the boiled water is greater than the change in temperature of the warm
water. This clearly shows that temperature is another factor to take into consideration in
determining the amount of energy needed to have a change in temperature. Results of
experiments show that the energy required in changing the temperature, t, of a given mass
of a substance is directly proportional to the change in temperature. The greater the change
in temperature of a given mass of substance is, the greater is the amount of energy needed,
or

Combining the two equations, we have

If we change the proportionality sign to an equal sign, we have

Q = k m ∆t,

where k is a constant of proportionality which depends on the kind of substance. This

constant of proportionality is given a symbol c. If we rewrite the equation, we have,

Q = m c ∆t.

17
Equation 1.4 may be used to determine the energy added to a substance to increase
its temperature. The same equation may also be used to determine the energy that is lost
from a substance.

Solving for c in equation 1.4, we have

c= Q .
m∆t

The equation shows that the energy added or removed per unit mass and unit
change in temperature of substance is constant. The value c is constant only for a specific
substance, so it is called specific heat.

Example Problem 2.1

What quantity of heat must be added to 50 grams of water at 10°C to increase its
temperature to 50°C?

Solution:

1. The given quantities are:

Mass of substance, m= 50 g specific heat of water, c= 1 cal/gC°
Initial temperature of water, ti= 10°C
Final temperature of water, tf= 50°C
Required:
Energy needed, Q

2. The equation that relates the given quantities with the unknown quantity is
Q= mc∆t

3. Substitute the given quantity into the working equation. The working equation is the
basic equation for Q,

Q= mc∆t
= 50g(1cal/gCo) (50-10)Co
= 50 cal (40)
Q= 2 000 cal

Example Problem 2.2

How much heat must be added to boil a cup of water at 20 oC for coffee?
One cup of water has a mass of about 220 g.

18
Solution:

1. The given quantities are;

mass of water, m= 220g
initial temperature of water, ti= 20 oC
final temperature of water, tf = 100 oC
Required:
Heat needed, Q

2. The working equation to be used is the basic equation,

Q= mc∆t

3. Substitute the given quantities into the working equation,

Q = 220g (1 cal/gCo) (100 – 20)Co
= 220 cal (80)
= 17, 600 cal

Change of Phase

Another consequence of heat transfer is change of phase. Surely, you have seen
what happens to ice when it is taken out of the freezer. To understand what takes place
when ice water melts, do activity 2.3

Melting

What you will do

Activity 2.3

1. Borrow a laboratory thermometer from your teacher.

2. After taking out the ice cubes from the freezer immediately put them in a container.
Gently push the thermometer into the ice cubes. The mercury should be covered with
ice.
3. Take the initial temperature of the ice, and record it in your data table (see table 2.1)

Table 2.1
Time (min) Temperature ( oC)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

19
7
8
9
10

4. Record the temperature every minute thereafter, until you observe that most of the
ice has melted.
5. Plot a graph of temperature against time. Describe the graph.

Did you observe that the initial temperature of ice was below 0 oC. The temperature
of ice from a larger time before taking out of the freezer is usually below 0 oC. When left
outside the freezer, the temperature increased until it reached 0o C. At this temperature, the
ice started to melt. While it was melting, did you observe that its temperature remained the
same?

Does the graph of the temperature against time that you plotted the same as the one
next page (Figure 2.1)? The first part of the graph is a straight slanting line while the second
part is a straight horizontal line.

Fig. 2.1 Graph of temperature versus time for melting ice

What happens to the particles when a solid melts? The atoms in a solid are usually
bonded to each other in a well-defined structure. They can vibrate about an equilibrium
position but they cannot rotate or move to new positions. If heat is added to a solid such as
ice, the temperature increases to 0oC. While the temperature is increasing, the particles
vibrate with greater amplitude. At 0oC, further heating will cause the particles to break away
from those near them and move about more freely. Melting occurs, or the solid changes to

20
liquid. The temperature at which this change from solid to liquid happens is called the
melting temperature.

What you will do

Activity 2.4

1. Study Table 2.2 which shows the melting and boiling temperatures of some substances.

Melting Boiling
Substance Melting Heat of Fusion Boiling Heat of
Temperature (J/kg) Temperature Vaporization
o
( C) (oC) ( J/kg)
Hydrogen -259.31 58.6 x 103 -252.89 452 x 103
Nitrogen -209.97 25.5 x 103 -195.8 201 x 103
Oxygen -218.79 13.8 x 103 -183.0 213 x 103
Ethanol -114 104.2 x 103 78 854 x 103
Mercury -39 11.8 x 103 357 272 x 103
Water 0.00 334 x 103 100.00 2256 x 103
Sulfur 119 38.1 x 103 444.6 326 x 103
Lead 327.3 24.5 x 103 1750 871 x 103
Antimony 630.50 165 x 103 1440 561 x 103
Silver 960.80 88.3 x 103 2193 2336 x 103
Gold 1063.00 64.5 x 103 2660 1578 x 103
Copper 1083 134 x 103 1187 5069 x 103

2. Compare the melting temperatures of the different substances.

Did you observe that the melting temperatures of the substances differ? Melting
temperature is one of the identifying properties of a substance.

The amount of energy required to change the phase from solid to liquid also varies
for different substances. The measure of the energy required to melt a solid is called the
latent heat of fusions, hf. The heat of fusion of a solid is defined as the energy needed to
melt a unit mass of solid at the melting temperature. If you look at Table 2.2, you will find
that the heat of fusion of ice is 334 x 103 J/kg or 80 cal/g. This means that 1 kg of ice needs
334 x 10 3 joules or 1 g of ice needs 80 cal to melt it at its melting temperature.

How much heat is needed to melt a mass m of solid? In general, the heat, Q, needed
to melt a mass of solid is
Q = mhf
The value, Q, is always a positive number because energy must be added to the
substance to melt it.

21
Freezing of Liquids

In the previous sections of this module, you learned about melting and the energy
needed to melt a given mass of substance. What do you think happens when liquid freezes
or changes to solid? Freezing is the opposite of melting. When a liquid freezes, energy is
given off.

Think about this!

What happens to the random motion of the particles of matter when water freezes?

When a liquid freezes, the random motion of the particles slows down. Particles begin
to fuse or bond. The liquid changes to a solid. This change from the liquid to the solid state
is called freezing. This occurs at the melting temperature.

The same amount of energy is involved is freezing as that in melting.

The energy Q released when a mass m, of liquid changes from liquid to solid or when
a liquid freezes is
Q = - mhf

The negative sign indicates that energy is given off when the liquid freezes.

Always remember that during a change of phase, the temperature of the substance
remains the same. Thus, when ice melts, temperature remains the same until all the ice was
totally melted. Similarly, the temperature remains the same until all the liquid has totally
frozen.

22
What you will do
Activity 2.5

Try solving the following problems using the equations you have learned.

1. How much heat must be added to 200 g of ice at Oo C to totally melt it at the same
temperature?
2. 100 g of water in an ice tray at 30o C was placed in the freezer of a refrigerator. After
sometime, it froze. How much heat was removed from the water when all of it was
frozen at 0o C?

Key to answers on page 36

Thermal Expansion

Have you observed what happens to an inflated balloon when left under the sun? What
happens to the dried skin of pork or beef made into “chicharon”?

When left under the sun, an inflated balloon expands. It gets bigger. The dried pork or
beef skin also expands when placed in hot oil. Recall that whenever the thermometer is
placed in a glass of hot water, the level of mercury inside the thermometer tube rises.
Solids, liquids and gases expand when they are heated

What happens to the molecules when matter expands? Do activity 2.6 to find out.

What you will do

Activity 2.6

Study figure 2.2, then answer the questions that follow. The figure shows a solid heated to
increase the temperature from 20o C to 50o C

T= 20 o C T= 50 o C

a b

1. Describe the temperature of the solid in a and b.

23
2. If the small circles represent the molecules, estimate the number of molecules in the
substance in a and b.
3. Compare the lengths of the two solids.
4. Compare the space between the molecules in solid a and solid b

Key to answers on page 36

At higher temperature, the atoms and molecules in a solid or liquid vibrate through a
greater distance. They push each other apart slightly in all directions. This is called thermal
expansion. Linear expansion is the increase in length while volume expansion is the
increase in volume per unit length or volume per degree rise in temperature.

Most solid objects change length in direct proportion to a change in temperature.

This means that for the same initial length of a solid, the greater the change in temperature,
the greater is its increase in length.

Most solid objects also change length in direct proportion to their original lengths. So,
for the same change in temperature, a short iron bar expands less than a longer one. But if
we get the ratios of the change in length to the initial length of the two bars, they are the
same. The equation
∆L α L ∆t

shows the relationship of increase in length with original length and change in temperature
of the solid. If we change the proportionality sign to an equal sign, we introduce a constant
of proportionality k. Thus we have

∆L = kL ∆t

where ∆L is the increase in length, k is the proportionality constant, Lo is the original length
and ∆t is the change in temperature of the solid. The constant k may be changed to α and is
called the coefficient of linear expansion. How is this value obtained?
From the equation, ∆L = αLo ∆t, the α maybe solved;

α= ∆L_
L ∆t

This means that the ratio of the change in length to original length and unit change of
temperature is constant. However, this is constant for a given substance only. For different
substances, the value varies.

24
Table 2.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion at 20 oC

Substance Linear Expansion Volume Expansion

α ( / Co) β ( / Co)
Aluminum 25 X 10-6 72 X 10-6
Steel and iron 12 X 10-6 36 X 10-6
Glass (Pyrex) 3 X 10-6 9 X 10-6
Ethanol 250 X 10-4 750 X 10-6
Gasoline 300 X 10-6 900 X 10-6
Air 3670 X 10-6

Thermal expansion occurs in all three dimensions. A solid does not merely become
longer, it also becomes wider and thicker. So, both the area and the volume of the solid
increase.

The behavior of liquids is quite similar to that of solids. However, since liquids do not
have definite shapes, the change in volume caused by expansion is determined

Think about this!

What do you think will happen to the level of liquid when its container is
heated?

Since liquids expand more than solids, when a container holding a liquid is heated, the
level of the liquid rises. This is because the increase in volume of the liquid is greater than
the increase in the volume of the container. This principle is applied in liquid thermometers.
When heated, the level of mercury in the mercury thermometer rises.

What you will do

Activity 2.7

Use the data in table 2.3 to answer the questions below:

1. Compare the thermal expansion of solids to that of liquids.

2. Compare the volume expansion of gases to that of solids and liquids.

The volume expansion of gases is greater than those of solids and liquids. Unlike
solids and liquids, expansion of gases is uniform.

25
Example Problem 1

An iron rod is 20 cm in length at 30 oC. a) What is the increase in length of the rod when
the temperature is increased to 60 oC? b) What is the length of the rod at
60 oC?

Solution
(a)
1. The given quantities are;
L = 20 cm
T1 = 30 oC
T2 = 60 oC
α iron = 12 X 10-6

2. The working equation to be used is the basic equation

∆L = αL ∆t

3. Substitute the given quantities into the equation

∆L = 12 X 10-6/Co X 20 cm X (60-30) Co
= 7200 X 10-6 cm or
∆L = 0.0072 cm
(b)
1. The given quantities are
L1 = 20 cm
∆L = 0.0072 cm

2. The basic equation to be used is

∆L = L2 - L1

3. Derive the equation for L2 from the equation ∆L = L2 - L1

L2 = ∆L + L1

4. Substitute the given quantities into the equation

L2 = .0072 cm + 20 cm
= 20.0072 cm

Example Problem 2

a) An aluminum rod is 1 m at 30 oC. What is the length of this rod at 60 oC? b) If the rod is
cut in half, by how much does the length of each half increase for the same temperature
change?

26
Solution
(a)
1. The given quantities are
L= 1m
Ti = 30 oC
Tf = 60 oC
∆T = (60-30) Co
= 30 Co

2. The equation to be used is

L2 = ∆L + L, where ∆L = αL∆t

3. Substitute the given quantities in the 2nd equation

∆L = αL∆t
= 25 X 10-6 / Co x 1m x 30 Co
= 0.000750 m
L2 = ∆L + L
= 0.000750 m +1 m
L2 = 1.00075 m

Solution
(b)

1. The given quantities are

L = 0.5 m
∆T = 30 Co
Required : ∆L

2. The equation to be used is

∆L = αL∆t

3. Substitute the given quantities into the equation

∆L = αL∆t
= 25 X 10-6/Co X 0.5 m x 30 Co
= 375.0 X 10-6 m, or
= .000375 m

27
What you will do
Self-Test 2.7

Solve the following problems:

1. A piece of copper pipe is 6.0 meters long at 25 o C. a) If it is heated to 25 o C, what

is the increase in its length? (α al = 1.7 x 10 -5 / Co).

2. What is the length of the rod in no. 1 if it is heated at 75 o C?

Key to answers on page 37

Let’s summarize
1. Temperature is the measure of the hotness or coldness of a body. In molecular
level, temperature is defined as the measure of the average kinetic energy of
the molecules.

2. Heat is energy in transit from a body of higher temperature to a body of lower

temperature.

3. The energy resulting from heat flow is called thermal energy.

4. Internal energy is the total of all energies in a substance. It includes the

translational kinetic energy of molecules, the rotational kinetic energy of
molecules and kinetic energy due to movement of atoms in a molecule, and the
potential energy due to the forces between molecules.

5. The commonly used temperature scales are the Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin
scales. In the Celsius scale, 0 degree is assigned as the temperature at which
water freezes, while 100 degrees is assigned as the boiling temperature of
water. The difference between the freezing temperature and the boiling
temperature is 100 degrees. In the Fahrenheit scale, 32 degrees is assigned as
the freezing point of water while 212 degrees is assigned as the boiling
temperature of water. There is a gap of 180 degrees between the freezing and
the boiling temperatures of water. In the Kelvin scale, the freezing point of water
is 273 kelvins, while the boiling point is 373 kelvins.

28
6. Heat transfers naturally from a body of high temperature to a body of low
temperature until the two bodies attain thermal equilibrium. In molecular level,
during heat transfer, the kinetic energy of the fast-moving molecule decreases
when it collides with a slow-moving molecule, so there is transfer of energy from
the fast-moving molecule to slow-moving molecule. Thermal equilibrium is
attained when the molecules have the same average velocity.

7. The heat given off or added to a substance is obtained using the equation

Q = mc∆t

where m is the mass of the body, c is the specific heat, and ∆t is the
change in temperature of the substance.

8. The heat given off during a change of phase from liquid to solid or absorbed
during a change of phase from solid to liquid is given by the equation

Q = mhf.
It is positive if heat is absorbed and negative if heat is given off.

9. Solids expand when they are heated. The expansion is obtained using the
equation
∆L α L ∆t

Posttest
Directions: Select the letter of the option that correctly answers the given questions.
Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. The Kelvin temperature of matter is directly proportional to the

a) average kinetic energy of molecules and atoms.
b) total kinetic energy of molecule and atoms.
c) sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of molecules and atoms.
d) average potential energy of molecules and atoms.

2. As an object’s temperature increases

a) the average kinetic energy of its particles increases.
b) the average velocity of its particles decreases.
c) the number of particles in it increases.
d) the distance between its particles increases.

3. Oxygen boils at -183 oC. What is its equivalent in the Fahrenheit scale?
a) -215 oF b) 297.4 oF c) -329 oF d) -361.4 oF

29
4. On the Celsius scale, the boiling point of water is 100 o. What is the boiling point in
the Fahrenheit scale?
a) 32 ºF b) 212 ºF c) 273 ºF d) 373 ºF

5. The human blood has a temperature of 37 oC. What is this in K?

a) 273 K b) 310 K c) 346 K d) 373 K

6. Two bodies of different temperatures come in contact. Which of the following would
NOT happen?
a) Heat flows from a body of high temperature to a body of low temperature.
b) The temperature of the hot body would increase.
c) The two objects would have the same temperature after sometime.
d) Particles in the colder object would move faster after sometime.

7. One gram of steam at 100 oC causes a more serious burn than one gram of water at
100 oC because the steam
a) is less dense.
b) strikes the skin with greater force.
c) has a higher specific heat capacity.
d) contains more internal energy.

8. A cup of hot coffee can be cooled by placing a cold spoon in it. Which of the following
materials would be best for this purpose? Assume all spoons have the same mass.
(Specific heat: Al = 910 J/kg.K ; Cu = 390 J/kg.K; Fe = 470 J/kg.K; Ag = 234 J/kg.K)
a) aluminum b) copper c) iron d) silver

9. Evaporation cools a liquid because the

a) slowest molecule tends to escape
b) fastest molecules tend to escape
c) pressure on the liquid decreases
d) pressure on the liquid increases

10. When vapor condenses into a liquid

a) it absorbs heat c) its temperature rises
b) it evolves heat d) its temperature drops

11. Fifty kJ of heat is added to a 20 kg block of ice at 0 oC. The amount of ice that melts
is
a) 0.093 kg b) 0.15 kg c) 0.83 kg d) 2.5 kg

12. If 10 kg of punch of specific heat 3.4 kJ/kg Co absorbs 340 kJ of energy, the change
in temperature of the punch is
a) 6 Co b) 8 Co c) 10 Co d) 12 Co

30
13. Expansion of a solid indicates that
a) the number of particles in it increases.
b) the space between its particles increases.
c) the average velocity of particles increases.
d) there is an increase in the average kinetic energy of its particles.

14. A bimetallic strip consisting of copper and aluminum were subjected to a change in
temperature and bent. Which figure shows the correct position of the bimetals? Refer to the
table below.
Solid α ( X 10 -6/ Co)
Aluminum 25
Brass 19
Brick 9
Iron 12

15. Metals are good conductors of heat because

a) they contain free electrons.
b) their atoms are relatively far apart.
c) their atoms collide frequently.
d) their atoms are stable.

Key to answers on page 37

31
Key to Answers
Pre Test
1. b
2. d
3. b
4. c
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. b
10. b
11. b
12. c
13. b
14. b
15. c

Lesson 1

Self-Test 1.1
1. kinetic energy
2. potential energy
3. gravitational
4. elastic
5. gravitational potential, kinetic

Activity 1.1
3. a. The temperature of water increases as time passes.
b. The temperature of water is 100 o C when it begins to boil.
c. While the water is boiling, there is no change in the temperature.

Activity 1.2
2. a. The temperature scales used in measuring temperature are the Celsius, Fahrenheit,
and Kelvin scales.
b. The freezing point of water at sea level is 0 o C or 32 o F or 273 K.
c. Water boils at sea level at a temperature of 100 o C or 212 o F or 373 K.
d. The temperature difference between the freezing and boiling temperatures is 100 o in
the Celsius scale, 180 o in the Fahrenheit and 100 in Kelvin scale.
e. Changing temperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit
Temperature in o F (TF ) = 180/100 TC + 32 or
= 9/5 TC + 32

32
Changing temperature from Fahrenheit to Celsius
Temperature in o C (TC = 100/180 (TF – 32) or
= 5/9 (TF – 32)

Changing Temperature from Celsius to Kelvin

TK = TC + 273

Changing Temperature from Kelvin to Celsius

TC = TK - 273

Self – Test 1.2

1. Given: TC = 40 o C
Find: TF
Solution:
TF = 9/5 TC + 32
= 9/5 (40) + 32
= 72 + 32
= 104 o F

2. Given: TC = -84 o C
Find: TF
Solution:
TF = 9/5 TC + 32
= 9/5 (-84) + 32
= -151.2 + 32
= - 119.2 o F

3. Given: TF = 6152 o F
Find: TC
Solution:
TC = 5/9 (TF – 32)
= 5/9 (6 152 – 32)
= 5/9 (6 120)
= 3 400 o C

4. Given: TF = 80 o F
Find: TK
Solution:
a) Convert first the temperature from 0F to 0C
TC = 5/9 (TF – 32)
= 5/9 (80 – 32)
= 26.66 o C
b) Convert temperature to Kelvin
TK = TC + 273
= 26.66+ 273
= 299.66 K

33
Activity 1.3
1. The movement of particles in hot object is faster than that in cold object.
2. The temperature of the hot object is higher than the temperature of the cold object.
3. When the two objects were placed in contact, the temperature of the hot object
decreased while the temperature of the cold object increased.
4. After sometime, the temperature of the two objects were the same.

Self-Test 1.3
1. A person’s skin is warmer than the air around it during cold days.
2. Our hand is warmer than the piece of ice.
3. The flame of the candle is warmer than our hand.
4. The general direction of heat flow between the person’s skin and the cold air around it
is from the person’s skin to the cold air. The general direction of heat flow between the
hand and the piece of ice is from the hand to the piece of ice. Between the flame and
the candle, the direction of heat flow is from the flame to the hand.
5.
a.
o
T = 30 C T= 75 o C
A B

b. Before the objects were placed in contact, the molecules in object B have greater
kinetic energy than the molecules in object C.
c. The temperature of both objects after sometime will be the same.

6. Energy transfers from an object of high temperature to an object of low temperature.

Since the formerly hot object loses energy its molecules move slower than before. The
molecules in the formerly cold object now move faster than before.
7. Transfer of energy to an object will cause molecules in this object to have greater
average kinetic energy, thus increasing its temperature.

