WHAT IS PHYSICS ALL ABOUT?

Physics seeks to understand the natural phenomena that Base Quantity Symbol Unit Other physical quantities are derived from these basic units:
occur in our universe; a description of a natural Length /, x Meter - m Prefixes denote fractions or multiples of units; many variable
phenomenon uses many specific terms. definitions and Mass m,M Kilogram - kg symbols are Greek letters
mathematical equations Temperature T Kelvin - K Math Skills: Many physical concepts are only understood
Solving Problems in Physics with the use of algebra, statistics, trigonometry and
Time t Second - s
In physics, we use the SI units (International System) calculus
Electric Current I Ampere - A (C/s)
for data and calculations

.;;;;;;S=;;=;;;=~T~he position ofa

motion with position,
1. Newton's 1st Law: A body remains
motion unless influenced by a force energy is the energy of
velocity and acceleration as variables; mass is the 2. Newton's 2nd Law: Force and acceleration motion ; mass