Lesson 2

Self- Test 2.1

1. Given: Energy = 34 Calories
Find: Energy in calories, in kilocalories, in joules
a. To convert energy in Calories to calories, convert first Calorie to kilocalorie. Use the
conversion factor
1 Calorie = 1 kilocalorie

Energy in kcal = 34 Cal x 1 kcal / 1 Cal

= 34 kcal
b. To convert energy in kcal to cal, use the conversion factor

1 kcal = 10 3 cal

34
Energy in cal = 34 kcal x 10 3 cal / 1 kcal
= 34 x 10 3 cal or
= 3.4 x 10 4 cal

c. To convert energy to joules, use the conversion factor

1cal = 4.18 J

Energy in J = 3.4 x 10 4 cal x 4.18 J / 1 cal

= 14.212 x 10 4 J or
= 1.4212 x 10 5 J
2. Given: Basal metabolic rate for women = 1 400 Calories / day
Basal metabolic rate for men = 1 600 Calories / day

Find: Basal metabolic rate for women in kcal /day, in calories / day
Basal metabolic rate for men in kcal / day, in calories / day

Solution:
Basal metabolic rate for women in kcal /day = 1 400 Cal /day x 1 kcal / 1 Cal
= 1 400 kcal /day
Basal metabolic rate for women in cal / day = 1 400 kcal / day x 10 3 cal / 1kcal
= 1 400 x 10 3 cal
Basal metabolic rate for men in kcal / day = 1 600 Cal /day x 1 kcal / 1 Cal
= 1 600 kcal
Basal metabolic rate for men in cal / day = 1 600 kcal x 10 3 cal / 1 kcal
= 1 600 x 10 3 cal

Activity 2.1
B. 1. Aluminum melted the most paraffin.
2. Aluminum absorbed the most heat, so it has the most energy.
3. The temperatures of the three metals were the same before they were transferred to
the paraffin.

Activity 2.2
B. 1. It takes longer time to boil a kettleful of water than a cupful of water.
2. Energy transferred is greater in the kettleful of water than in a cupful of water.
3. A kettleful of water has a greater mass than a cupful of water.
4. The greater the mass of a substance, the greater is the energy transferred to it.

Self – Test 2.2

1. It takes longer time to boil a kettleful of water than a cupful of water.
2. If it takes a longer time to heat a given substance, this indicates that the amount of
energy transferred to the substance is greater.
3. The change in temperature of one cup of boiled water is equal to the change in
temperature 1 kettle of boiled water.
4. The amount of energy transferred to a substance is directly proportional to its mass.

35
Activity 2.5
1. Given:
m= 200 g
t i = 0 oC
t f = 0 oC
Required: Q
Solution:
Q = mhf
= 200 g X 80 cal/g
Q = 16 000 cal
2. Given:
m= 100g
ti = 30 oC
t f = 0 oC
Required: Q
Solution:
Since the initial temperature of water is 30 oC, you need to determine first the
energy lost to change the temperature to freezing temperature which is 0 oC. Then
determine the energy lost to completely freeze the water. Then add the two values to get the
total energy lost.
a) Energy lost to change temperature from 30 oC to 0 oC
Q1 = mC∆t
= 100 g X 1 cal/gCo X -30 Co
Q1 = -3 000cal
b) Energy lost to totally freeze the water
Q2 = -mhf
= 100g (80 cal/g)
Q2 = -8 000 cal
c) Total energy lost
Q = Q1 + Q2
= ( - 3 000 cal ) + (- 8 000 cal)
= - 11 000 cal

Activity 2.6
1. The temperature of the solid in b is greater than the temperature of the solid in a.
2. The number of molecules in a is equal to the number of molecules in b.
3. The length of the solid in b is greater than the length of the solid in a.
4. The space between molecules in b is greater than the space between molecules in a.

Activity 2.7
1. The thermal expansion of liquids is greater than the expansion of solids.
2. The volume expansion of gas is greater than those of solids and liquids.

36
Self- Test 2.7
1. Given: L = 6.0 m
T1 = 25 o C
T2 = 75 o C
∆t = 50 Co
α = 1.7 x 10 -5 / Co

a) ∆L = αL∆t
= 1.7 x 10 -5 / Co x 6.0 m x 50 Co
= 0.0051 m

b) L2 = L1 + ∆L
= 6 m + 0.0051 m
= 6.0051 m

Post Test

1. a 10. b
2. a 11. b
3. b 12. c
4. b 13. b
5. b 14. c
6. b 15. a
7. d
8. a
9. b

-End of Module-

References
Young, Hugh D. and R.G. Friedman. 2004, University physics (11th ed). Addison Wesley, San Francisco, CA:
Pearson Education South Asia PTE Ltd.

Hewitt, Paul. 2002, Conceptual physics: the high school physics program. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice – Hall, Inc.

37
Module 14
The Laws of Thermodynamics

What this module is about

The Law of Conservation of Energy is such a powerful tool in understanding our

physical world. Because of this, we are able to explain how objects behave – from the very
small atomic particles to the very large planetary bodies. In this module we will study how
the law of energy conservation is restated through the laws of thermodynamics. For us to do
it, we will go through the following lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 – Historical Background of Thermodynamics

ƒ Lesson 2 – First Law of Thermodynamics
ƒ Lesson 3 – Second Law of Thermodynamics
ƒ Lesson 4 – Heat Engines and Refrigerators

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. trace the historical background and development of thermodynamics;

2. relate internal energy, heat and mechanical work in thermodynamic systems;
3. describe the direction of heat flow in natural processes; and
4. analyze the directions of thermodynamic processes in heat engines and
refrigerators.

How to learn from this module

Going through this module can be both a fun and a meaningful learning experience. All
you need to do is make use of your time and resources efficiently. To do this, here are some
tips for you:

1. Take time in reading and understanding each lesson. It is better to be slow but sure
than to hurry finishing the module only to find out that you missed the concepts you
are supposed to learn.

1
2. Do not jump from one chapter to another. Usually, the lessons are arranged such that
one is built upon another, hence an understanding of the first is essential in
comprehending the succeeding lessons.
3. Be honest. When answering the test items, do not turn to the key to correction page
unless you are done. Likewise, when performing experiments, record only what you
have really observed.
4. Safety first. Perform the experiments with extra precaution. Wear safety gears
whenever necessary.
5. Don’t hesitate to ask. If you need to clarify something, approach your teacher or any
knowledgeable person.

What to do before (Pretest)

Multiple Choice. Select the letter of the option that correctly answers the question or
completes the statement.

1. Which of the following laws of physics becomes the foundation of thermodynamics?

a. Newton’s laws of motion
b. Law of conservation of energy
c. Law of universal gravitation
d. Law of conservation of momentum

2. The word thermodynamics stems from two Greek words meaning

a. conservation of heat
b. interactions of heat
c. study of heat
d. movement of heat

3. When heat is added to a system, all of the following may happen EXCEPT
a. increase in internal energy.
b. decrease in the system’s temperature.
c. external work is done by the system.
d. increase in the pressure in the system.

4. When you place a cube of ice in your palm, heat flows

a. from your palm to the ice cube.
b. from the ice cube to your palm.
c. simultaneously to your palm and to the ice.
d. from the ice to the environment.

2
5. What must be the sink temperature of a frictionless heat engine so that it can be
100% efficient?
a. 0 0C
b. 0 K
c. equal to its input temperature
d. less than its input temperature

6. All real refrigerators require work to get heat to flow from a cold area to a warmer
area. Which of the following parts of the refrigerator does work for this purpose?
a. coils
b. lamp
c. condenser
d. motor

7. What is the efficiency of a heat engine that operates between reservoirs of

temperatures as 1400 K and 1000 K?
a. 4%
b. 29%
c. 40%
d. 100%

8. A system does no work even when heat is added to it. Which of the following may
happen to the system?
a. The system expands
b. The internal energy of the system increases
c. Both a and b
d. Neither a nor b

9. The working substance used in most refrigerators is a

a. gas that is easy to liquefy.
b. gas that is hard to liquefy.
c. liquid that is easy to solidify.
d. liquid that is hard to solidify.

10. What do you call an object that does not significantly change in temperature and
internal energy even when heat is removed or added to it?
a. Heat sink
b. Reservoir
c. Working substance
d. Heat engine

11. Which of the following explains why it is NOT possible to extract heat from a
reservoir to do work and to expel the heat to a reservoir of the same temperature as
the source reservoir?
a. Heat does not travel for objects of the same temperature.
b. Energy is not conserved for interactions of objects of the same temperature.
c. The working substance is not present for such a system.

3
d. The engine would be very inefficient.

12. The natural direction of heat flow is from high-temperature reservoir to a low-
temperature reservoir, regardless of their respective heat contents. This fact is
incorporated in the
a. first law of thermodynamics.
b. second law of thermodynamics.
c. law of conservation of energy.
d. law of conservation of entropy.

13. In any process the maximum amount of mechanical energy that can be converted to
heat
a. depends on the intake temperature.
b. depends on the intake and exhaust temperature.
c. depends on whether kinetic or potential energy is involves.
d. is 100%.

14. A heat engine takes in heat from a reservoir, does work using this energy and expels
heat at another reservoir with
a. the same temperature as the source reservoir.
b. lower temperature than the source reservoir.
c. higher temperature than the source reservoir.
d. either higher or lower temperature than the source reservoir.

15. The heat intake of heat engines come from the

a. burned fuel.
b. interaction of the engine with its surroundings.
c. friction between the engine’s piston and cylinder.
d. all of the above

Key to answers on page 27

4
Can you still recall the following terms?

Before we begin our lesson on thermodynamics, let us review some important

concepts you have learned in the previous modules. To know whether you have already
mastered these concepts or not, how about challenging yourself with this short test?

What you will do

Activity 1.1

Direction: Fill in the boxes with the correct letters to complete the statement below.
Below the statement, you can find the definition of the term being referred to in the
statement.

1. A cup and a drop of boiling water have the same of 100° Celsius.

(It is the measure of the hotness and coldness of a body.)

2. The ocean and a cup of seawater may have the same temperature but
different energy.

(It is the energy associated to the random motion of all molecules in a substance)

3. When two objects having different temperature are placed in contact with one another,
flows from the hot object to the cold object.

(It is the energy in transit from a body of higher temperature to a body of lower
temperature)

4. Matter does not contain heat; rather it contains energy.

(It is the sum total of the potential and kinetic energies of the molecules of a
substance)

5. As the water boils, the lid of the pot begins to move up. We say the air inside has done
on the lid as it pushes the lid upward.

(It is the product of the force on an object and the distance through which the
object is moved)

How did you find the test? Are you ready to proceed to our next lesson now? Make
sure that before you go on any further, you already have mastered these concepts because
you will be using them all throughout this module. If you are not so sure of your answers,
you may turn to the key to answers.

Key to answers on page 27

5
Lesson 1 Introduction and Historical Background of Thermodynamics
What happens whenever we use energy to do work? If you try to rub your hands
briskly, what is produced? Heat, right? Do you observe that heat is also produced every
time you use your appliances at home? How about when you drive a car? In the above
observations, do you think there is a relationship between energy, mechanical work and
heat?

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and its transformation to mechanical energy. It

is coined from the Greek words meaning “movement of heat”. Because it was developed in
the 1800’s when the atomic and molecular nature of matter was yet to be understood,
thermodynamics bypasses the microscopic and molecular details of systems. Rather, it
focuses on the macroscopic (macro, meaning large scale) level – mechanical work,
pressure, temperature and their roles in energy transformation.

Like the other branches of physics, thermodynamics is also governed by laws which
are restatements of the law of conservation of energy. Do you still remember this law? This
module will discuss the two important laws of thermodynamics. But before that, let us travel
back and take a look at how this field is developed.

Historically, the term energy, which may be defined as the capacity to produce an
effect, was used as early as the 17th century in the study of mechanics. The transfer of
energy in the form of heat was not correctly associated with mechanical work, however, until
the middle of the 19th century when the first law of thermodynamics or the principle of the
conservation of energy was properly formulated.

In 1824 the French military engineer Sadi Carnot introduced the concept of the heat-
engine cycle and the principle of reversibility, both of which greatly influenced the
development of the science of thermodynamics. Carnot's work concerned the limitations on
the maximum amount of work that can be obtained from a steam engine operating with a
high-temperature heat transfer as its driving force. Later that century, his ideas were
developed by Rudolf Clausius, a German mathematician and physicist into the second law
of thermodynamics, which introduced the concept of entropy. Ultimately, the second law
states that every process that occurs in nature is irreversible and unidirectional, with that
direction being dictated by an overall increase in entropy. It, together with the first law, forms
the basis of the science of classical thermodynamics.

Classical thermodynamics does not involve the consideration of individual atoms or

molecules. Such concerns are the focus of the branch of thermodynamics known as
statistical thermodynamics. This field attempts to express macroscopic thermodynamic
properties in terms of the behavior of individual particles and their interactions. It has its
roots in the latter part of the 19th century, when atomic and molecular theories of matter
began to be generally accepted.

6
The 20th century has seen the emergence of the field of non-equilibrium or
irreversible thermodynamics. Unlike classical thermodynamics, which assumes that the
initial and final states of the substance being studied are states of equilibrium (i.e., there is
no tendency for a spontaneous change to occur), non-equilibrium thermodynamics
investigates systems that are not at equilibrium. Early developments in non-equilibrium
thermodynamics by the Norwegian-American chemist Lars Onsager concerned systems
near, but not at, equilibrium. The subject has since been expanded to include systems far
away from equilibrium.

What you will do

Self-Test1.1

1. Thermodynamics focuses on the macroscopic details of systems. Which of the

following is NOTused to describe a system macroscopically?
a. Temperature
b. Pressure
c. Work
d. Mass

2. Which of the following types of engines was first used and studied?
a. Steam engines
b. Gasoline engines
c. Diesel engines
d. Internal combustion engines

3. Who introduced the concept of heat engine and reversibility on thermodynamics?

a. Rudolf Clausius
b. Sadi Carnot
c. Blaise Pascal
d. Robert Boyle

4. Which of the following is TRUE about thermodynamics?

a. It is based on conservation principle.
b. It deals with energy.
c. It discusses direction of heat movements.
d. All of the above

5. According to the laws of thermodynamics, all processes occurring in nature are

a. reversible and unidirectional
b. irreversible and unidirectional
c. reversible and bidirectional
d. irreversible and bidirectional

Key to answers on page 27

7
Lesson 2 First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is an extension of the law of energy conservation

when applied to thermodynamic systems. Can you still recall what this law is about? The
Law of Conservation of Energy states that:

“Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be transformed

into another form but the total amount of energy remains the same.”

How energy is conserved is shown when you eat breakfast in the morning. The
chemical energy in food will be converted into mechanical energy that enables you to do
work like walking, running, and climbing stairs. But not all the chemical energy in the food
you take will be transformed into mechanical energy. Some of it will be released from your
body as heat, that is, when you sweat and feel warm. So you see, in the law of conservation
of energy, we talk here of energy, work and heat. How are these three quantities related
when we speak of thermodynamic systems?

But let us first define what a thermodynamic system is. In thermodynamics, a system
is any region completely enclosed within a well-defined boundary and everything outside
this system is considered its surroundings. The system might be a biological organism, a
mechanical device or the whole of the earth’s atmosphere.

It is important that we define what

is contained inside the system as
well as what exists outside it.

surroundings

system

The first law is all about the relationship between internal energy, heat, and work. To
find out how these three quantities are related, perform this simple activity:

8
What you will do
Activity 2.1 Popping popcorns

What you will need

ƒ A pack of popcorn kernels
ƒ a small pot with lid
ƒ stove

What to do

1. Place the pot over low fire and wait for a few seconds to make the pot hot.
2. Put the popcorn kernels in the pot and cover it with the lid.
3. After a few minutes, what happens to the kernels?
4. Wait for another few minutes for all the kernels to pop. What do you observe
on the lid of the pot?

To analyze the experiment above, it is important for you to define clearly what exactly
is and is not included in the system. What do you think is the thermodynamic system that we
should consider here? Is it the popcorn, the pot, the lid, or the stove? In order for us to
describe clearly the energy transfer in and out of the system, we only have to consider the
popcorn to be the thermodynamic system in this experiment and the pot and its lid to be the
surroundings.

When the popcorn inside the pot was placed over fire, what quantity is being added
into the system? It is heat, right? Energy is added to the popcorn by conduction of heat.
Now, what happened to the kernels after heat is supplied to them? Of course, each kernel
began to pop and expand. In this process, what changes took place in the popcorn? First,
the temperature of the popcorn increased; second, as the popcorn expands its volume also
increased and consequently, pressure is also raised. Because of these changes in the state
of the popcorn, what happened to its internal energy? Definitely, it also increased. Now,
when almost all the popcorn kernels have popped, what do you observe with the lid of the
pot? The lid began moving up as the popcorn pushed their way out of the pot to give space
for other popcorns inside to expand. Can you guess what the popcorn has done to the lid of
the pot? Of course, work! The popcorn has done work by pushing the lid up to a certain
distance. Can you see the relationship now?

9
When heat is supplied to the
popcorn system, some of it
increases the internal energy of the
kernels and the rest is converted
into mechanical work to lift the lid
of the pot!!!

This is the First Law of Thermodynamics: The heat added to a system is equal to the
sum of the increase in internal energy plus the external work done by the system.

In simple terms,

Heat input = increase in internal energy + work output

The first law of thermodynamics is not just about popping popcorns. It provides the
basic principle used in heat engines, from steam turbines to nuclear reactors. It has its
obvious application in transportation.

A train that runs in a steam engine operates by burning wood

or coal in the engine. Heat is generated, thus increasing the
temperature of the engine’s water. As the water boils, it produces
steam. The expansion of this steam does work and propels the train
forward.

10
Even the jet engines of airplanes or the common automobile engines use the heat of
combustion of their fuel to do work in making these vehicles move.

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1

Select the letter of the choice that correctly answers the questions or completes the
statements.

1. The heat added to a system is used to increase the system’s

a. internal energy.
b. work input.
c. pressure.
d. all of the above

2. The first law of thermodynamics is a restatement of what conservation principle?

a. Law of conservation of mass
b. Law of conservation of momentum
c. Law of conservation of energy
d. Law of conservation of charges

3. Which of the following illustrates the work done by steam emerging from boiling water
in a kettle?
a. The steam pushes the cover of the kettle.
b. The steam blows objects placed near it.
c. The steam emerging from the kettle’s mouth produces sound.
d. All of the above

4. If 5 J of energy is added to a system that does no external work, by how much will the
internal energy of that system be raised?
a. 0 J
b. 5 J
c. 10 J
d. Cannot be determined

5. Steam engines operate by boiling water to produce steam. The work done by steam
is due to
I. the expansion of water as it turns into steam
II. the thermal energy supplied by the burning wood or coal in
the engine

11
a. I only
b. II only
c. Both I and II
d. Neither I nor II

Key to answers on page 27

Lesson 3 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Let us begin studying the second law by performing a simple experiment.

What you will need

ƒ 2 blocks of metals of the same size and dimensions
ƒ thermometer

What to do
1. Place one block of metal in the freezer for about 10 minutes. Before taking
it out from the freezer, measure its temperature using a thermometer.
2. At the same time, put the other block over fire or immerse it in boiling water.
Measure its temperature also.
3. Get the two blocks and place them in contact for 3 – 5 minutes. Get the
temperature of each block.
4. Record your data in the table below.

Temperature (°C)
Blocks
Before contact After contact
Block A (hot)
Block B (cold)

12
What did you observe in the experiment? After the blocks are placed in contact, what
happened to their temperatures? The hot block became cooler and the cold block became
warmer, right? If so, what does this tell you? Because of the reduced temperature of the hot
block, we can say that heat is removed from the hot block and transported to the cooler
block and to the surroundings. If we neglect the block’s interaction with the surroundings, we
can also say that the cooling of the hot block is proportional to the warming of the cold block.
This is true because energy is conserved.

This observation on the direction of heat does not just hold true for the blocks we
have experimented. In fact, it governs all natural phenomena. The way ice melts, the
changes in weather and operation of engines are all governed by the second law of
thermodynamics.

Remember this

Heat always naturally travels from object of internal energy at higher

temperature to object of internal energy of lower temperature.

Is it also possible that heat travels from a cold object to a hot object? Hmm, well you
might be thinking it maybe possible. After all, it will not violate the law of conservation of
energy. But it seems to violate the second law! This will now remind us that thermodynamic
processes occurring in nature are irreversible. Irreversible processes are those that proceed
spontaneously in one direction but not conversely.

Before we wrap up our discussion of the second law, let us consider another scenario
illustrated in the comic strip on the next page.

13
Look, my palms get Easy! The
warm when I rub mechanical energy of
them against my your palm is
arms… why? converted to heat by
friction between your

Can it happen
the other way NO way! You can’t expect
that your palms initially at
around?
rest will spontaneously
start moving by itself and
your palm and arms cool
down…

Indeed, it is very easy to convert all mechanical energy into heat. But heat can only
be partially converted to mechanical energy. We have never succeed in building a machine
that converts heat completely into mechanical energy so it can power up cars, ships, and
other machines of all kinds. Again, why not?

The answer to this has something to do with the second law of thermodynamics
stated as:

Remember these:

ƒ The natural direction of heat flow is from object of higher temperature to

object of lower temperature.

ƒ It is impossible to construct an engine operating in cycle that converts heat

totally into mechanical energy to do an equivalent amount of work.

But can we really not reverse the process? Of course we can but we have to do
something to alter the natural process such that it would not violate both the first and the
second laws of thermodynamics. We will know how to reverse the process as we study heat
engines and refrigerators:

14
Let us take a quick look!

ƒ Heat engines take heat from a hot reservoir, use some of it to do

work and exhaust the rest to a cooler reservoir as waste.

ƒ Refrigerators take heat from a cold reservoir and partially

transport it to a hotter reservoir by doing some amount of work.

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1

Select the letter of the option that answers each question or completes the
statements.

1. When an ice cube is placed in a glass of hot water, heat moves

a. from the ice cube to the water.
b. from the water to the ice cube.
c. from the ice cube to the glass.
d. from the ice cube to the surrounding air.

2. All processes occurring in nature are

a. reversible.
b. irreversible.
c. ideal.
d. spontaneous.

3. When a book slides over a table

a. mechanical energy is converted to heat.
b. heat is converted to mechanical energy.
c. heat is converted to work.
d. mechanical energy is converted to friction.

15
4. Two objects of different temperatures are insulated from their surroundings. If
the hotter object cools by 4 K, the other object
a. also cools by 4 K.
b. warms by 4 K.
c. warms by less than 4 K.
d. may become warmer or cooler depending on the type of materials the
object is made of.

5. Heat naturally travels

a. from cold to hot objects.
b. from hot to cold objects.
c. from/to objects of the same temperature.
d. cannot be predicted.

Key to answers on page 27

Lesson 4 Heat Engines and Refrigerators

Heat Engines

What is your concept of an engine? Maybe you’re thinking of the engines that run
cars and trucks, or the engines farmers use to pump water to their crops. These are the
most modern kinds of engines that we have now that make use of commercial fuels like
gasoline. What was life like before gasoline was discovered? Do you know that the people
used water to run the first kind of engines, the steam engines? How did they do that? They
boiled water to produce steam. The steam formed then spun the turbines connected to the
wheels of their vehicles.

Although steam engines are primitive compared to the engines we have now, their
process of operation remained generally the same. A heat engine is any device that
changes internal energy into work.

Heat engines operate between reservoirs of different temperatures. A reservoir is

any body that can give off or accept heat without a significant change in its internal energy
or temperature. Every heat engine has working substances in them. The working

16
substance is a quantity of matter that undergoes inflow and outflow of heat, compression,
expansion and sometimes change in phase.

Let’s take a look at the schematic diagram of a heat engine.

The heat engine

absorbs heat from a reservoir of higher

temperature thus increasing its internal energy

converts some of this energy to work

expels the remaining energy as heat to a

reservoir of lower temperature. This low-
temperature reservoir is called sink.

One of the examples of heat engine is a gasoline engine. This is like the one that
runs motorcycles and other machines at home.

The burning fuel in the combustion chamber is the

high temperature reservoir

The energy from the burned fuel does work on the

pistons of the engine. How? It makes the piston move
up and down, and this eventually makes the gears of
the motorcycle move.

The energy that is not used to do work is expelled as

exhaust to the low-temperature reservoir, which is its
surroundings.

17
We can see from our example that not all the energy is used to do work. The
remainder is expelled in the heat sink. This is another statement of the second law of
thermodynamics.

An engine that converts energy into more work and less waste is said to be more
efficient. However, Sadi Carnot have found out that while it is true that we can express
efficiency in terms of work, the efficiency of ideal heat engines depends only on the
temperatures of the hot and cold reservoir. According to him, an engine operating between
two reservoirs of higher temperature difference is more efficient than an engine operating
between reservoirs of nearly the same temperatures.

To compute the ideal efficiency of heat engines, we use the formula shown in the
box.

Thot - Tcold
Ideal Efficiency = x 100
Thot

If an engine extracts heat from a 2730 Kelvin reservoir and expels heat at 1730
Kelvin reservoir, it has an efficiency of

2730 K – 1730 K
Ideal Efficiency = x 100 = 36.63%
2730 K

Let us see what happens when the engine extracts heat from a 10, 730 K reservoir
instead.

10730 K – 1730 K
Ideal Efficiency = x 100 = 83.87%
10730 K

What if the engine operates between two reservoirs of the same temperature? Let’s
say, 1730 K. Let’s compute again.

1730 K – 1730 K
Ideal Efficiency = x 100 = 0%
1730 K

18
Zero percent? Does it mean
that it is not possible to extract
heat from a reservoir, do work
and expel the heat to a reservoir
of the same temperature as the
source?

That’s correct! The last situation explains why airplanes cannot make use of the heat
from the atmosphere to do work because the source and the sink (the atmosphere) are
practically the same!

Refrigerators

Although internal energy will not spontaneously flow from a cold region to a hot
region, it can be forced to do so by doing work on the system. Refrigerators and heat pumps
are examples of heat engines which cause energy to be transferred from a cold area to a
hot area. Usually this is done with the aid of a phase change, i.e., a refrigerant liquid is
forced to evaporate and extract energy from the cold area. Then it is compressed and forced
to condense in the hot area, dumping its heat of vaporization into the hot area.

Let us now see how a refrigerator works by relating it to the processes of a heat
engine. If you open the refrigerator, you will feel that the temperature inside is lower than the
temperature outside. We can also call the inside and outside portions of the refrigerator as
cold and hot reservoirs, respectively.

When we place food inside the refrigerator, what happens to the food temperature? It
becomes cooler, right? Does this mean that for the food’s temperature to drop, heat must
have been removed from it? But is it not true that the inside part of the refrigerator is the
cold reservoir and the outside part is the hot reservoir? In short, heat must have moved from
cold to hot reservoir!

A refrigerator is a heat engine in which work is done on a refrigerant substance in

order to collect energy from a cold region and exhaust it in a higher temperature region,
thereby cooling the cold region further. A refrigerator, working in a process of transporting

19
heat from cold to hot reservoir is indeed a reversed heat engine! How is this done? Is there
also work involved?

Let us see the engine diagram to understand this better.

The refrigerator

does work on the refrigerant .

absorbs heat from a reservoir of lower

temperature.

expels the energy as heat to a reservoir of

higher temperature.

It is clear from the diagram that the flow of heat can only be reversed by a refrigerator
if the energy is supplied to the engine. All real refrigerators require work to get heat to flow
from a cold area to a warmer area. Where does this energy come from?

20
What you will do
Activity 4.1 A close look at a refrigerator

The working substance in a refrigerator is usually freon, a gas that easily liquefies.
How does the system work? It is based on the principle that an expanding gas tends to cool.

Here’s something you will do to understand this better. Read the following steps on
how a refrigerator works. After that, look for a real refrigerator and try to locate the motor
and the condenser and evaporator coils. Finally, in the given illustration, label the locations
where the different processes in a refrigerator take place. Good luck!

The compressor takes in freon and compresses then delivers it to the

1 condenser coil at high temperature and pressure. The compressor is driven
by a motor that does work on the working substance in the next cycles.

2 The surrounding air in the condenser coils is cooler than the refrigerant so
the refrigerant gives off heat and partially condenses to liquid.

The refrigerant expands in the expansion valve. As it expands, it cools

3 considerably so that the refrigerant is cooler than the surrounding of the
evaporator coil which is the inside of the refrigerator

The condensed refrigerant then absorbs heat from its surroundings. As a

4 result, the contents of the refrigerator become colder and the refrigerant
becomes warmer that it eventually vaporizes to gas.

5 The fluid enters the compressor again to repeat the cycle.

21
Now it’s your turn! Can you locate the five processes in a refrigerator in the following
diagram? The first step is done for you!

Key to answers on page 27

22
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1

Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false.

____ 1. A refrigerator needs external energy to transport heat from the cold reservoir to the
hot reservoir.

____ 2. A heat engine is an object that can give off or accept heat without a significant
change in its temperature or internal energy.

____ 3. A heat engine becomes more efficient as the temperature difference between the
hot and cold reservoir increases.

____4. Iron maybe used as substitute of freon in refrigerators.

____ 5. A heat engine takes in heat from the low temperature reservoir, does work using
this energy, and expels the rest in the heat sink at the high-temperature reservoir.

Key to answers on page 27

Let’s summarize

In this module, we have learned that:

1. Thermodynamics is the study of heat and its transformation to mechanical energy

2. Thermodynamics is one of the branches of physics that discusses the Law of

conservation of energy.

3. The first law of thermodynamics relates heat, internal energy and work output
of thermodynamic systems. According to this law, the heat added to a system is
used to increase the internal energy of the system and to do work.

4. In thermodynamics, a system is any region completely enclosed within a well-

defined boundary and everything outside this system is considered its
surroundings. The system might be a biological organism, a mechanical device
or the whole of the earth’s atmosphere.

23
5. Heat always naturally travels from object of internal energy at higher temperature
to object of internal energy of lower temperature.

6. The second law of thermodynamics tells us that it is impossible to construct an

engine operating in cycle that converts heat totally into mechanical energy to do
an equivalent amount of work. This law governs the operations of heat engines
and refrigerators.

7. Heat engines take heat from a hot reservoir, use some of it to do work and
exhaust the rest to a cooler reservoir as waste

8. Refrigerators take heat from a cold reservoir and partially transport it to a hotter
reservoir by doing some amount of work.

Posttest
Directions: Select the letter of the option that correctly answers the given questions.
Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. The laws of thermodynamics are basically re-statements of conservation of

a. mass.
b. charge.
c. energy.
d. momentum.

2. Which of the following best describes thermodynamics?

a. It is the study of the hotness and coldness of a body.
b. It is the study of the atomic and molecular nature of matter.
c. It is the study of energy and its transformations.
d. It is the study of the interaction between heat and temperature.

3. What happens when heat is added to a system?

a. The internal energy increases and work is done on the system.
b. Internal energy increases and external work is done by the system.
c. The internal energy decreases and no external work is done.
d. The internal energy decreases and external work is done.

24
4. What happens when you get inside an air-conditioned room after staying under the
sun for sometime?
a. You feel warm because heat flows from your body to the room.
b. You feel warm because heat flows from the room to your body.
c. You feel cold because heat flows from your body to the room.
d. You feel cold because heat flows from the room to your body.

5. What causes the lid of a pot to move up when the water in it starts boiling?
a. The heated air inside the pot compresses.
b. The heated air inside the pot expands.
c. The boiling water compresses.

6. A can fitted with a movable piston is paced over a fire. What happens when the air
inside the can expands due to heating?
a. The piston moves up.
b. The piston moves down.
c. The piston does not move.
d. The piston will crush the can.

7. The internal energy of a system increases when

a. the system expands.
b. the pressure become low.
c. the system gets heavier.
d. the temperature drops.

8. The low-temperature reservoir where a heat engine operates is called

a. surroundings.
b. sink.
c. working substance
d. refrigerant.

9. In which of the following sets of temperature of two reservoirs will a heat engine be
most efficient?
a. 1140 K and 1140 K
b. 1140 K and 0 K
c. 1140 K and 700 K
d. 700 K and 300 K

10. Which of the following will not likely be used as working substance in refrigerators?
a. Freon
b. Carbon
c. Methane
d. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

25
11. Heat is absorbed by a refrigerant in a refrigerator when it
a. melts.
b. vaporizes.
c. condenses.
d. compresses.

12. Which of the following describes all processes occurring in nature

a. irreversible
b. unidirectional
c. both a and b
d. neither a nor b

13. What is the use of the motor in the refrigerators?

a. It regulates the power to the appliance.
b. It does work on the refrigerant.
c. It supplies power to the refrigerator in cases of power interruption.
d. It liquefies the refrigerant.

14. Which of the following explains why airliners cannot make use of the heat from the
atmosphere to run their engines?
a. The atmosphere is a very large reservoir.
b. The heat in the atmosphere may destroy their engines.
c. It is not possible to have an engine operating at the same reservoir
temperatures.
d. All of the above

15. How do you compare refrigerators and heat engines?

a. A refrigerator is a heat engine operating in the reverse cycle.
b. A refrigerator needs a working substance while a heat engine doesn’t.
c. A refrigerator does not obey the laws of thermodynamics because it is the
reverse of a heat engine.
d. Both a and c

Key to answers on page 27

26
Key to Answers

Pre-Test Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 4

1. b
2. d Activity 1.1 Self-Test 2.1 Activity 4.1
3. b 1. Temperature 1. a • see diagram on
4. a 2. Thermal 2. c the box at the
5. b 3. Heat 3. d bottom of this
6. d 4. Internal 4. b page
7. b 5. work 5. c
8. b
9. a Self-Test 1.1 Lesson 3 Self-Test 4.1
10. b 1. d Self-Test 3.1 1. T
11. a 2. a 1. b 2. F
12. b 3. b 2. b 3. T
13. d 4. d 3. a 4. F
14. b 5. b 4. b 5. F
15. a 5. b

Posttest
1. c
2. c
3. b 1
4. c
5. a
6. a 2
7. a
8. b 3
9. b
10. b
11. b 4
12. c
13. b
5
14. c
15. a

-End of Module-

27
References
Hewitt, P.G. (1997). Conceptual physics. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.

Navasa, D. & Valdez, B.J. (2001). Physics. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House, Inc.

Tan, M. (2001). TIMSS-LIKE test items in science and mathematics. DOST-SEI, UPNISMED, Pundasyon Para
sa mga Guro ng Agham at Matematika, Ink.

Tillery, B.W. (1999). Physical science. Singapore: WCB McGraw-Hill.

Urone, P. (2004). Physics with health science applications. Manila.

Yong Loo Wan, Wai Kwok & Fong See Tho Weng. (2004). Physics insights. Phil. Edition. Pearson Educ. South
Asia PTE LTD.

Tillery, B. W. (1999). Physical Science. Singapore: WCB McGraw Hill

Young, H. D., et. al. (2004). University Physics. USA: Pearson Education Inc.

Van Heuvelen, A. (1986). Physics: A General Introduction Second Edition. Canada: Little Brown and Company
(Canada) Limited

28
Module 15
Waves: Carriers of Energy

What this module is about

Few experiences are more relaxing than a day at the beach. The sight of waves
washing a shore, the sound of good music, and the feel of the sun’s rays help us forget
about the pressure of examinations and other school projects. What might surprise you is
that the phenomenon of waves underlies all of those familiar experiences that will be
discussed in this module.

In the previous modules, we have discussed the concepts of energy and how this
energy is transferred in the form of work done. In most cases, energy is transferred by
mechanical means. We also discussed that heating is another mode of energy transfer. Are
there other means of transferring energy?
Another method of energy transfer is by wave motion. Module 16 will give you a detailed
discussion on waves.

You will study the following lessons in this module:

ƒ Lesson 1 - Nature of Waves

ƒ Lesson 2 - Types of waves
ƒ Lesson 3 - Characteristics of Waves
ƒ Lesson 4 - Properties of Waves

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. define the nature of waves;

2. explain how waves transfer energy;
3. differentiate wave pulse from wave trains;
4. distinguish between longitudinal and transverse waves;
5. explain the characteristics of waves;
6. solve problems relating frequency, wavelength, and speed of a transverse wave;
and,
7. enumerate and explain the properties of waves.

1
How to learn from this module

Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module.

1. Read the instructions carefully.

2. Follow the instructions very carefully.
3. Answer the pretest in order to determine how much you already know about the
lessons in this module.
4. Check your answers against the given answer key at the end of this module.
5. Read each lesson and do activities that are provided for you.
6. Perform all the activities diligently to help and guide you in understanding the
topic.
7. Take the self-test after each lesson to determine how much you understood the
topic.
8. Answer the posttest to measure how much you have learned from the lessons.
9. Good luck and have fun

What to do before (Pretest)

Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. Which of the following can be a medium for a wave?

a. air
b. water
c. space
d. all of the above

2. A medium transfers
a. air.
b. matter.
c. energy.
d. molecules.

3. An ocean wave is an example of a

a. standing waves.
b. stationary wave.
c. transverse wave.
d. longitudinal wave.

2
4. The maximum distance the molecules of a medium are displaced from their rest
position is the
a. speed.
b. frequency.
c. amplitude.
d. wavelength.
5. A large ripple tank with a vibrator working at a frequency of 30 Hz produces 25
complete waves in a distance of 50 cm. The velocity of the wave is
a. 60 cm/s.
b. 5/3 cm/s.
c. 750 cm/s.
d. 1500 cm/s.

6. A source of frequency 500 Hz emits waves of wavelength 0.2 m. How long does it
take the waves to travel 600 m?
a. 3 s
b. 6 s
c. 12 s
d. 60 s

7. Which of the following is an example of longitudinal wave?

a. blue light
b. radio waves
c. water ripples
d. sound waves

8. The bending of waves around the edge of a barrier is called

a. reflection.
b. refraction.
c. diffraction.
d. interference.

9. Which of the following describes the effect of water waves passing into shallow
water?
a. wavelength increases, frequency increases, velocity increases
b. wavelength increases, frequency unchanged, velocity increases
c. wavelength decreases, frequency increases, velocity unchanged
d. wavelength decreases, frequency unchanged, velocity decreases

3
The figure below represents a sea-wave that causes a small cork (Z) to rise up and
down through one complete oscillation every 4 seconds.

Refer to this figure for questions 10-13

P Q R S T

Z
1 meter

3 meters

10. The amplitude of the wave is

a. 0.5 m
b. 1.0 m
c. 1.5 m
d. 3.0 m

11. The wavelength of the wave is

a. 0.5 m
b. 1.0 m
c. 1.5 m
d. 3.0 m

12. The horizontal speed of the wave is

a. 4 m/s
b. 12 m/s
c. 0.25 m/s
d. 0.75 m/s

13. If the wave is moving to the right, after 4 seconds the cork (Z) will be at position
a. P
b. Q
c. R
d. S

14. Four waves pass a certain point in one second with a speed of 80 cm/s. What is the
wavelength?
a. 0.5 m
b. 10 cm
c. 20 cm
d. 0.05 cm

4
15. If the frequency of the wave is 2/s and its wavelength is 8 cm, what is the speed of
the wave?
a. 4 cm/s
b. 6 cm/s
c. 10 cm/s
d. 16 cm/s

16. A boat tied to a post is rocked by waves 12 m apart and with a speed of 3 m/s. What
is the frequency of the wave?
a. 4 waves/s
b. 9 waves/s
c. 15 wave/s
d. 0.25 waves/s

17. A wave with amplitude of 4 cm meets another wave of the same wavelength and
amplitude. If their high parts meet, what is the amplitude of the resulting wave?
a. 0
b. 4 cm
c. 8 cm
d. 12 cm

18. Suppose the two waves in question #17 meet such that the high part of one wave
meets the low part of the other. What is the amplitude of the resulting wave?
a. 0
b. 4 cm
c. 8 cm
d. 12 cm

19. Of the following characteristics of a wave, the one that is independent of the others is
its
a. speed.
b. frequency.
c. amplitude.
d. wavelength.

20. The higher the frequency of a wave is,

a. the lower is its speed.
b. the longer is its period.
c. the greater is its amplitude.
d. the shorter is its wavelength.

Key to answers on page 19

5
Lesson 1 The Nature of Waves

Whenever a medium is disturbed, there is a corresponding observable change in it.

When you throw a small stone into the river, the water is disturbed and circular waves are
formed.

Consider a boy at the side of the river where a toy boat is floating at a distance not
within the reach of the boy. The boy wants to move the boat. How will he do that?

One-way to do it is to disturb the water to create waves. The waves will eventually
move the boat.

Based on what the boy did in the figure above, what is now your idea of a wave? A
wave is a disturbance propagated through a medium in which energy is transferred. The
medium used in which energy is transferred is water, which is liquid in form. Waves do not
transmit matter, but they transmit energy.

We have defined energy as the ability to do work and work as the product of force
and distance. Now consider a transverse pulse moving along a spring toward the person
holding the far end. When the pulse reaches him/her, he/she feels a force pulling up or
down on his/her hand, and the force will move his/her hand slightly. Thus, it does work on
his/her hand. The person who started the wave pulse put energy into the spring, and this
energy traveled in the form of a wave to the other end.

Can you generate wave pulse and wave trains along a rope? Then try the succeeding
activity.

6
What you will do
Activity 1.1

1. Get a piece of rope about 2 m long. Fix one end of a rope by tying it around
a post or a rod.

2. Have a single disturbance in one end of the rope. What is formed? This
time move that same end with a series of disturbances. What did you
observe? The single disturbance made in a rope is called wave pulse while
a series of disturbances are called wave trains.

3. How do you differentiate wave pulse from wave trains?

4. What is the medium used in this activity through which wave propagates?

Key to answers on page 19

What you will do

Self-Test 1.1

1. In Activity 16.1, how did you generate waves in a rope?

2. What is transferred by waves from one place to another?
3. What is necessary so that energy could be transferred by the waves produced by a
rope?

Key to answers on page 19

7
Lesson 2 Types of Waves

There are two types of waves: the transverse waves and the longitudinal waves.
These are mechanical waves that require a medium for propagation. Water waves and rope
waves are examples of transverse waves. On the other hand, light wave is an example of
electromagnetic wave, which does not require any medium for propagation. Recall what you
did when you generate waves in a rope. When you disturb one end of the rope, how did the
rope waves travel with respect to the direction of wave motion? Yes, rope waves travel in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of wave motion. This kind of wave is what we call
transverse wave.

Below is an illustration of transverse wave.

On the other hand, longitudinal waves are waves which travel in a direction parallel to
the direction of wave motion or parallel to the direction of vibration. The figure below
illustrates longitudinal waves.

8
What you will do
Activity 2.1

1. Get a slinky coil in the laboratory or a plastic coil, which is usually played by
children. Let a partner hold one end of the coil.

2. Then push and pull the other end. What do you observe? Yes, there are
parts in the coil that are compressed and there are parts in the coil that are
far apart. This illustrates longitudinal waves.

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1

1. What kind of wave is produced when you flip the edge of the blanket or when you
shake the dust from a blanket or rug?
2. Differentiate region of compression from region of rarefaction.

Key to answers on page 20

Lesson 3 Characteristics of Waves

Water waves are easily produced and observed. By touching one point on the
surface you can see the peaks of the waves form circles and move outwards from the
source of the disturbance.

Some of the characteristics used to describe transverse wave motion are enumerated
below:

ƒ The high points are called crests or peaks while the low points are called troughs.
ƒ The amplitude is the maximum displacement from the rest position. It is the height of
the crest or depth of a trough measured from the normal undisturbed position.

9
ƒ The wavelength, λ, is the distance between two successive crests or two successive
troughs. It is also equal to the distance between any two identical points on
successive waves, for example points A and B, and points C and D.
ƒ The frequency, f, is the number of crests or troughs that pass a point per second.
This is equivalent to the number of complete waves generated per second.
Frequency is measured in terms of hertz (Hz).
ƒ The period, T, is the time taken to generate one complete wave. It is also the time
taken for the crests, or any given point on the wave, to move a distance of one
wavelength.

T = 1/f

ƒ The speed, v, of the wave is the distance moved by a wave in one second. Since the
wave crest travels a distance of one wavelength in one period, the wave speed,

v = λ/T or ν = fλ

Sample Problem:

The frequency of some approaching ocean waves is 2 Hz and the length between
two wave crests is 3 m. What is the speed of the ocean waves moving towards the shore?

Given:
f = 2 Hz
λ=3m

Formula: v = f λ
= 2 Hz x 3 m
= 6 m/s

What you will do

Activity 3.1

Solve the following exercises:

1. A vibration of frequency 5 Hz sends a wave of wavelength 0.8 m down a rope. What

is the speed of the wave?
2. A wave of wavelength 1.5 m travels down a rope at a speed of 6 m/s. What is the
frequency of the wave?

Key to answers on page 20

10
What you will do
Self-Test 3.1

A. Below is an illustration of a transverse wave. Identify the characteristic of the wave

that is called for in the given item. Write your answer on the space provided below the
figure. Refer to the description of each characteristic as mentioned in the early part of
Lesson 16.3.
2
1 direction of travel
C D
3

A B

1. __________________ 3. __________________
2. __________________ 4. __________________

B. How are the frequency, period and speed of a transverse wave related?

Key to answers on page 20

Lesson 4 Properties of Waves

We can learn more about the behavior of waves by studying water waves. Waves
have several common properties. Sound, light, and other types of waves are reflected by
barriers in the same way as water waves are reflected.

To show reflection of water waves, try the activity on the next page.

11
What you will do
Activity 4.1

Prepare a basin with water. Dip your fingertip lightly at the center of the
basin. What happens to the wave as it hits the side of the basin?

The preceding activity showed that when water wave hit the side of the basin, the
wave turned back. The turning back of wave as it hits a barrier is known as reflection. The
waves that strike the barrier are called incident waves and those waves which turn back
after hitting the barrier are called reflected waves.

The figure below shows an incident ray represented by IO hitting a barrier at O. ON is

normal line perpendicular to the reflecting surface. The angle between the normal line and
the incident ray is called the angle of incidence and the angle between the normal line and
the reflected ray is called the angle of reflection.

Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

r
N O
i

What you will do

Self-Test 4.1

1. What do you think will happen to the waves along the rope when they hit the barrier?
2. Differentiate incident wave from reflected wave.

Key to answers on page 20

12
What do you think will happen to the speed of water wave when they moved from
the deep to the shallow portions of the river? The wavelength of the waves in the deep part
is greater than the wavelength of the waves in the shallow part. Thus, the velocity of the
waves in the deep region of the river is greater than the velocity in the shallow portion. This
property of waves is what we call refraction. The waves change directions as they pass from
deep to shallow portions of the water.

What you will do

Activity 4.2

Study Figures A and B in answering the following questions:

1. What happens to the angle of refraction when water waves pass from deep to
shallow part of the water?
2. Do the magnitudes of angle of incidence and angle of refraction equal?

A B

deep shallow

shallow
deep

Key to answers on page 20

What you will do

Self-Test 4.2

1. What is refraction?
2. Differentiate angle of incidence from angle of refraction.

Key to answers on page 21

13
What do you think will happen to the water waves when they pass through openings in
a barrier within the same medium? The waves will bend around corners of the barrier. The
bending of waves around an obstacle is called diffraction.

The figure below shows diffraction of water waves when the opening is small.

Suppose two sets of water waves meet. What would happen? To answer this
question, perform the activity that follows.

What you will do

Activity 4.3

1. Dip your two fingertips at the center of the basin with water. What happens
to the waves produced?

2. Draw your observation.

3. The figures below show constructive interference and destructive

interference. Can you differentiate one from the other?

Key to answers on page 21

14
What you will do
Self-Test 4.3

1. Based on your drawing in the preceding activity, how do you define interference?
2. Suppose a wave with amplitude of 5 cm meets another wave of the same wavelength
and amplitude, what is the amplitude of the resulting wave?

Key to answers on page 21

Let’s summarize

1. A wave is a disturbance, which travels through a medium in which energy is

transferred.
2. A wave pulse is a single disturbance while wave trains are series of disturbances.
3. The two types of waves are transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
4. Transverse waves are waves in which the particles move up and down perpendicular
to the direction of the wave motion while longitudinal waves are waves in which the
particles move back and forth parallel to the direction of the motion of the wave.
5. The highest points of waves are called crests while the low points are called troughs.
6. The amplitude is the maximum displacement from the rest position.
7. The wavelength is the distance between two successive crests or two successive
troughs.
8. The frequency is the number of crests or troughs that pass a point per second. It is
measured in hertz (Hz).
9. The period is the time taken to generate one complete wave

T= 1/f
10. The speed of the wave is the distance moved by a wave in one second.

v = λ/T

11. The properties of waves are reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference.
12. Reflection is the turning back of waves upon hitting a barrier.
13. Refraction is the change in direction of the waves as they move from one medium to
another.
14. Diffraction is the bending of waves as they enter the opening of a barrier
15. Interference is the meeting of two waves at a point.

15
Posttest

Encircle the letter of the best answer

1. The higher the frequency of the wave is,

a. the lower is its speed.
b. the longer is its period.
c. the greater is its amplitude.
d. the shorter is its wavelength.

2. Of the following characteristics of a wave, the one that is independent of the others is
its
a. speed.
b. frequency.
c. Amplitude.
d. wavelength.

3. In a transverse wave the individual particles of the medium

a. move in circles.
b. move in ellipses.
c. move parallel to the direction of travel.
d. move perpendicular to the direction of travel.

4. Water wave is an example of a

a. standing waves.
b. stationary wave.
c. transverse wave.
d. longitudinal wave.

5. The maximum distance the molecules of a medium are displaced from their rest
position is the
a. speed.
b. frequency.
c. amplitude.
d. wavelength.

6. Two waves meet at a time when one has the instantaneous amplitude A and the
other has the instantaneous amplitude B. Their combined amplitude at this time is
a. A+B.
b. A- B.
c. indeterminate.
d. between A + B and A – B.

16
7. A source of frequency 500 Hz emits waves of wavelength 0.2 m. How long does it
take the waves to travel 600 m?
a. 3 s
b. 6 s
c. 12 s
d. 60 s

8. All of the following are examples of transverse waves EXCEPT

a. blue light.
b. radio waves.
c. water ripples.
d. sound waves.

9. The changing of the direction of the wave as it passes from one medium to another
medium is called
a. reflection.
b. refraction.
c. diffraction.
d. interference.

10. Which of the following describes the effect of water waves passing into a shallow
water?
a. wavelength increases, frequency increases, velocity increases
b. wavelength increases, frequency unchanged, velocity increases
c. wavelength decreases, frequency increases, velocity unchanged
d. wavelength decreases, frequency unchanged, velocity decreases

The figure below represents a sea-wave that causes a small cork (Z) to rise up
and down through one complete oscillation every 4 seconds.

Refer to this figure for questions 11-14

P Q R S T

Z
1 meter

3 meters

11. The amplitude of the wave is

a. 0.5 m
b. 1.0 m
c. 1.5 m
d. 3.0 m

17
12. The wavelength of the wave is
a. 0.5 m
b. 1.0 m
c. 1.5 m
d. 3.0 m

13. The horizontal speed of the wave is

a. 4 m/s
b. 12 m/s
c. 0.25 m/s
d. 0.75 m/s

14. If the wave is moving to the right, after 4 seconds the cork (Z) will be at position
a. P
b. Q
c. R
d. S

15. Five waves pass a certain point in one second with a speed of 100 cm/s. What is the
wavelength?
a. 10 cm
b. 20 cm
c. 0.5 cm
d. 0.05 cm

16. If the frequency of the wave is 4/s and its wavelength is 10 cm, what is the speed of
the wave?
a. 4 cm/s
b. 6 cm/s
c. 10 cm/s
d. 40 cm/s

17. A boat tied to a post is rocked by waves 12 m apart and with a speed of 3 m/s. What
is the frequency of the wave?
a. 4 waves /s
b. 9 waves/s
c. 15 waves/s
d. 0.25 waves/s

18. A wave with amplitude of 6 cm meets another wave of the same wavelength and
amplitude. If their high parts meet, what is the amplitude of the resulting wave?
a. 0
b. 4 cm
c. 8 cm
d. 12 cm

18
19. Suppose the two waves in question #17 meet such that the high part of one wave
meets the low part of the other. What is the amplitude of the resulting wave?
a. 0
b. 4 cm
c. 8 cm
d. 12 cm

20. Which one of the following statements is true for both transverse and longitudinal
wave?
a. It can be refracted.
b. It can travel through a vacuum.
c. It can have similar wavelengths.
d. It can travel with the same speed.

Key to answers on page 21

Key to Answers

Pretest

1. d 6. b 11. d 16. d
2. c 7. d 12. d 17. c
3. c 8. c 13. c 18. a
4. c 9. d 14. c 19. c
5. a 10. d 15. d 20. d

Lesson 1

Activity 1.1

1. single wave; series of waves

2. Wave pulse is a single disturbance made in a wave source while wave train is a
series of disturbances in a wave source
3. rope which is solid in form

Self-Test 1.1

1. by disturbing one end of the rope

2. energy
3. medium

19
Lesson 2

Activity 2.1

1. There is a part in the coil where the particles are closest together and there is a part
in the coil where the particles are spread apart.

Self-Test 2.1

1. Transverse wave
2. Region of compression is a part in the wire where the particles are compressed while
region of rarefaction is a part in the wire where the particles are far apart.

Lesson 3

Activity 3.1

1. 4 m/s
2. 4 Hz

Self-Test 3.1

1. crest or peak
2. one wavelength
3. amplitude
4. trough

Lesson 4

Activity 4.1

1. The waves are reflected back when they hit a barrier.

Self-Test 4.1

1. The rope waves turned back when they hit the barrier.
2. Incident wave is the wave that strikes the barrier while reflected wave is the wave that
turned back after hitting the barrier.

Activity 4.2

1. Angle of refraction is lesser than angle of incidence

2. Angle of incidence is not equal to angle of refraction

20
Self-Test 4.2

1. Refraction is the change in direction of a wave as it moves from one medium to

another medium.
2. Angle of incidence is the angle between a normal line and the incident wave while
angle of refraction is the angle between the normal line and refracted wave.

Activity 4.3

1. Waves overlap each other.

3. Constructive interference is the meeting of two waves with the same shape and
amplitude resulting to a bigger wave while destructive interference is the meeting of
two waves with opposite displacements and the sum of their amplitudes is zero.

Self-Test 4.3

1. Interference is the meeting of two waves moving simultaneously in the same direction
that pass through the same medium.
2. 10 cm

Posttest

1. d 6. a 11. a 16. d
2. c 7. b 12. d 17. d
3. d 8. d 13. d 18. d
4. c 9. b 14. c 19. a
5. c 10. d 15. b 20. a

-End of Module-

References

Botkin, D. & Keller, E. (2003). Environmental science. (4th Ed.) USA: John Wiley and Sons.

Hewitt, P.G. (1997). Conceptual physics. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.

Navasa, D. & Valdez, B.J. (2001). Physics. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House, Inc.

Salmorin, L.M. & Florido, A. (2004). Physics IV. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.

See Tho Weng Fong (1995). Science for secondary schools. Singapore: Longman Singapore Publishers.

Taffel, A. (1992). Physics: Its methods and meanings. USA: Prentice Hall Publishers.

Tan, M. (2001). TIMSS-LIKE test items in science and mathematics. DOST-SEI, UPNISMED, Pundasyon Para
sa mga Guro ng Agham at Matematika, Ink.

Tillery, B.W. (1999). Physical science. Singapore: WCB McGraw-Hill.

21
Module 16
Sound: Its Origin and Properties

What this module is about

Can you ever imagine the world without sound or without music? Don’t you think that
life would be so dull without sound? Sound makes life interesting. Music gives life to things. It
can be used to express various emotions. Sound and Music!

In this module you will learn many things about Physics, particularly about sound.
This module includes four (4) lessons such as:

ƒ Lesson 1 - The Nature and Properties of Sound

ƒ Lesson 2 - The Behavior of Sound
ƒ Lesson 3 - Resonance
ƒ Lesson 4 - The Application of Sound

Read, enjoy, and discover the secrets of Physics!

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. compare the transmission of sound through air with its transmission through
solids, liquids, and a vacuum;
2. discuss the factors that affect the speed of sound;
3. explain how sound waves are produced, transmitted and propagated;
4. discuss how information is transmitted and received in terms of energy transfer
and transformation in a telephone; and
5. recognize the contributions of Graham Bell, Maxwell, Hertz and Marconi in the
development of telecommunications.
How to learn from this module

Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module.

1. Read and follow the instructions very carefully.

2. Take the pretest. It is a simple multiple-choice test provided at the start to
determine how much you know about the content of this module.
3. Check your answers against the answer key provided at the last page of the
module.
4. Be very honest in taking the test so you know how much knowledge you already
have about the topic.
5. Perform all the activities, as these will help you have a better understanding of the
topic.
6. Take the self-tests at the end of each lesson to determine how much you
remember about the lesson.
7. Finally, take the post-test at the end of this module.

Good Luck and have fun!

What to do before (Pretest)

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
paper.

1. Which of the following produce sound?

a. soft objects
b. radio stations
c. vibrating objects
d. objects under pressure

2. Compared to the speed of light, sound travels _______________.

a. faster.
b. slower.
c. at the same speed.
d. There is not enough information to compare the two.

3. Which of the following would be most likely to transmit sound the best?
a. steel in cabinet
b. water in the ocean
c. air in your classroom
d. water in a swimming pool

2
4. Resonance occurs when you _________________.
a. push an object.
b. vibrate an object.
c. hit an object with a hammer.
d. force the object to vibrate at its natural frequency.

5. Beats can be heard when two tuning forks ______________.

a. are sounded together
b. have the same frequency and are sounded together
c. have almost the same frequency and are sounded together
d. All of the above

6. An echo occurs when ______________.

a. sound is reflected from a distant surface.
b. sound is transmitted through a surface.
c. the sound waves are very large.
d. All of the above

7. What is the main reason why you can hear noises a long distance away over water at
night?
a. There are fewer other noises at night.
b. Water conducts sound better at night.
c. Sound bounces off water better at night
d. Sound waves are bent towards the cool air over the water.

8. A sound wave is a _______________.

a. shock wave.
b. standing wave.
c. transverse wave.
d. longitudinal wave.

9. The speed of sound wave depends on ______________.

a. pitch.
b. loudness.
c. temperature.
d. None of the above

10. Sound waves cannot travel in ______________.

a. air
b. water
c. steel
d. vacuum

3
B. Write “A” if the statement is TRUE and “B” if the statement is FALSE.

11. A pulse of compressed air that is part of a sound wave is called refraction.
12. When an object is forced to vibrate at its natural frequency, resonance occurs.
13. Beats occur when two tuning forks at slightly different frequencies are sounded
together.
14. Sound can travel through solids, liquids, and gases and even in a vacuum.
15. In order for sound from a speaker to reach a listener, air near the speaker must move
to the listener.
16. Almost everything that exists has a natural frequency.
17. Even steel bridge can collapse because of resonance.
18. The word “pitch” refers to the period of a sound wave.
19. If you strike a tuning fork and hold it on a table, the sound becomes relatively loud.
20. When an object is disturbed slightly and then left alone, it vibrates at its natural
frequency.
21. When an object is forced to vibrate at its natural frequency, its vibration amplitude
gets very large.
22. Interference patterns are produced when two sources of waves are placed side by
side.
23. Two speakers can be set side-by-side so there are some places in front of them
where there is no sound.
24. Repeated echo is known as reverberations.
25. Sound can also exhibit refraction.

Key to answers on page 30

Lesson 1 The Nature and Properties of Sound Terms to Remember

Longitudinal Wave
When we speak or make any sound, we tend to feel ƒ Wave whose
that our vocal cords vibrate. Conversely, no vibrations are felt motion is parallel
when no sound is produced. This means that sounds are to the motion of
caused by vibrations. Vibrations of molecules refer to the to- the medium or the
and-fro oscillation of molecules as a disturbance that travels particles
through a medium. This vibratory motion produces a sensation Mechanical wave
that reaches our ears and is interpreted by our brain. Sound ƒ Wave that needs a
waves are examples of longitudinal waves. They are also medium in order
known as mechanical waves since sound waves need to propagate
medium in order to propagate. Sound waves can travel in air. Vacuum
When they come in contact with our eardrums, the vibrations ƒ A space without
of the air force our eardrums to vibrate which is perceived and matter
interpreted by our brain.

4
Can sound waves also travel in other media like solids and liquids?

What you will do

Activity 1.1

Place your ear against one end of a tabletop. Ask a friend to gently tap the other
end of the table with a pencil or a ruler. What happens? Then ask your friend to
gently tap the other end of the table but this time make sure that your ear is above
the other end of the table. What happens? On which situation did you encounter
louder and more pronounced sound? On which situation did you encounter the
sound earlier?

Slight tapping on the table can produce sound that can be heard clearly on the other
end of the table. This shows that sound waves can also travel through wood or solid. Sound
is more pronounced in solids than in the air. This also means that sound is heard louder
when it propagates in solids than in air

Read This…

Liquids, on the other hand, are better conductors of sound than gases. If
two bodies are struck together underwater, the sound heard by a person who is
underwater is louder than when heard with air as the medium. As you can see,
sound is transmitted differently in different media. Liquid particles are close to
each other than the particles in the gases, so sound waves are transmitted
easier in liquids. Between liquids and solids, the particles of solids are even
closer together than the liquid molecules; therefore, sound travels even faster in
solids than in liquids. Since different media transmit sound differently, sound
travels at different speeds in different materials. Since solid is the best
transmitter of sound, sound travels fastest in solids and slowest in gases.

Sound cannot travel in a vacuum. Remember that sound is a

mechanical wave which needs a medium in order to propagate. If there is no
matter, there is no sound. In the outer space, sound would not be transmitted.

5
What you will do
Activity 1.2

1. Which would best transmit sound: steel, water, or gas? _____________

2. If you are in space, are you capable of listening to another spaceship

approaching you? Why or why not? ____________________________

Key to answers on page 31

The Speed of Sound

Did you know that lightning and thunder occur at the

same time? However, we often see lightning much earlier than
the corresponding thunder unless, of course, we are at the
source. This is because the speed of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s) is
much faster than the speed of sound.

The speed of sound in dry air at 0oC is about 331.5

m/s. However, the speed of sound in air is not constant. It is
Fig. 1.1 Lightning basically affected by three (3) different factors, which are the
atmospheric pressure, relative humidity and atmospheric
temperature. At higher atmospheric pressure sound waves travel faster. This means that in
Baguio where the atmospheric pressure is relatively lower than at sea level, sound is
transmitted slowly as compared to how it is transmitted at sea level where the atmospheric
pressure is relatively higher. Relative humidity also affects the speed of sound in air. The
higher the relative humidity, the faster the sound is transmitted. This is due to the fact that at
higher relative humidity there is more water vapor in the atmosphere which makes the
particles in the atmosphere a little closer than at low relative humidity. Thus, transmission of
sound is better in humid air than in dry air.

The table below shows the speed of sound in different materials.

6
Table 1.1 Speed of sound in different materials

Speed of Sound
Materials
V (m/s)
Air (0oC) 331
He (0oC) 1005
H (20oC) 1300
Water 1440
Seawater 1560
Iron and Steel 5000
Aluminum 5100
Hard wood 4000

Hotter areas transmit sound better than cooler areas. For every degree of rise in air
temperature above 0oC, the speed of sound in air increases by 0.6 m/s. In symbols;

v = [331.5 + 0.6(T)] m/s

where:

v = speed of sound in air at a particular temperature

T = temperature of the atmosphere

Example 1

At an atmospheric temperature of 40oC, what is the speed of sound in air?

v = [331.5 + 0.6(T)] m/s

v = [331.5 + 0.6 (40)]
v = 355.5 m/s

This is slightly faster than the speed of sound in dry air at 0oC which is only about
331.5 m/s.

7
Frequency and Pitch

What you will do

Activity 1.3 Frequency and pitch

I. Objective:
To determine the factors that affect pitch.

II. Materials:
Guitar, guitar pick

III. Procedure:

1. Strum each guitar string without holding the frets. (String #0 is the
lowermost string while string #6 is the uppermost string. Record all
your observations in the table provided.

IV. Data and Results:

String # Pitch (High or Low)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6

V. Guide Questions:
1. Which string vibrates the most when strummed?
2. Which string vibrates the least when strummed?
3. Which string has the highest frequency?
4. Which string has the highest pitch?
5. Which has the lowest frequency?
6. Which string has the lowest pitch?
7. How would you relate pitch and frequency?

Key to answers on page 31

8
The highness or lowness of sound is known as the
pitch of a sound or a musical note. It is determined by
its frequency. A high pitch corresponds to a high
frequency while a low pitch corresponds to a low
frequency.

Fig. 1. 2 Pitch and Frequency

Did you know that…

The human ear and the animal ear are very

sensitive sound detectors. The ear is a part of the
peripheral auditory system. It is divided into three major
parts: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.

The outer ear called the pinna collects the sound

waves and focuses them into the ear canal. This canal
transmits the sound waves to the eardrum.

On the other end of the ear canal is the eardrum

membrane or the tympanum. This part separates the outer Fig. 1. 3 The Human Ear
and the middle ears physically so that air pressure is
controlled and will not rapidly equalize between the two. Air vibrations set the eardrum
membrane in motion that causes the three smallest bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) to
move. These three bones convert the small-amplitude vibration of the eardrum into large-
amplitude oscillations and transfer them to the inner ear through the oval window. Behind
such oval window is a snail-shell shaped liquid –filled organ called the cochlea. The large-
amplitude oscillations create waves that travel in liquid. These sounds are converted into
electrical impulses, which are sent to the brain by the auditory nerve. The brain, then,
relates these sounds to previous experiences and interprets these signals as words, music
or noise.

The response of the human ear is limited to a range of frequencies about 20 Hz to

about 20, 000 Hz. These frequencies are referred to as audio frequencies or sonic
frequencies. Generally, as one grows older, the upper limit of audible frequencies drop.

Vibrational frequencies beyond 20 000 Hz are called ultrasonic frequencies while

extremely low frequencies are known as infrasonic frequencies. The human ear is not
capable of detecting ultrasonic or infrasonic waves. Some animals like dogs however, can
hear sounds as high as 50 000 Hz while bats can detect sounds as high as 100 000 Hz.

9
Ultrasonic waves are very
helpful to physicians. They often use
ultrasonic waves to probe human
internal organs instead of using x-rays,
which can destroy human tissue. Most
OB-Gynecologists use ultrasonic waves
to examine the uterus of a pregnant
woman to obtain information
concerning the growth of the fetus.
Nowadays, ultrasonic technology is of
three categories: 2-dimensional, 3- Figure 1. 4 Ultrasound Machine
dimensional, and 4-dimensional
categories. In the 3 – and 4-dimensional ultrasonic technologies, the features of the fetus
are very clearly captured.

Ultrasonic waves can also be used as rodent and insect exterminators. The very loud
ultrasonic sources in a building will usually drive the rodents away or disorient cockroaches
causing them to die from the induced erratic behavior.

Loudness and Intensity

Sound waves like any other waves carry different

amounts of energy. The amount of energy a
sound wave carries is known as intensity of the
sound. Take a look at figure 1.5. High amplitude
sounds usually carry large energy and have
higher intensity while low amplitude sounds carry
lesser amount of energy and have lower intensity.
The intensity of sound is proportional to the
square of the amplitude of a sound wave. Sound
intensity is objective and is measured by various
instruments like the oscilloscope. On the other
hand, the subjective judgment of a person on the
intensity of the sound is called loudness.
Loudness is a psychological sensation that
differs for different people. Loudness is subjective
but is still related to the intensity of sound. In fact,
Fig. 1. 5 Wave forms of different despite the subjective variations, loudness varies
sounds nearly logarithmically with intensity. A logarithmic
scale is used to describe sound intensity, which
roughly corresponds to loudness. The unit of intensity level for sound is the decibel (dB),
which was named after Alexander Graham Bell who invented the telephone. On the decibel
scale, an increase of 10 dB means that sound intensity is increased by a factor of 10. A
sound of 10 dB is 10 times as loud as 0 dB sound is 100 times more intense than the 40 dB
level.

10
Take a look at the picture of a father and son
who interpret the loudness of a sound differently.
The son considers the rock music a soft music
while the father considers it a loud sound. The
father may even interpret the sound as a distorted
sound, which is known as noise. Noise is a wave

Fig. 1.6 Father and Son on that is not pleasing to the senses.
guitar
Table 1.2. Shows some common sources of sound.

Source of sound Level (dB)

Jet engine, 30 m away 140
Threshold of pain 120
Amplified rock music 115
Old subway train 100
Average factory 90
Busy street traffic 70
Normal conversation 60
Library 40
Close whisper 20
Normal breathing 10
Threshold of hearing 0

What you will do

Self-Test 1.1

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet.

1. What happens to the wavelength of a sound wave if both the frequency and the
velocity of sound are reduced to one-half?
a. It is halved.
b. It does not change.
c. It becomes twice as large.
d. It is reduced to one fourth.

11
2. Sound waves travel faster in water than in air because water has a greater
___________.
a. density.
b. elasticity.
c. number of molecules.
d. volume.

3. A high frequency sound has _____________.

a. low pitch.
b. high pitch.
c. low energy.
d. a and c

4. The part of the ear where sound energy is converted to electrical impulses and sent
to the brain as nerve pulses is the _____________.
a. tympanum
b. cochlea
c. ear canal
d. auditory nerve

5. Sound waves travel fastest in _____________.

a. vacuum.
b. air.
c. liquids.
d. solids.

6. On which area will we not be able to hear any sound?

a. a theater
b. a closed room
c. in the outer space
d. in a spaceship

7. Compared to a thin string of the same length and tightness a thick string produces
sounds of ____________.
a. the same pitch
b. lower pitch
c. higher pitch
d. lower then higher pitch

8. When is sound transmitted faster?

a. during winter
b. during summer
c. There is no relation between season and sound transmission
d. There is not enough information to say

12
9. A sound wave is a _____________.
a. longitudinal wave
b. transverse wave
c. standing wave
d. shock wave

10. Which of the following is NOT capable of transmitting sound?

a. air
b. water
c. steel
d. a vacuum

Key to answers on page 31

Lesson 2 The Behavior of Sound Waves

Have you ever experienced shouting inside a cave

or even inside your bathroom? What did you notice?
Chances are you also heard what you just said. It is like
someone just repeated what you have said. This is called
reflection of sound. Sound bounces back whenever it
strikes a barrier. This reflected sound is also known as
echo. Sometimes, reflection happens repeatedly and
you would encounter repetitions of what you have Fig. 2.1. Reflection of Sound
said. This repeated echo is called reverberation.

Echoes occur when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear more than 0.1 second
after the original sound wave was heard. However, if the elapsed time between the arrival of
the two sounds is more than 0.1 second, then the sensation of the first will have died out. In
such a case, the second sound wave is perceived as a second sound.

Reverberation, on the other hand, often occurs in a small room with height, width
and length of approximately 17 meters each or less. The effect of a particular sound wave
upon the brain lasts for more than a tiny fraction of a second. In fact, the human brain keeps
a sound for up to 0.1 second. If the reflected sound wave reaches the ear within 0.1 second
of the initial sound, then the person perceives the sound as a prolonged sound, that is,
reverberation.

13
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1

What might be the reason why the walls of movie houses are designed to be rough?

Key to answers on page 31

Reflection of sound waves in auditoriums and

concert halls do not always lead to unpleasant sound
results, especially if the reflections are designed right.
Smooth walls have a tendency to direct sound waves in
a specific direction. In this case, the use of smooth
walls in auditoriums will cause the spectator to receive
a large amount of sound from one location along the
wall. This would result to only one path by which the
sound wave could travel from the speakers to the
listener. This results to a dull presentation. On the
Fig. 2.2 Reflection of Sound
other hand, rough walls tend to diffuse sound and
reflect it in a variety of directions. This would allow the spectators to perceive sound from
every part of the room, making it seem lively and full. For this reason, auditoriums, concert
halls and movie house designers prefer constructing rough walls rather than smooth walls.

Did you know that reflected sound waves are used in

determining ocean depth and the altitude of airplanes? Sound wave is
usually sent out under water from a ship. This wave is reflected by the
ocean basin back to the ship where a receiver inside the ship detects
it. The depth of the ocean may be determined through the elapsed time
the sound waves have traveled and the velocity of the sound in water.
Airplanes, on the other hand, make use of sonic altimeter as a
ranging device in determining airplane altitudes. This device consists
of a sound emitter and a recorder that measures the time interval
between the emission of sound and the reception of echo (reflected Fig. 2.3 Sound
sound). The product of the time interval and the speed of sound at Ranging
a given temperature divided by 2 (since the sound would travel downwards and then
upwards back to the plane) is equal to the airplane’s altitude.

14
cool air
Refraction

You have probably experienced calling out to a friend,

but he/she fails to hear you. This phenomenon happens when warm air Ground
sound encounters another medium of different density other warm air
than air. Sound tends to bend or change its velocity in such a
case. This is known as refraction of sound waves.
Ground
cool air
Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of
waves as they pass from one medium to another. Refraction of Fig. 2.4 Sound
sound waves is very evident in situations in which sound waves
Refraction
pass through a medium with gradually changing properties.
Sound waves travel slower in cooler air than in warmer air. This means that on a clear
sunny day, when the earth’s surface is hot, the air immediately above the surface is hotter
than the layer of air above it. This results to sound traveling faster within the earth’s surface.
On the other hand, on a clear night, the earth’s surface seems cooler. The layer of air
immediately above it is also cooler. In such a case, the air closer to the ground is cooler
than the layer of air above it. As a result sound would be traveling faster at the higher layer
and is refracted (bent) towards the earth’s surface.

Diffraction

What you will do

Activity 2.1 Diffraction

Go inside your room and close all the doors and windows. Then, ask your
friend who is outside your room to start talking. Can you hear your friend’s voice?

Now, while your friend is still talking open your door very slowly. Be sure
that there will only be a very small opening on your door. Now, can you hear
him/her in every corner of your room?

Key to answers on page 31

Diffraction is a property of wave that involves a change in direction of waves as they

pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path. This phenomenon is commonly
observed around the corners or through door openings, allowing us to hear others who are
speaking to us from an adjacent room. Many forest-dwelling animals take advantage of the
diffraction property of long-wavelength sound waves. Owls are capable of communicating

15
across long distances through their long-wavelength boots that are capable of diffracting
sound around the forest trees.

Interference and Beats

Interference happens or occurs when two (2) waves overlap

or meet. The points of overlap can either be a node (N) or an anti-
node (AN) point. A node is a part of overlapping waves that has
very low energy (low amplitude) while an anti-node is the part of
overlapping waves that carries the largest amount of energy
(maximum amplitude)

The waves in figure 2.6 are in-phase since both started as crests. Fig. 2.5 Sound
In this case, when the waves overlap they form a wave of greater Interference
amplitude. This is known
as constructive
interference. This is
also exhibited by sound
waves which results to
larger amplitude sound
waves. Larger amplitude
Fig. 2.6 Constructive and Destructive Interference
sound waves carry
larger energy thus they
are perceived to be louder or more intense sound.

Out-of-phase waves, on the other hand,

overlap and cancel each other. This means that the
resulting wave is a lower amplitude wave or no wave at
all. This is known as destructive interference. In the
case of sound waves, lower amplitude waves connote
softer sound. These softer sound areas are also known
as “dead spots”, which are sometimes evident in poorly
designed theaters and movie houses. Fig. 2.7 Beats

Beats are special and interesting cases of interference of sound. When two (2) tones
of slightly different frequencies are sounded together, a fluctuation in the loudness of the
combined sounds is heard. The result is an alternating loud and faint sound.

16
What you will do
Activity 2.2 Beats

Go to a room with an electric fan. Try to hum at the frequency of the fan. What do
you observe?

Beats can occur with any kind of wave and are a practical way of comparing
frequencies. To tune a piano, the tuner listens for beats produced between the standard fork
and a particular piano string. When the frequencies are identical, the beats disappear.

Doppler Effect

How will you perceive the sound emitted by the siren of an approaching ambulance?
Will it be a high pitch sound or a low pitch sound? What
about if the ambulance moves away from you?

Doppler Effect is a phenomenon observed when the

source of waves is moving with respect to an observer. Take
a look at figure 2.8. When the source of wave approaches
the observer, there are more emitted waves on the space
between the source and the observer. This results to a
higher frequency waves. Remember that higher frequency
waves result to a higher pitch sound – Weeee! This means
that when the ambulance approaches you, you would Fig. 2.8. Doppler Effect
perceive a higher pitch sound. On the other hand, when the
wave source moves away from you (observer), there are only a
number of waves perceived by the observer resulting to a low
frequency sound. A lower frequency sound connotes a lower
pitch. Thus, when the ambulance moves away from you, you
perceive a lower pitch sound (WAAAANG!).

When the speed of the source is the same or equal to

the speed of the wave it produces, a wave barrier is produced.
When the source of wave moves faster than its speed, the
crests of the waves overlap at the edges as shown in figure
2.10. The pattern made by such overlapping waves is a V-
shaped wave called bow waves. Similarly, a super sonic
aircraft generates a three-dimensional shock wave. Just as
Fig. 2.10. Shock
Waves

17
bow waves are produced by overlapping circles that form V, shock waves are produced by
overlapping spheres that form a cone. This conical shell, which sweeps behind a super
sonic aircraft, spreads until it reaches the ground. The sound heard by people on the ground
as a sharp crack is known as sonic boom.

What you will do

Self-Test 2.2

1. Is interference a property of some types of waves only or is it a property of all

types of waves?
2. When a wave source moves towards a receiver, does the receiver encounter an
increase in wave frequency, wave speed or both?
3. Suppose a piano tuner hears 3 beats per second when listening to the combined
sound from her tuning fork and the piano note being tuned. After slightly tightening
the string, she hears 2 beats per second. Should she loosen the string or should
she further tighten the string? Why?

Key to answers on page 31

Lesson 3 Resonance

Natural Frequency

What you will do

Activity 3.1 Natural Frequency

Gather the following materials: softball or a tennis ball, ball pen, and a nail. Drop
the objects one at a time on the floor. Observe how each one sounds. Then with a
friend drop the same set of objects one at a time. Blindfold a friend and ask him or
her to guess the objects that you dropped

18
Guide Questions:

1. Did the sounds produced by the objects differ?

2. Did they have the same pitch?
3. What might be the reason why they exhibit different sounds?

Key to answers on page 32

When different objects made of different materials are dropped on the floor, they
exhibit distinctly different sounds because objects vibrate differently when they strike the
floor. The ability of the material to vibrate depends on the material’s elasticity and the shape
of the material. The set of frequency on which the material vibrates when disturbed is known
as natural frequency. It is also described as one at which minimum energy is required to
produce forced vibration. Most materials have distinct elasticity and vibrate at one or more
natural frequencies.

What you will do

Activity 3.2 Forced Vibration

Hold both ends of a loosened guitar string. Let your friend strum or disturb the
string. Then listen to the sound produced.

Get a guitar. Connect the guitar string to the sounding board (wooden part
of the guitar). Strum or disturb the string.

Guide Question:

How did the sound of the loosened string compare to the sound made by the string
connected to the sounding board?

Key to answers on page 32

19
Sounding boards are important in stringed instruments.
Without them, the sound produced would be barely
audible. The sounding board increases the energy
released by this strip thus making the sound more intense.
This happens when the vibrating string forces the
sounding board to vibrate. This phenomenon is known as
forced vibration.

However, when the frequency of forced vibration on

an object matches the object’s natural frequency, a Fig. 3.1 Stringed instruments
large increase in amplitude occurs. This is called
resonance. Resonance means to resound or sound again. Inelastic materials like clay do
not resonate since they are incapable of vibrations. In order for something to resonate, it
needs a force to pull it back to its starting position and enough energy to keep it vibrating.

Resonance is not restricted to wave motion. It occurs whenever successive impulses

are applied to a vibrating object in rhythm with its natural frequency. English cavalry troops
marching across a footbridge in 1931 inadvertently caused the bridge to collapse when they
marched in rhythm with the bridge’s natural frequency. Since then, troops “break steps”
when crossing bridges. In 1940, however, just four months after Tacoma Narrows Bridge in
Washington was built, it was destroyed by a 40 mph wind. The mild gale produced a
fluctuating force that is said to have resonated with the bridge’s natural frequency and has
steadily increased the amplitude over several hours until the bridge collapsed.

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1

1. Why do different objects make different sounds when dropped on the floor?
2. Why can a tuning fork or bell be set into resonance while a paper cannot?
3. If the handle of a tuning fork is held solidly against a table, the sound becomes
louder. Why?

Key to answers on page 32

20
Lesson 4 The Application of Sound

You probably have relatives and friends who

live far from your place. How do you communicate
with them without traveling hundreds of miles? Which
of the devices in the figure do you often use when
communicating with them?

Nowadays, there are so many devices that can

be used to communicate with our loved ones. Letters
and telegrams are the older versions of emails and
texts messages while cell phones and e-mails are the
more convenient versions of the telephones.
Fig. 4.1. Communicating
devices
William Sturgeon is a British inventor who
exhibited a device that laid the foundation for large-scale electronic communications: the
electromagnet. He displayed the power of electromagnet by lifting nine pounds with a
seven-ounce piece of iron wrapped with wires through which the current of a single battery
was sent.

Five years later, Joseph Henry demonstrated the

potential of Sturgeon’s device for long distance communication
by sending an electronic current over one mile of wire to
activate an electromagnet which caused a bell to strike. And so
the telegraph was born.

The term “telegraph” comes the Greek word “tele” Fig. 4.2 A telegraph
which means after and “graphos” which mean write.

“What hath God wrought?”

Are you familiar with this phrase? Would you believe that this was the first message
sent through a telegraph? Samuel F.B. Morse was the first person who made use of Henry’s
invention. In 1835 at New York University, he proved that signals could be transmitted by
wires. He used pulses of current to deflect an electromagnet. This makes the electromagnet
move a marker to produce written codes on a strip of paper. This is known as Morse’s code.

In the United States, the operation developed into sending by key and receiving by
ear. A trained Morse operator could transmit 40 to 50 words per minute. It became very
popular that most Americans relied on it for communication.

21
Here’s a good glimpse of telegraphy timeline.

Timeline of Telegraphy

1810 - An electro-chemical telegraph was constructed in Germany.

1823 - In England, Ronalds built a telegraph in his garden.
1827 - In London, Wheatstone constructed a microphone.
1833 - In Germany, a telegraph running nearly two miles was
constructed.
1837 - Wheatstone and Cooke sought patent for an electric telegraph in
England.
1844 - Morse’s telegraph connected Washington and Baltimore.
1845 - English channel cable was developed.
1847 - First use of telegraph as business tool was realized.
1851 - The Erie railroad depends on the telegraph.
1855 - Printing telegraph was used in the U.S.
1861 - Telegraph brought Pony Express to an abrupt end.
1894 - Marconi invented wireless telegraphy
1933 - The invention of the “Singing Telegrams”

What you will do

Activity 4.1 Finding Us!

Direction: Hunt the words, terms and names of scientists that are related to telegraphy and
sound in the next page. Box the word that you find. The word may be written diagonally,
horizontally, vertically or reversed.

22
Finding Us!

B T J D M X J E V Q G Q J T L V F Z Z W

M E C H A N I C A L C V G H Y F P O A L

X K U A I N Y T J U R B K O X F F T A A

C G I H L V J E D C P B N M H S S K U A

D K F U L Y Z L U C I V V A V O P D G M

W T P F I S L E X K C T O S N Z C Z Y S

M G A X W U X P O K K Y S Y G R E N E D

V V U I D M J H H K M I S U W R V R T J

M V Q E N R S O L M J T X F O D V O N V

I O W L V D D N V H U I T D G C X A P K

T H B U A L I E C R V N E Z A L A E S V

Y E H I J B O F G X E Z N R N C S F T H

B R L O L D Y E A R M K O G R L U W C Y

W D N E X E O U R X M S H P U S K I U A

B R S E G N O U V M F M P P S A M J T H

P K R O H R C X M M F F C H Z I O U J Z

N L D V U I A I U K C J S T D L B C E D

N F L F U Z P P K P U U E E J O S E P H

M T S A D K Y X H B I K C X A A C R V M

C I R T C E L E H Q O R L Z K V L C B D

23
ACOUSTIC CURRENT ELECTRIC
ENERGY HENRY JOSEPH
MECHANICAL MOBILE PHONE
PULSE STURGEON TELEGRAPH
TELEPHONE THOMAS WATSON
WILLIAM

Key to answers on page 33

Telephone and Telephone System

Kring!!! Kring!!! Kring!!! This is a familiar sound in almost every

household in the Philippines. When you want your friends to talk to you,
you would wait for the sound Kring!!! Kring!!! Kring!!! For emergency
purposes, it is still the sound Kring!!! Kring!!! Kring!!! that matters. When
you are waiting for your girlfriend or your boyfriend to talk to you the most
important sound is Kring!!! Kring!!! Kring!!! This is the sound emitted by a
device known as a telephone. A telephone comes from the Greek word
“tele” which means afar and “phone” meaning voice or voiced Fig. 4.3 A telephone
sound. It is often described as a device that conveys sound
over a distance.

Take a look at the devices on Figures 4.3 and 4.4. These

are the string telephone, megaphone and a speaking tube. They
might be considered telephonic instruments but they only transmit
sound mechanically. Acoustic pressure can be produced when
talking. Speaking into a telephone made of can and string, for

example, makes the line vibrate causing sound waves to travel Fig. 4.4 Telephonic
from one end of the stretched line to the other. Devices
A telephone, on the other hand, is a device that reproduces sound by electrical
means. It consists of a transmitting and a receiving instrument connected by a line or a wire,
which conveys the electric current.

24
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1

List 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of using a telephone.

Key to answers on page 32

Do you know how the telephone was developed? It was Alexander

Graham Bell who invented the telephone. On June 2, 1875, he
discovered that he could hear sound over a wire. He further developed his
findings and on March 10, 1875, he was able to speak through his
telephone to his assistant Thomas A. Watson in the next room. These
were his famous first words, “Mr. Watson --- come here --- I want to see
you.”

Fig. 4.5 Alexander Graham

But did you know that Bell was not the very first
inventor of the telephone? Take a look at this timeline.

Time line of Telephony

1860 - Philipp Reis developed a “telephon”

1874 - Alexander Graham Bell discovered the principle of the telephone
1876 - US Patent No.174, 465, issued on March 3 for “improvements in Telegraphy
1876 - Elisa Gray applied for a similar patent hours after Bell
1877 - Thomas Edison received a patent in Britain for the “electro-motograph”
- Commercial telephone service began in the US.
1878 - The workable exchange enabled calls to be switched among any number of
subscribers rather than requiring direct line
1879 - Telephone subscribers began to be designated by numbers rather than names
1880 - Long distance services were established and grew using metallic circuits.
1888 - The common battery system developed by Hammad V. Hayes, permitted a central
battery to supply all telephones on an exchange
1900 - The first coin telephone was installed in Hartford, Connecticut
1911 - American Telephone and Telegraph (AT & T) took control of Western Union
Telegraph Company
1918 - Ten million Bell System telephone were in service
1927 - Transatlantic service from New York to London became operational, transmitted
by radio wave
1946 - Transmission via coaxial cable was accomplished.
1958 - All Number Calling (ANC) instituted to handle consumer demands for individual
telephone numbers
1960s - Videophones became more affordable and practical
1980s - Fiber optics technology was developed.

25
Let’s summarize

1. Sound is a longitudinal wave. It is also considered as a mechanical wave.

2. Sound can be transmitted in solid, liquid or gas. It is best transmitted in solids and
poorest transmitted in gases.

3. Sound cannot be transmitted in vacuum.

4. Sound is slower than light. It travels only about 331.5 m/s in dry air.

5. The speed of sound depends on temperature. It increases by 0.6 m/s for each degree
rise in temperature.

6. High frequency sound connotes high pitch while low frequency sound connotes low
pitch.

7. Loudness is a subjective quality of sound. The quantitative description of sound

energy is intensity.

8. Sound can exhibit the following properties: reflection (echo and reverberation),
refraction, interference and diffraction.

9. Doppler Effect is a phenomenon observed when the source of waves is moving with
respect to an observer.

10. The pattern made by such overlapping waves is a V-shaped wave called bow waves.
Similarly, a super sonic aircraft generates a three-dimensional shock wave.

11. The own set of frequency on which the material vibrates when disturbed is known as
natural frequency.

12. Resonance means to resound or sound again.

13. A term “telegraph” comes from the Greek word “tele” which means after and
“graphos” which means write.

14. A telephone is often described as a device that conveys sound over a distance.

26
Posttest

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper

1. A Doppler Effect occurs when a source of sound waves moves ____________.

a. towards you
b. away from you
c. parallel with you
d. Needs more information to say.

2. An observer on the ground hears a sonic boom which is created by an airplane flying
at a speed ______________.
a. just below the speed of sound
b. equal to the speed of sound
c. greater than the speed of sound
d. much lower than the speed of sound

3. An aircraft that flies faster than the speed of sound is said to be ____________.
a. subsonic
b. supersonic
c. Neither of the above
d. Need more information to say.

4. The speed of a sound wave depends on ____________.

a. its frequency
b. its wavelength
c. the air temperature
d. All of the above

5. Sound travels faster in air if the air is _____________.

a. warm
b. cold
c. Neither warm nor cold
d. Either warm or cold

6. The phenomenon of beats results from sound ____________.

a. refraction
b. reflection
c. interference
d. All of the above

27
7. The singer, Caruso, is said to have made a crystal chandelier shatter with his voice.
This is a demonstration of ______________.
a. beats
b. an echo
c. resonance
d. sound refraction

8. When the handle of a tuning fork is held solidly against a table, the sound becomes
louder and the length of time the fork vibrates ____________.
a. becomes longer
b. becomes shorter
c. remains the same
d. becomes slower

9. In which of the following does sound travel fastest?

a. Ice
b. Steam
c. Water
d. Sound travels at the same speed in each of the above.

10. Inhaling helium increases the pitch of your voice because sound travels
_____________.
a. slower in helium
b. faster in helium
c. at the same speed in helium, but the wavelength is shorter
d. towards you

11. As you get farther and farther from a point source of waves, the wave fronts appear
____________.
a. louder
b. flatter
c. the same as when they were first created
d. None of the above

12. In which of the following will we encounter a higher pitched sound?

a. a high-frequency sound
b. a low frequency sound
c. frequency is not related to sound.
d. Not enough information to say

13. An interference pattern is produced when ____________

a. the crest of two waves meet
b. the troughs of two waves meet
c. two or more waves meet
d. wave passes through two narrow slits

28
14. When a wave passes through an opening, some of the waves are bent, this
phenomenon is called _____________.
a. reflection
b. refraction
c. interference
d. diffraction

15. Constructive interference occurs when ____________.

a. two crests meet
b. a crest and a trough meet
c. Need more information to say

16. Destructive interference occurs when____________.

a. two crests meet
b. a crest and a trough meet
c. need more information to say
17. Who is the inventor of a telegraph?
a. William Thomson
b. William Sturgeon
c. Joseph Henry
d. Alexander Graham Bell

18. Morse’ code is a communicating system which uses a device known as

____________.
a. telephone
b. megaphone
c. telegraph
d. cell phone

19. Which the following is the correct description of a telephone?

a. A device that allows two people from different places to communicate through
the transfer of mechanical energy.
b. A device that allows two people from different places to communicate through
the transfer of electrical pulses.
c. A device that depends on Morse’s code for transfer of information
d. None of the above.

20. If the sounding board were removed out of a music box, it would ____________.
a. sound the same as usual
b. not sound at all
c. make little “plinks” that you could hardly hear.
d. Need more information to say.

Key to answers on page 34

29
Key to Answers
Pretest

1. C
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. A
7. D
8. D
9. C
10. D
11. B
12. A
13. A
14. B
15. B
16. A
17. A
18. B
19. A
20. A
21. A
22. A
23. A
24. A
25. A

30
Lesson 1

Activity 1.1
1. Slight tapping on the table can produce sound and will be heard at the other
end. Sound can be transmitted by solids. Sound is encountered earlier, louder
and more pronounced when the ear is placed against the tabletop.

Activity 1.2
1. Steel
2. No. There is no medium to transmit sound in space
Activity 1.3
1. String # 0
2. String # 6
3. String # 0
4. String # 0
5. String # 6
6. String # 6
7. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch

Self-Test 1.1

1. B
2. A
3. B
4. D
5. D
6. C
7. B
8. B
9. A
10. D

Lesson 2

Self-Test 2.1
1. Rough walls tend to reflect sound in all directions. This means that all corners
and places within the hall will be able to hear the sound clearly with rough walls
rather than smooth walls.

Self-Test 2.2.
1. Interference is a property that can be exhibited by all kinds and types of
waves.
2. Wave frequency

31
3. She should tighten the string further. The decrease in the beats when she
tightens the string produces low frequency pitch. Tightening it would
increase its frequency and lessen the beats.

Lesson 3

Activity 3.1.
1. Yes
2. No
3. Different objects consist of molecules vibrating uniquely. This means that
the vibration of each object is unique.

Activity 3.2.
1. The loose string will produce a very soft sound while the one connected to
the sounding board will have louder sound.

Self-Test 3.1.
1. Objects produce different sounds when dropped on the floor because they
have different or distinct natural frequency.
2. Resonance only occurs in elastic materials. Since a paper is inelastic it
cannot exhibit resonance.
3. The table becomes a sounding board when the tuning fork forces the table
to vibrate.

Lesson 4

Self-Test 4.1.
Advantages
1. Can be used to communicate to people without seeing them or traveling to
the place.
2. Can be useful during emergency cases.
3. Helpful to parents when monitoring their children.
Disadvantages
4. Can be used to commit crimes.
5. Can be used to spy on someone.
6. Can be helpful to those who want to make fun of others.

32
Lesson 4

Activity 4.1

B T J D M X J E V Q G Q J T L V F Z Z W

M E C H A N I C A L C V G H Y F P O A L

X K U A I N Y T J U R B K O X F F T A A

C G I H L V J E D C P B N M H S S K U A

D K F U L Y Z L U C I V V A V O P D G M

W T P F I S L E X K C T O S N Z C Z Y S

M G A X W U X P O K K Y S Y G R E N E D

V V U I D M J H H K M I S U W R V R T J

M V Q E N R S O L M J T X F O D V O N V

I O W L V D D N V H U I T D G C X A P K

T H B U A L I E C R V N E Z A L A E S V

Y E H I J B O F G X E Z N R N C S F T H

B R L O L D Y E A R M K O G R L U W C Y

W D N E X E O U R X M S H P U S K I U A

B R S E G N O U V M F M P P S A M J T H

P K R O H R C X M M F F C H Z I O U J Z

N L D V U I A I U K C J S T D L B C E D

N F L F U Z P P K P U U E E J O S E P H

M T S A D K Y X H B I K C X A A C R V M

C I R T C E L E H Q O R L Z K V L C B D

33
Posttest

1. C
2. C
3. B
4. D
5. A
6. C
7. C
8. A
9. A
10. C
11. B
12. A
13. C
14. D
15. A
16. B
17. C
18. C
19. B
20. C

-End of Module-

References
Carter, J. (1974).Physical science:a problem-solving approach. Massachusetts: Gin and Company.

Cohen, M. (1992). Discover science. Metro Manila: Academe Publishing House.

Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Krane, K. (1994). Fundamentals of physics. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Hewitt, P. (1989). Conceptual physics (6th Ed.) London: Scoot, Foresman and Company

Heuvelen, A. (1986). Physics: a general introduction (2nd Edition). Sta. Cruz, Manila: UNI-ED Inc.,

Jones, E. and Childers, R. (1999). Contemporary college physics. New York: Mc Craw-Hill Co.

Morales, M.P., . (2000). WorkText in Physical Sciences. Manila: PNU Press.

Young, Hugh. D. (1996). University physics (9th Edition). NY : Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.

34
Module 17
Electromagnetic Waves and
Wireless Communication

What this module is about

Are you familiar with the saying that goes –“The world is becoming smaller.”? What
does this statement imply? Does it mean that the world’s size is indeed decreasing?

People around the world are now able to communicate with one another through
innovations in technology. Cell phones are very familiar to youngsters like you. You can talk
to your friend in another country using this small gadget and you feel like she/he is just
around the corner. Cell phones along with other telecommunication devices have made
distance immaterial. Wireless communication has made the world smaller!

What does wireless communication mean? How is it developed? This module will
introduce you to the advancement of wireless communication and the physics principles
behind it. So hang on and have fun learning the following lessons:

Lesson 1 – Electromagnetic Waves

Lesson 2 – Wireless Communications

Let’s start …

1
What you are expected to learn
After going through the module, you will be able to:

1. trace the development of wireless communication;

2. explain how electromagnetic waves are produced;
3. discuss the properties and uses of the different regions of electromagnetic spectrum;
4. describe how radio signals are generated, transmitted and received;
5. explain how radio communication devices like cell phones, radio and TV work;
6. discuss how lasers and fiber optics have improved telecommunication;
7. realize the importance of developments in electronic technology in the transmission
of information and,
8. recognize the effect of the information superhighway on the affairs of daily living.

It’s good to achieve all these objectives! Here are a

few tips to make your learning experience even better!

How to learn from this module

1. Read the module carefully. You may use references along with this module.
Suggested references are listed on the last page.

2. Follow instructions diligently.

3. Answer the pretest. The pretest is composed of questions that will determine how
much you know about the topic. It is given before you start with the lesson proper.
Accomplish it honestly. Answer key is provided at the end of the module. Please try
not to look at it while answering. You can check your answers once you are finished.

4. Activities and/or exercises are given to deepen your understanding of the concept
and to develop your skills. Take time in doing these.

2
5. Take note of important ideas and points for clarification.

6. Don’t forget to answer the posttest and see how much you have learned. You may go
back to lesson discussions or consult references if your answers are incorrect

What to do before (Pretest)

I. Multiple Choice
Direction: Write the letter of the best answer on the space provided before the
number.

_____1. Electromagnetic waves are produced by __________

A. currents
B. voltage source
C. any disturbance
D. vibrating charge

_____2. Which of the following forms of electromagnetic waves is used mostly in

communication?
A. X-ray
B. Infrared
C. Radio wave
D. Gamma rays

_____3. In the electromagnetic wave, the direction of the propagation of the wave
is __________
A. always to the right.
B. cannot be determined.
C. parallel to electric and magnetic field directions.
D. perpendicular to the electric and magnetic field directions.

_____4. Which of the following forms of electromagnetic waves has the widest
frequency range?
A. x-ray
B. microwave
C. ultraviolet
D. radio waves

3
_____5. What happens to the frequency of the electromagnetic wave if its
wavelength increases?
A. decreases
B. increases as well
C. remains the same
D. can not tell; frequency and wavelength are two different concepts.

II. Discussing and Explaining

Direction: Answer the following questions briefly. Write your answer on the space
provided.

1. How does your AM/FM radio pick up signal from the air?

2. List down communication devices that people are using at present and write
down the benefits that each renders.

3. How does communication develop into wireless communication?

III. Sequencing
Some events and discoveries related to the development of communication are
listed below. Number each one according to the correct order of occurrence from
the earliest to the latest.

______ invention of telegraph

______ invention of telephone

______ radio communication

______ digital communication

Key to answers on page 26

How was your performance in the

pretest? At any rate, knowing what you
know and what you don’t know is a good
starting point. Now let’s move on!

4
Lesson 1 Electromagnetic Waves

Fundamental to studying wireless communication is knowing what electromagnetic

waves are and how they are produced and used in communication. What exactly is
electromagnetic wave? Is it the same as the mechanical wave that you learned previously?
Basically, yes. How?

Production of Electromagnetic Waves

In your study of wave motion, a disturbance produces waves that can be transmitted
through a medium. Electromagnetic waves are also produced by a disturbance caused by
vibrating charge. When the charge is moved, the electric field around it is changed. Recall
the Oersted’s discovery: A changing electric field produces a magnetic field. A changing
magnetic field is therefore produced around the vibrating charge. Furthermore, this changing
magnetic field in turn produces electric field. Do you remember the Faraday’s Law? And the
cycle goes on. The changing magnetic and electric fields are perpendicular to each other
and to their direction of propagation. They are therefore considered as transverse waves.

Figure 1: Vibrating Charge

Figure 2: Electromagnetic Wave

James Clerk Maxwell theorized that this mutual generation and propagation of
electric field and magnetic field can be conceived as a form of moving energy carried by
what he called as electromagnetic wave. So, if this is just like any wave, does it mean that it
travels through a medium? No. Electromagnetic wave traverses empty space! However,
Maxwell did not believe that electromagnetic wave propagate in space under any condition.
He supposed that it must move at a certain speed. He calculated the speed of the wave
based on Faraday’s theoretical assumptions and experiments and concluded that the speed
is 3 x 108 m/s – the same as the speed of light! He therefore proposed that light is a form of
electromagnetic wave. Unfortunately, at that time, no experiment was done to verify his
accounts. But after Faraday’s death, Heinrich Hertz designed an experimental set-up that
enabled him to generate and detect electromagnetic waves. Here’s how he did it.

5
Sparks are produced in the B
spark balls (marked A)
when high voltage runs
across the circuit. It was
observed that similar sparks
are produced on spark balls A
B.

Figure 3: Hertz’ set-up

No wires were connected A to B but the same phenomenon was seen in the two
gaps. Hertz concluded that vibrating charge, made evident by the sparks, produced EM
waves that were detected by the set-up B. Hertz’ experiment proved that electromagnetic
waves do exist!

Hurray to Mr. Maxwell and

Mr. Hertz for a job well
done!

Electromagnetic Spectrum

In the previous discussion, you learned that light is a form of electromagnetic wave.
Are there any other forms of this wave? Maxwell predicted that electromagnetic waves take
several forms depending on their frequencies and wavelengths.

6
Figure 4: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves extend from radio waves to gamma rays. In between these
extreme values are microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet and x-ray regions. The
electromagnetic spectrum is the wavelength and frequency chart of these forms of
electromagnetic waves.
Neither, did I.
Well, we’re not
I never thought there like Maxwell, you
were different forms of know. Haha!
EM waves.

7
What you will do
Activity 1.1, Activity 1.2

Activity 1.1 Look at the ________________________

electromagnetic ________________________
spectrum more closely
this time. What do you ________________________
notice? Are the divisions ________________________
of the regions distinct?
Write your answer on the ________________________
spaces provided. ________________________
Answers may be
checked against next ________________________
page’s discussion.

Activity 1.2
Using the same spectrum, determine the
frequency and wavelength ranges of each of
the forms of electromagnetic waves. Enter your
data on the table.

EM Wave Frequency Wavelength

Range (hertz) Range (meters)

Radio Waves ___________ __________

Microwaves ___________ __________
Infrared ___________ __________
Visible Light ___________ __________
Ultraviolet ___________ __________
X-rays ___________ __________
Gamma rays ___________ __________

Key to answers on page 27

8
Some of the regions in the electromagnetic spectrum overlap. Can you identify these
regions? The waves are therefore not classified based on the wavelength values but on
their sources. The table below lists the sources and some of the uses/applications of the
different forms of electromagnetic waves.

Forms of Source Uses/Applications

Electromagnetic Wave

Radio waves Vibrating electrons Wireless communication

Microwaves Vibrating electrons Communication particularly

long distance radio relay
systems,
microwave ovens
Infrared Hot objects Missile guidance, long
distance photography,
medical treatment, burglar
alarms

Visible Light Very hot objects Vision

Ultraviolet Arcs and gas discharges Medical treatments,

sanitation process

X-rays Electrons striking a target Medical purposes, security

Gamma Rays Nuclei of radioactive Cancer treatment, metal

atoms defect detection, beneficial
mutations, food
preservation

Both the microwave and radio waves come from vibrating electrons. What then
distinguishes the two? Try to look at the electromagnetic spectrum and compare the
frequency range of microwave and radio wave. Which has greater frequency range?

9
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1

Congratulations! You finished the first lesson on

Electromagnetic Waves! This time, synthesize all the concepts and
principles you learned in the lesson. These questions will serve as
your guide:

1. How do you explain electromagnetic wave as a

consequence of the principles of electromagnetism?
2. Compare and contrast the different forms of electromagnetic
waves in terms of their properties and uses.
3. What form of electromagnetic wave is widely used for
wireless communication?

Write your answer on the spaces below.

Key to answers on page 27

Lesson 2 Wireless Communication

You have learned that electromagnetic wave is applied in wireless communications

among others. In the succeeding discussions, you will venture into how this wave is used in
sending information and messages and how wireless communication has affected people’s
daily affairs.

Wireless
communication…hmm…I
wonder how this is possible…

10
Development of Communication

Before wireless communication came into existence, a number of means of

communication have already been developed. The first of these is sending messages
through electricity by Charles Morrison. Wires are charged one after the other and pieces of
papers at the receiver end are attracted. The attracted paper determines the letter being
transmitted. However, such method of communication is applicable to short distances only.
Later, Samuel F. B. Morse invented the telegraph, which uses electromagnet. Can you
recall what electromagnet is and how it works? Figure 5 illustrates how the telegraph works.

When the sender taps the key, circuit is closed

and electric current is delivered to the sounder.
The sounder operates by giving distinct sounds
(like clicks) or a paper is tapped and the
message is received. Message has to be
decoded for it to be understood.

Fig. 5. Telegraph

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell experimented on telegraph and found means to

eliminate coding and decoding of messages. He developed the telephone that allowed
sounds to be transmitted over the wires. Figure 6 that shows how this is done.

Carbon granules are in the

microphone and are connected to the
telephone circuit. When one speaks on the
microphone, the sound waves of the voice
compress and decompress the granules
resulting to changing of the resistance in the
wire-a pattern of variation. When the current
reaches the receiving station, the speaker,
on the other hand, converts this electrical
energy back to sound energy with the
corresponding sound pattern.

Fig. 6. Telephone

11
You might say that this is quite a breakthrough. Yes, indeed! But here’s more. Wires
are no longer used in most of today’s communication. Remember the cell phones?
Communication now is “wireless”. There is no need to connect the transmitting and
receiving stations. Energy is transmitted through space! Now, isn’t this a huge discovery?
And we look forward to some more, don’t we?

Oh! Yes!

Radio Communication

Today, conversations, data and even music can be transmitted through air over
millions of kilometers because of radio waves. Wireless communication has become
possible through transmission and reception of these radio waves. Remember, radio waves
can be transmitted through empty space!

Hmm… how is transmitting and

receiving radio waves done over
large distances?

Let’s discuss the transmission and reception of radio waves one at a time. Let’s start
with how radio waves are transmitted. Simple radio transmitters work on two basic
processes: (1) transformation of sound energy to electrical energy; (2) transformation of
electrical energy to electromagnetic energy; and on three simple components: (1)
microphone circuit; (2) oscillator circuit and (3) antenna. Now, let’s discuss how the two
processes occur in these 3 basic components.

12
Fig. 7. Radio Transmission and In the microphone circuit, sound waves
Reception

Move the diaphragm to allow the wire coiled very loosely around a permanent
magnet to vibrate. As it vibrates, this wire gains a changing magnetic field and induces
current in the adjacent wire. The first transformation is finished. Next, the adjacent wire is
connected to the oscillator circuit where the charges are made to oscillate. This implies that
electric field varies. What happens if electric field is changing? Magnetic field builds up,
therefore, antenna rods are surrounded by alternating electric and magnetic fields
propagating right angles with each other and with their direction of motion-the radio wave!
This is the second transformation.

That was great! How about radio wave

reception? Let me think…transmission’s
opposite term is reception. Oh, maybe,
reception works in the opposite way.
What do you think?

Radio waves reception is the complete reverse of radio transmission. That is, first,
electromagnetic wave is transformed to electrical energy and then to sound energy. How?
When the electromagnetic wave in the form of radio wave passes by a receiving antenna,
energy is absorbed and current in the conductor induces a potential difference. This voltage

13
is delivered to the receiver where it is amplified. This varying electric field produces
changing magnetic field that causes vibrations in the radio speakers!

What you will do

Activity 2.1 Make your own radio transmitter

Materials:
9-volt battery (new)
coin
AM radio

Procedure:

1. Take the new battery and coin.

2. Bring the AM radio near you and tune it to the area where you hear a static.
3. Repeatedly tap the two terminals of the battery with a coin.
4. Describe the sounds produced.

Key to answers on page 27

Now, I understand why wires are no

longer used in connecting transmitting and
receiving stations. But, I still have one
question in mind.

How are sounds, messages,

information carried by this radio wave?

14
It is important to note that the radio waves being transmitted and received cannot
carry information, messages and sounds unless it is modulated. Modulation of the wave is a
way to encode these data. To modulate, patterns of variations called signal must be
produced containing all the information that one wishes to send and this signal is overlaid
onto the radio wave. The following illustration shows this.

Radio
wave

Signal

Modulated
wave

Fig. 8. Modulated wave

We have three ways of encoding information:

1. Pulse Modulation (PM)

This is done by simply turning the wave on and off. It is not a very common
modulation but it still is being used by United States for radio controlled clocks.

Fig. 9

2. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

This modulation involves changing the amplitude of the wave but keeping its
frequency constant. AM is used in standard broadcasting. AM stations and the visual
aspect of the TV signal use amplitude modulation. The transmissions produced,
however, are easily affected by static and other interferences.

15
Fig. 10

3. Frequency Modulation FM)

Here, the radio wave’s amplitude is kept constant while the frequency is
changed. This kind of modulation is not easily affected by static and interference. It is
widely used in FM stations, sound portion of the TV signal, cordless phones and cell
phones.

Fig. 11

Oh, I see. Sending messages

through the air requires
transmission and modulation of
radio wave! Why didn’t I think
of this before? ☺

Did you know that…

Frequency is an important characteristic of the radio wave. AM

broadcast frequency is about 1,000, 0000 cycles per second (hertz). For
example, when you tune in to your favorite AM radio station at 630 on the
dial, the radio is tuning to the radio wave with the frequency of 630,000
cycles per second! On the other hand, FM radio operates on 100,000,000
cycles per second. So when you turn to 101.1 YES FM, your radio is tuning
to 101, 100,000 cycles per second frequency.

16
What is your favorite FM station? What frequency does your radio tune to
when you dial this station?

Different radio and television stations use different frequencies in

broadcasting. Broadcast bands are indicated in the radio and television sets. Here is
something for you to discover:

What you will do

Activity 2.2 Broadcast Bands

You will need:

FM/AM radio
Television Set

Take your FM/AM radio unit and look for the different broadcast bands. Do the
same with your television set. Enter what you have found in the table and research
the frequency range and uses for each band. Also, provide appropriate title for the
table.

____________________________

Type of Broadcast Band Frequency Range Typical Uses

Key to answers on page 28

17
Satellite Communication

We know for a fact that radio waves travel in straight line. Why then are we able to
receive messages/information from other parts of the world?

First, let’s take a short review of some facts we learned in earth science. One layer of
the atmosphere is composed of ionized gases. This layer is called ionosphere. When radio
waves are sent into the air and strike the ionosphere, the low frequency ones are reflected
back to earth. However, the high frequency waves penetrate into the ionosphere and to the
space. Therefore, communication satellites are used to reflect these waves back to earth
which are then captured by the receiving antennas. Most communication satellites are used
for telephone services while the rest are for television broadcasting, scientific research and
weather forecast.

Fig. 12.
Penetration of
high frequency waves into
the ionosphere

Fig. 13 Fig. 13
Reflection of High Frequency
Waves by Satellite

Communication Devices

Most households today have television sets. People use this communication
device to receive news, entertainment and other information. There are many different ways
for the TV to receive signals. The most common (which is also the focus of this discussion)
is the broadcast programming received through the antenna (e.g. analog TV). How does this

18
normal broadcast signal get into the television set? The picture aspect of TV signal requires
4 megahertz of bandwidth. A bandwidth is a frequency range given to a channel. It is some
sort of electrical “space” taken by the channel on a cable. Now when sound called vestigial
band and little buffer space are added, a typical TV signal requires 6 megahertz of
bandwidth. So the radio spectrum is chopped into 6 megahertz bandwidths and these
correspond to the different channels we tune into. When the TV is tuned into the favorite
channel, the TV extracts the video signal and the sound signal of this particular frequency
band.

Haha! I got a really big

TV! I can’t wait to
watch my favorite
program!

Not only do people use TV for information, they also use cell phones for
communication especially for the Asians and Europeans. Cell phone is a very sophisticated
radio, but still a radio nonetheless. It is today’s answer to the
emerging demand for mobile communication. Before the cell phone
was invented, people installed radio-telephones in their cars.
However, in the radio-telephone system, one antenna tower of 25
channels can be built in one large city. This means that the radio
should be powerful enough to transmit waves over a hundreds of
kilometers. It also meant that only few people can use this
communication device because of the very limited channels. Now,
cellular system was built. The city is divided into smaller cells and
each cell site is considered as a base station where calls can be
placed and received. Also the cell phones and base stations have
low power transmitters and so do not reach much beyond the cell
boundaries. Therefore, cell sites can transmit the same frequency at the same time as long
as they are not adjacent. With this, more people can use cellular phones!

19
And I got something to add…since
cell phones are low-power
transmitters, small batteries can be
used. This what makes cell phones
very handy! Yehey!

Did you know that…

According to one of the publications of Southeast Asian Press

Alliance, the Philippines is now known as the text capital of the world. Over
100 million text messages are sent every day!

Further Improvements in Communication

Do you notice that a lot of people now resort to Cable TV for news, entertainment and
educational programs? CATV or cable TV is now used because of its wide range of
channels and clearer sound and picture. Moreover, some cable companies provide internet
access to users. How does this amazing CATV work? In the cable system, signals are
received through dish antennas and are delivered to subscribers through coaxial cables.
The signal however gets weaker as it travels the cable so amplifiers are installed at strategic
places along the cable to boost the strength of the signal. Recently, the bandwidths of cable
systems are increased and so the number of channels has increased. Today, engineers are
suggesting the use of fiber optics and lasers in cables as laser cables are more efficient in
transmitting signals than coaxial cables. This will enable cable providers to lessen the
amplifiers resulting to cost-effective system, cheaper subscription fees and better quality of
pictures and sounds. Studies on other uses of fiber optics and layers are still ongoing.
Digital systems are also looked into. Much is really yet to be discovered!

20
Fig. 13.
Cable TV
System

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1

History of Communication!

Using the flow chart on the next page, trace the development of communication from the
time sending messages by electricity was devised to the present. You may add more boxes.
Include other important details on the space at the right side.

21
Key to answers on page 28

The Basics of Communication Devices

Sending information, messages or data can be done in two ways: (1) through
analog method and (2) through digital method. Radio and phonographs transmit
information using the analog method. Digital computers use the latter method.

Let’s discuss the analog method first. Analog devices send information by regulating
electricity. The variable resistor is the main component of the circuit that does this by
varying the current or voltage that runs through the circuit. The pattern of these variations is
then interpreted or decoded and the message is understood. The AM and FM are analog
methods of sending messages and information.

The digital method on the other hand, sends information through switching.
Switching is another way of regulating electricity but with higher speed than analog method.
Transistors and diodes act as switches (sometimes amplifiers).

22
Switching circuits that process data (in decision stage of electronic circuits) are called
logic gates. Logic gates have three basic types: (1) AND gate; (2) OR gate and (3) NOT
gate. Logic gates can be combined to form other logic gates.
The following are the logic gates traditional symbols:

AND OR NOT

Electrical devices such as transistors and diodes

can be combined in one silicon chip to form the
integrated circuit. An integrated circuit can act as
amplifier or a switch but operates at much higher
speed. It is also cheap and very reliable. Modern
computers use silicon chips for high speed
processing of data.
Figure 14 Integrated circuit

What you will do

Self-Test 2.2 Journal Writing!

Based on what you have learned on the uses, applications and development of radio
communication, discuss the possible effects of these on people’s daily affairs.

_____________________________

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Key to answers on page 29

23
Let’s summarize!

The following concept map synthesizes the lessons discussed:

Electromagnetic waves Radio Waves

one form of
which is

produced by is applied in

Vibrating charge Communication

affect

People’s Lives

and
developed
into

Wireless
Electronics Communication

which is made
possible by

24
Posttest

I. Direction: Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. Electromagnetic waves are considered as __________

A. electric waves
B. longitudinal waves
C. transverse waves
D. mechanical waves

2. In the vacuum, the speed of the electromagnetic wave is _____

A. zero
B. always the same as the speed of light
C. changing depending on the value of its wavelength
D. none of the above

3. Which of the following forms of electromagnetic waves is used in cancer treatment?

A. x-ray
B. ultraviolet
C. gamma ray
D. microwave

4. Which wave has the shortest wavelength?

A. x-ray
B. ultraviolet
C. gamma ray
D. microwave

5. Which of the following energy transformations occur at the receiving station?

A. Sound energy to electrical energy
B. Electromagnetic energy to sound energy
C. Electrical energy to electromagnetic energy
D. Electromagnetic energy to electrical energy

II. Discussing and Explaining: Answer the following questions briefly. Write your
answer on the space provided.

1. Discuss how transmission of radio wave occurs.

2. Discuss how television signal reaches homes.

25
3. List down further developments that scientists and engineers are studying for
improvement of communication.

III. Appreciating
How has wireless technology improved people’s way of life?

Key to answers on page 29

Key to Answers

Pretest
I. Multiple Choice
1. D
2. C
3. D
4. D
5. A
II. Discussing and Explaining
1. When the electromagnetic wave in the form of radio wave passes by a
receiving antenna, energy is absorbed and current in the conductor induces
a potential difference. This voltage is delivered to the receiver where it is
amplified. This varying electric field produces changing magnetic field that
vibrates the radio speakers.
2. A. telephone - easy distance communication
B. television - fast access to news/programs
C. cell phones - mobile communication
D. satellites - faster communication around
the world
E. internet - fast access to all kinds
of information
3. Distance communication has become possible through the invention of
telegraph. From here, developments have arisen. Telephone was invented
for easier communication and after which radio communication came.

III. Sequencing
1,2,3,4

26
Lesson 1

Activity 1.2

EM Wave Frequency Wavelength

Range (hertz) Range (meters)
Radio Waves 102 – 1012 10-4 -106
Microwaves 109-1010 10-1-10-3
Infrared 1011-1014 10-6-10-3
Visible Light 1014-1015 10-7-10-3
Ultraviolet 1015-1017 10-9-10-7
X-rays 1017-1019 10-12-10-8
Gamma rays 1018-1025 10-17-10-11

Self-Test 1.1

1. Electromagnetism principles are summarized in Faraday’s Law and Oersted

discovery. For electromagnetic waves to be produced, disturbance, which is the
vibrating charge, must occur. When the charge is moved, the electric field around it
is changed. In the Oersted’s discovery: A changing electric field produces a
magnetic field. A changing magnetic field is therefore produced around the vibrating
charge. Furthermore, this changing magnetic field produces electric field as
according to Faraday’s Law.
2. Different forms of electromagnetic waves are used for different purposes, although
some have common uses. For instance, X-rays, gamma rays and ultraviolet rays are
used for medical purposes. Radio waves and microwaves are both used in wireless
communication. In terms of properties, the different forms also have different
frequency and hence different wavelengths. The gamma rays are high frequency
waves and the radio waves are the low frequency waves.
3. Radio waves are widely used for wireless communication,

Lesson 2

Activity 2.1
1. Rattling sounds are produced which indicates that radio waves are being
transmitted and received by the AM radio’s antenna.

27
Activity 2.2
Frequency Range and Uses of Broadcast Bands

Type of Broadcast Frequency Range Typical Uses

Band
Very Low Frequency 10kHz-30kHz Long distance radio
(VLF) connections
Low Frequency 30KHz-300kHz Broadcasting, maritime
(LF) navigation, long distance
radio connections
Medium Frequency 300kHz-3MHz Broadcasting, marine
(MF) communication, maritime
navigation
High Frequency 3MHz-30MHz Medium and Long distance
(HF) communication
Very High Frequency 30MHz-300Mhz Television, FM, mobile
(VHF) communication
Ultra High Frequency 300MHz-3000MHz Radio links, television
radar, aerial navigation
Super High Frequency 3000MHz-30000MHz Radar, wave guide
(SHF) communication

Self-Test 2.1

Sending Message by Electricity - message transmitted by alphabet

Invention of Telegraph
-uses electromagnet

Invention of Telephone
- longer distance communication

- uses radio waves

Radio Communication

28
Self Test 2.2 (Answers may vary but the following points/ideas should have been
considered)

Effects of wireless communication to society depend on how it is used:

Responsible use of wireless communication devices leads to:

Easy and faster access to relevant information
Faster communication, which would result to efficient work and services
More research and development

Irresponsible use of wireless communication leads to:

Posting and use of invalidated and inaccurate facts and information
More money spent
Easy access to malicious statements and figures

Post-Test
I. Multiple Choice
1. C
2. B
3. C
4. C
5. D

II. Discussing and Explaining

1. Simple radio transmitters work on two basic processes: (1) transformation of sound
energy to electrical energy; (2) transformation of electrical energy to electromagnetic
energy. The first occurs in the microphone and oscillator circuit while the last occurs at
the antenna.

2. There are many different ways for the TV to receive signals. The most common is the
broadcast programming where signal is received through the antenna (e.g. analog TV).
When one tunes into his favorite channel, his TV extracts the video signal and the sound
signal of this particular frequency band.

3. Lasers and fiber optics are now being studied to improve wireless communication.

III. Appreciating (the following points should have been considered)

Family bond is strengthened through faster and easy communication
Awareness and involvement to societal issues and concerns through easy access to
information, news and programs
Learning is made fun and simple for young and adult through television.
More efficient work and services
More research and development

-End of Module-

29
References

Feather, Ralph M. Jr. et. al. (1995). Science interactions: Course 3. Ohio: Glencoe/McGraw Hill.

Halliday, D., Resnick, J., & Walker J. (1993). Fundamentals of physics (4th ed.) Canada: John Wiley and
Sons.

Freedman R.A., & Young, H.D. (1996). University physics. Vol. 1. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Inc.

De Jong, E., Brown , M., Butler, P. & Hayes, J. (1991). Physics two. Australia: Rigby Heinman Publishing
Group.

Hewitt, P. (1997). Conceptual physics (3rd ed.) USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc.

Pabellon, J. & Tubal, G. (1995). Science and technology for a better life (2nd ed.) Philippines: Diwa Learning
Systems Inc.

How cell phone works. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from

http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/cell-phone4htm.

How radio works. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/radio.htm

Electromagnetic waves. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.

How Television Works. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/tv.htm

Literate lasers. Retrieved March 24, 2005 from http://library.thinkquest.org/28160/english/lasers/literate.html

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. Retreived March 28, 2005 from

http://chen.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugenik/history/hertz.htm/

Hot bars. Retrieved March 28, 2005 from http://www.namfg.com/images/hot-metal-bars.jpg

Fluorescent bulb. Retrieved March 28, 2005 from http://images.google.com.ph

30
Module 18
Everyday Electronics

What this module is about

What are the technologies have made our life easier and more comfortable? Cellular
phones, computers, television sets, sensors and cameras, robots and full-featured
automobiles are among them. Looking back four or five decades ago, when these gadgets
did not exist yet or when these gadgets were not as good as they are now, we can’t help but
wonder what brilliant ideas have ushered us from a primitive, obsolete ways of living to a
world of sophistication. It is even more surprising to know that behind the wonders of these
emerging technologies is just a simple “thing” we’ve learned previously. Do you know that
these huge advancements are caused by the very small particle called the electron? It is
through the world of electronics, meaning control of flow of electrons, that these devices are
made possible. This module gives us a slice of the huge, complicated world of electronics in
the following lessons:

ƒ Lesson 1 - History and Development of Electronics

ƒ Lesson 2 - Active and Passive Electronic Components
ƒ Lesson 3 - Integrated Circuits
ƒ Lesson 4 - Electronic Systems
ƒ Lesson 5 - Applications of Electronics

What you are expected to learn

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. trace the history and development of electronics;

2. classify electronic components as active or passive;
3. interpret the color codes of common electronic elements;
4. identify the components of electronic systems; and
5. cite applications of electronics in different fields.

1
How to learn from this module

Going through this module can be both a fun and a meaningful learning experience. All
you need to do is make use of your time and resources efficiently. To do this, here are some
tips for you:

1. Take time in reading and understanding each lesson. It is better to be slow but sure
than to hurry finishing the module only to find out that you missed the concepts you
are supposed to learn.
2. Do not jump from one chapter to another. Usually, the lessons are arranged such that
one is built upon another, hence an understanding of the first is essential in
comprehending the succeeding lessons.
3. Be honest. When answering the test items, do not turn to the key to correction page
unless you are done. Likewise, when performing experiments, record only what you
have really observed.
4. Safety first. Perform the experiments with extra precaution. Wear safety gears
whenever necessary.
5. Don’t hesitate to ask. If you need to clarify something, approach your teacher or any
knowledgeable person.

What to do before (Pretest)

Direction: Write the letter of the option that answers the question or completes the
statement.

1. All of the following are passive elements EXCEPT

a. resistors.
b. capacitors.
c. inductors.
d. transistors.

2. The resistance of a resistor is 32 kΩ. What are the first two colors in the color bands
of the resistor?
a. Orange, Red
b. Red, Orange
c. Red, Brown
d. Yellow, Green

2
3. If you are to allow current to flow in one direction, which of the following should you
use?
a. inductors
b. transistors
c. diodes
d. IC’s

4. Which of the following statements is/are true?

I. Passive components operate even without power source
II. A diode is a passive component
a. I only
b. II only
c. Both I and II
d. Neither I and II

5. Which of the following gives the correct flow for electronic systems?
a. sensors – processors – actuators
b. actuators – sensors – processors
c. sensors – actuators – processors
d. processors – sensors –actuators

6. If you want to store electrical charges for future use, which of the following should you
use?
a. Resistor
b. Inductor
c. Capacitor
d. Diode

7. What electronic component allows current to flow in only one direction?

a. Transistor
b. Capacitor
c. Diode
d. Integrated circuit

8. In 1950’s, Joyce Kilby and Robert Noyce invented a device that puts together many
components in a single, tiny package. What do you call this device?
a. Resistor
b. Sensor
c. Integrated Circuit
d. Transistor

9. Current flows in a diode when it is ________.

a. unbiased.
b. reverse biased.
c. forward biased.
d. reverse or forward biased.

3
10. When doped with pentavalent impurity, a semiconductor becomes what type of
material?
a. N-type
b. P-type
c. S-type
d. C-type

11. Which of the following is NOT an actuator in the electronic systems of a personal
computer?
a. Printers
b. Monitors
c. Keyboards
d. Speakers

12. Which of the following elements CANNOT be used in the construction or

manufacture of electronic components?
a. Carbon
b. Germanium
c. Argon
d. Silicon

13. Transistors have three pins, namely emitter, collector and ______________.
a. back-up
b. base
c. board
d. filter

14. What does the fourth, separately marked color code in a resistor represent?
a. Minimal value
b. Tolerance
c. Power rating
d. Current rating

15. Which of the following electronic devices is used in the field of medicine?
a. Ultrasound
b. Magnetic resonance imaging
c. Electrocardiograph
d. All of the above

Key to Correction on page 24

4
Lesson 1 Development of Electronics

We will begin our discussion by tracing the roots of electronics. After J.J. Thompson
discovered the electron, the carrier of negative electric charge, many scientists were
fascinated and became curious about the behavior of this fundamental particle. Scientists
worked in laboratories until their ideas were perfected and made to proper use. The electron
was subjected to different conditions and was controlled in different media like vacuum, gas
and semiconductor materials.

Below is a concise time line of electronic discoveries. Study the timeline very
carefully.

1904 Sir John Ambrose Fleming invents the vacuum tube and diode.
1906 Lee De Forest develops the triode.
1934 Electronic hearing aid invented
1947 John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William B. Shockley of
Bell Telephone Laboratories invent the transistor.
1950s Germanium is used to make semiconductors in transistors. Late
in the 1950s, silicon begins to replace germanium as a
semiconductor material.
1954 The transistor radio is introduced and becomes the largest
selling item of the time
1958 Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments invents the integrated circuit
(IC).
1958 Robert Noyce develops an integrated circuit that can be
miniaturized and reliably manufactured
1958 Seymour Cray at Control Data Corp. develops a transistorized
computer
1961 Silicon chips first appear
1967 First handheld calculator using an integrated circuit is made by
Texas Instruments.
1968 Robert Noyce cofounds Intel.
1970 The bar code system is created.
1971 Intel introduces its popular 4004 4-bit microprocessor, starting
the evolution of Intel's famous line of 386, 486, and Pentium
processors
1971 First video game and video disc introduced.
1979 Mattel Toy Company receives 1 millionth chip for electronic
games
1980s Integrated circuits applied to computers
1981 32-bit silicon chips developed.

5
1984 Compact disc (CD) player introduced.
1984 CD-ROM (compact-disc read-only memory) is available

Looking at the timeline, electronics appear to have developed to address the need for
a means of communication, that is, the process of sending signals from place to another. It
is no wonder that today, what makes use of electronics the most are the fields of
communication and transportation. However, other fields now equally recognize the vital role
of electronics, just like the field of medicine, which we shall include in our discussion for
lesson 5.

What you will do

Self-Test 1.1

Direction: Identify the scientist in column B who is associated with the

discovery/invention listed in colum A . Write the letter only

A B
1. Vacuum tubes in televisions a. William Shockley
2. Integrated circuits b. John Fleming
3. Telegraph c. Seymon Cray
4. Transistorized computer d. Jack Kilby
5. Triodes e. Lee de Forest

Key to answers on page 24

6
Lesson 2 Passive and Active Electronic Components
If you open some of your appliances at home, let’s say your radio or television unit,
you are likely to see components similar to the components on the picture.

Let us see how many of these can you correctly identify.

Resistors

Those small, tube-like elements with strips of different colors are called
resistors. In a circuit, a resistor’s function is to limit the amount of current
passing through different points in the circuit. Do you still remember Ohm’s
Law? If a small amount of current is desired, we should increase the
resistance by connecting a resistor in series with an element.

7
Capacitors

Do you also see components larger than resistors that resemble the shape
of a tin can? We call these capacitors. Capacitors store electrical energy in
a circuit. They can be thought of as tiny rechargeable batteries – capacitors
can be charged and discharged! Capacitors that look like small tin cans are
electrolytic capacitors, which are widely used now. Other capacitors may
have different shapes, depending on the value of their capacitance. The unit
of capacitance is farad (F), but a farad is too big that capacitors are
commonly rated in micro-farads.

Inductors

Inductors are most commonly in the form of coils, but even a straight piece
of wire can have inductance. Winding it into a coil simply concentrates the
magnetic filed and increases the inductance considerably for a given length
of wire. Inductors, like transformers, are used in the output of power
amplifiers to prevent instability with capacitance loads.

Diodes

Diodes let electrons flow through them in one direction. In diodes, electron
flows from cathode to anode. The cathode side is marked with a band
around it. In one of the activities, we shall study how a diode works by
properly biasing it.

There are three different types of diodes: the ordinary rectifier diodes, Zener
diodes and Light-emitting diodes (LED). Zener diodes operate in the reverse
bias mode and are used in voltage regulators. LEDS are the diodes that give
off light when electrons pass through them.

Transistors

Transistors are two diodes combined and are used as switch and amplifiers.
We will discuss two types of transistors: PNP and NPN transistors. Both of
these transistors have 3 pins: emitter, base and collector.

There are other more specialized components like thyristors, Junction field
effect transistors (JFETS), and Integrated Circuits. They are specialized
because they are made for special purposes only.

There may be bewildering electronic components, but we can classify them into two:
passive and active components. The main difference between active and passive
components is that active ones require to be powered in some way to make them work.
Unlike passive components, the active ones modify or amplify electric signals. Resistors,
capacitors, inductors are passive components, while diodes and transistors are active
components.

8
Electronic elements are provided with markings that tell us their electrical properties
like the values of resistance, capacitance and inductance, power ratings and voltage ratings.
These markings may directly provide us these information but some may also require us to
interpret some systems of codes, like color, letter assignment and symbols. Electrolytic
capacitors and diodes contain markings that directly tell us their characteristics. Transistors’
markings always start with 2N, while integrated circuits come with an IC manual. However,
resistors make use of color bands.

Read this:
How do we read resistor codes?

The color bands around the resistors are color codes that tell
you its resistance value. Recall that resistance is measured in
Ohms.

The tolerance bands indicate the accuracy of the values. A

gold tolerance band indicates that the resistor will be within 5% of
its value and a silver band indicates a range of 10%.

To get the value of the resistor, hold the resistor so that the
tolerance band is on the right. The first two color bands are the
significant figures – simply write down the numbers represented by
the colors. The third band is the multiplier – it tells you how many
zeros to add after the significant figures. Put them all together and
you have the value.

The resistor at the left has color codes brown, black, orange and
gold. Brown has a value of 1 and black has a value of zero,
therefore the first two significant digits are 10. Since orange is the
third band, our multiplier is 3, meaning we have to add three
zeroes to the first two significant digits. The tolerance code is gold,
corresponding to 5% tolerance. This means that the resistor can
function 5% below or above the specified value.

9
What you will do
Activity 2.1

With the values of resistance for each item, identify what must be the bands of the
resistors. You may use different colored pens or pencils in indicating your answer.

1. 12 kΩ , 5% tolerance
Hint: Kilo means thousand

2.
5600 Ω , 10% tolerance

3. 12 MΩ , 5% tolerance
Hint: Mega means million

Key to answers on page 25

10
Read this:

In earlier modules we have learned about conductors and insulators. Can you still
recall what conductors are? How about insulators?

Conductors are materials Insulators are the opposites

through which electrical of conductors… they do not
charges flow easily because conduct electrical charges…
they have many free electrons Rubber and plastic are
which are not strongly insulators.
attached to their nuclei.

How about those materials that are neither conductors or insulators? Is it really possible to
have materials whose ability to conduct electricity lies between conductors and insulators?

Yes, they are called semiconductors…. They are poor

conductors of electric current at pure state especially at
low temperatures… But they gain electrical conductivity
when certain substances called impurities are added!

Examples of semiconductors are silicon and germanium. These elements have atoms
with a valence electron of 4, which means that the atoms have four electrons in their
outermost shell. These atoms do not easily gain or lose individual electrons. Instead,
the semiconductor atoms share the four valence electrons with other atoms, thus forming a
covalent bond.

When electrical charges are added to a semiconductor, we can control the flow of
electrons in them. This process of adding charges is called doping. Doping can be

11
accomplished in many ways that can be put into a single idea like putting an impurity to
make it deficient or excessive of electrical charges.

When electrons are added, the result is negative or N-type material. N-type materials
are produced by adding pentavalent element to the semiconductor. Pentavalent elements
have five valence electrons.

Semiconductor Pentavalent impurity = N-type

Semiconductor Trivalent Impurity = P-type

N-materials have excess electrons and P-type have deficiency of electrons, called
holes. When N-types and P-type materials are joined, a diode is formed.

N-type P-type

The majority charge carriers in

an N-type material are electrons, The majority charge carriers in
represented by the dots. an N-type material are protons,
represented by the holes.

What if we add a third layer? Then, a transistor is formed

N-type P-type N-type

NPN Transistor

P-type N-type P-type

PNP Transistor

We create a PN Junction diode by joining together two pieces of semiconductor-

doped n-type and p-type. This causes the depletion zone to form around the junction
between the materials. The depletion zone controls the flow of electron and behavior of
diode.
Depletion
P N region

12
When we apply potential difference between the two wires we tend to pull the
electrons and holes away from the junction, this makes it even harder to cross the depletion
zone. The polarity of the voltage applied makes the diode reverse biased.

P N P N

Forward bias: there Reverse bias: there

is current is no current

When the voltage is applied the other way around, we push the electrons and holes
toward the junction. The recombined charges then pass through the junction. With this
polarity, the diode is forward biased.

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1

Direction: Select the letter of the option that correctly answers the questions or
completes the statements.

1. What electronic component is formed when a layer of N-type material is joined with a
p-type material?
a. resistor c. diode
b. transistor d. capacitor

2. Which of the following is NOT a passive electronic element?

a. capacitor c. inductor
b. resistor d. transistor

3. An N-type material can be formed by adding impurity to a semiconductor element in a

process called _________.
a. recombination
b. biasing
c. doping
d. impurifying

4. Which of the following is a semiconductor?

a. copper
b. silicon
c. helium
d. gold

13
5. Which of the following pairs work by biasing?
a. diode and resistor
b. diode and capacitor
c. diode and transistor
d. capacitor and inductor

Key to Correction on page 25

Lesson 3 Integrated Circuits

The functioning of electronic devices depends

on complex circuits containing the elements we have
discussed in lesson 2. Can you imagine how bulky a
device must be if it were to contain more than a
hundred or even more circuits and elements? Well, if
that’s the case, more sophisticated devices should look
bigger because of more elements to support their
functions. But now, notice that the more advanced an
electronic device is, the smaller it becomes? Cellular
phones, cameras and other gadgets now come in very
small sizes, television sets have become flat and
medical gadgets become handy. How did this paradox
come about?

The answer to this is the integrated circuit. As

its name implies, it is a device that contains hundreds to even millions of circuits already put
into a single, tiny package called chip. Integrated circuits save space in electronic devices,
making them small and light.

An integrated circuit (IC) is a thin chip consisting of at least two interconnected

semiconductor devices, mainly transistors, as well as passive components like resistors. As
of 2004, typical chips are of size 1 cm2 or smaller, and contain millions of interconnected
devices, but larger ones exist as well. Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the
microprocessors, which drive everything from computers and cellular phones to digital
microwave ovens. Digital memory chips are another family of integrated circuits that are
crucially important in modern society.

The integrated circuit was made possible by mid-20th-century technology

advancements in semiconductor device fabrication and experimental discoveries which
showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions performed by vacuum tubes

14
at the time. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors onto a small chip was an
enormous improvement to the manual assembly of finger-sized vacuum tubes. The
integrated circuit's small size, reliability, fast switching speeds, low power consumption,
mass production capability, and ease of adding complexity quickly pushed vacuum tubes
into obsolescence.

The size of an integrated circuit is determined by the number of transistors it

contains. This system of classification is called the scale integration:

Small Scale Integration (SSI) - up to10 transistors per chip

Medium Scale Integration - up to 100 transistors per chip
Large Scale Integration - up to10, 000 transistors per chip
Very Large Scale Integration - up to100, 000 transistors per chip
Ultra Large Scale Integration - up to1 million transistors per chip

Almost, if not all, electronic devices have ICs in them. ICs simplify the manufacturing
of these devices because a single IC replaces several electronic components. However,
once an IC is damaged, it could not be repaired. It has to be replaced because its small
size, packaging and complex circuitry makes it impossible to troubleshoot. ICs may cost for
as low as a few pesos to as much as a billion of pesos. Ordinary electronic devices make
use of cheaper ICs, while those used in advanced scientific and medical fields use rather
expensive ones.

What’s inside an IC chip?

The figure on the left shows a miniaturized electronic

circuit produced on a single crystal, or chip, of a
semiconducting material – usually silicon. It may
contain many millions of components and yet
measures only 5 mm2 or 0.2 in2 in surface area and 1
mm or 0.04 inches in thickness. The IC is
encapsulated within a plastic or ceramic case, and
linked via gold wires to metal pins with which it is
connected to a printed circuit board and the other
components that make up such electronic devices as
computers and calculators.

15
How are IC’s produced? Let us take at the following block diagram:

Semiconductors (usually silicon) are

sliced to make wafers.

The wafer is polished and a layer of SiO2

is formed on the wafer. Some parts of
the wafer are doped. The wafer is chip
divided into several chips

Each chip is provided with desired

wirings by automatic equipment

The wafer is cut into several chips by

laser or diamond point.

Each chip is mounted on a plastic case.

What you will do

Self-Test 3.1

1. An integrated circuit’s size is determined by counting the number of

_ r _ _ _ _ _ _ _ r it contains.

2. Production of ICs begin with cutting a semiconductor ingot into

_ a _ _ _ s.

3. The semiconductor usually used in the production of IC is s _ _ _ _ o _.

4. A single piece of integrated circuit is called _ _ i _.

5. Precise cutting of silicon wafers into chips is done by _ _ s _ _ s.

Key to Correction on page 25

16
Lesson 4 Electronic Systems
Like the different parts of our body, electronic elements are nothing when they stand
alone. To perform certain tasks, they have to be used together because each element
provides a different but complementing task to the other. When we put electronic elements
together, we form electronic systems.

Let us visualize an electronic system using the block diagram

Physical Variable

Sensors

Processors

Actuators

Sensors detect the signals or parameters to be used by the processor. A special

type of sensor, called transducer, converts the sensed signal into electronic signal before
processing takes place. Sensors are made up of diodes, resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.

The processor is the “thinking” mechanism of the system. Processors are usually
integrated circuits and transistors that make use of logic to evaluate a sensed signal.
Processors work depending on the program that we input on them. The processor in e-
systems is analogous to our brain. It determines what we are supposed to do with what we
see and feel using our senses.

The actuators perform activities as a result of processing in the processors.

Actuators maybe electric motors that can do work or loudspeakers and lamps that give off
sound and light as signals.

17
A very good example of electronic system is a simple calculator.

The keypads of the calculator serve as sensor. They

determine what number you pressed. The processor
solves the number operation you input. The actuator is in
the LCD display of the calculator. It displays the answer to
the operation.

Actuators

Processors

Sensors

What you will do

Self-test 4.1

Can you identify the sensor, processor and activator in each appliance?

1. Computer 2. Radio Receiver

Key to Correction on page 25

18
Lesson 5 Everyday Electronics (Application of Electronics)
In today’s modern world, the applications of electronics in different fields is almost
limitless. In our homes alone, all the appliances we use are products of electronics-
television sets, radio, cellular phones, computers, microwave oven and other kitchen
appliances, telephones down to the simple calculators. Needless to say, they have
simplified our daily chores and have provided us convenience and entertainment. Let us
step out of our homes and explore the other fields where electronics is of great use… surely,
you will appreciate electronics more.

In industries and factories…

With the use of sensors and industrial robots, the manufacture of

goods becomes fast, error-free and hygienic.

In communication companies

With advanced communication facilities (cellular phones, internet, fax

machines), it became very easy to get connected to the world

In medicine

Precise diagnosis can now be done with patients without the need for
surgery. This includes imaging systems, laser technology and computerized
monitoring system.

In transportation

Computerized navigation is now done by transportation companies like

buses,g airplanes and ships. Even their ticketing process makes use of
electronic devices.

19
In scientific laboratories

Research activities are now done by sensors and

computerized equipment. This has saved scientists from
exposing themselves to unnecessary dangers.

In space exploration and research

Space shuttles make use of integrated circuits because IC’s are

compact and have minimal weight.

Much more indeed can be expected of electronics. What may seem futuristic and
figments of our imagination today may one day become possible because of advances in
electronics.

What you will do

Activity 4.1

Browse the newspaper and cut advertisements that illustrate the recent
applications of electronics in the Philippines. In your own words, describe how the
device operates, what its electronic components are and in what fields can such
device be of great use.

20
Let’s summarize

In this module, we have learned that:

1. Electronics is the study of control of electrons in different media such as vacuum,

tubes, gasses and semiconductor materials.

2. Electronic components are passive when they do not need power to operate.
Otherwise, the components are active. Resistors, capacitors and inductors are
passive components while diodes and transistors are active components

3. Integrated circuits are electronic devices that incorporate up to millions of

electronic components into a single package called chip.

4. Doping is the process of adding impurities to semiconductor elements. Diodes

and transistors are doped components.

5. Biasing is the proper application of voltage to active elements to control the flow of
electrons in them. Forward bias allows the flow of electricity in one direction.

6. Electronic systems are composed of sensors, processors and actuators. Sensors

detect the stimuli, processors evaluates the information, and actuators perform
the task defined by the processors.

7. Electronics is being widely used in many fields including research, communication

and transportation, medicine, education and industries.

21
Posttest
Directions: Select the letter of the option that correctly answers the given questions.
Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following does NOT belong to the group?

a. transistors
b. capacitors
c. inductors
d. resistors

2. A 42 kΩ resistor has its third color erased. What do you think is the color of that
band?
a. Red
b. Yellow
c. Blue
d. Orange

3. Which of the following elements can be charged or discharged?

a. IC
b. Diode
c. Capacitors
d. Resistors

4. Which of the following statements is/ are true?

i. Active components operate only when they are connected to a source.
ii. An integrated circuit is an active electronic component.
a. I only
b. II only
c. Both I and II
d. Neither I or II

5. In electronic systems, what part performs the tasks provided by the programs?
a. sensors
b. actuators
c. processors
d. regulators

6. The capability of transistors to switch and amplify signals is useful in electronic

systems as
a. sensors
b. processors
c. actuators

22
d. regulators

7. Which of the following statements is TRUE about transistor?

a. Transistors are made up of diodes.
b. Transistors conduct current in only one direction.
c. Transistors store charges.
d. Both a and b

8. The classification of Integrated Circuits into scale integration is based on the number
of _______________ an IC contains.
a. resistors
b. transistors
c. diodes
d. capacitors

9. In the diagram shown, the diode is

a. unbiased P N
b. reverse biased
c. forward biased
d. None of the above

10. An n-type material has deficiency of

a. electrons
b. protons
c. neutrons
d. positron

11. The display that we see in the counters of department stores and shops is what part
of an electronic system?
a. Processor
b. Actuator
c. Sensor
d. Regulator

12. Which of the following electronic components is made up of coils that concentrates
magnetic and electric fields in it?
a. Resistor
b. Capacitor
c. Inductor
d. Integrated Circuit

13. What do you call the region formed when a P-type material and N-type material are
joined together and then biased?
a. PN region
b. Depletion region
c. Formation region
d. Junction region

23
14. When current passes through a PN material, then such material is said to be
a. unbiased
b. forward biased
c. reversed biased
d. either b or c

15. Which of the following is an example of the applications of electronic systems?

a. On-line ticketing services of airline companies
b. Sending text messages through cellular phones and e-mail
c. Using robots to perform dangerous experiments
d. All of the above

Key to Correction on page 25

Key to Answers

Pretest
1. d
2. b
3. c
4. a
5. a
6. c
7. c
8. c
9. c
10. a
11. c
12. c
13. b
14. b
15. d

Lesson 1

Self-Test 1.1
1. b
2. d
3. a
4. c
5. e

24
Lesson 2

Self-Test 2.1 Activity 2.1

1. c 1. Brown, Red, Orange, Gold
2. d 2. Green, Blue, Red, Silver
3. c 3. Red, Blue, Blue, Gold
4. b
5. c

Lesson 3 Lesson 4
Self-Test 3.1 Self-Test 4.1
5. Transistors
6. Wafers Radio System Computer
7. Silicon Sensors Volume control Keyboard, mouse
8. Chip Tuner
9. Lasers Processor Radio circuit CPU
Actuator Loudspeaker Monitor, printer

Posttest
1. a
2. d
3. c
4. c
5. b
6. b
7. a
8. b
9. b
10. b
11. b
12. c
13. b
14. b
15. d

-End of Module-

25
References

Hewitt, P.G. (1997). Conceptual physics. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.

Navasa, D. & Valdez, B.J. (2001). Physics. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House, Inc.

Salmorin, L.M. & Florido, A. (2004). Physics IV. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.

See Tho Weng Fong (1995). Science for secondary schools. Singapore: Longman Singapore Publishers.

Taffel, A. (1992). Physics: Its methods and meanings. USA: Prentice Hall Publishers.

Tan, M. (2001). TIMSS-LIKE test items in science and mathematics. DOST-SEI, UPNISMED, Pundasyon Para
sa mga Guro ng Agham at Matematika, Ink.

Tillery, B.W. (1999). Physical science. Singapore: WCB McGraw-Hill.

Urone, P. (2004). Physics with health science applications. Manila.

Yong Loo Wan, Wai Kwok & Fong See Tho Weng. (2004). Physics insights. Phil. Edition. Pearson Educ. South
Asia PTE LTD.

Tillery, B. W. (1999). Physical science. Singapore: WCB McGraw Hill

Young, H. D. (2004). University physics. USA: Pearson Education Inc.

Van Heuvelen, A. (1986). Physics: A general introduction.. Canada: Little Brown and Company (Canada)
Limited

26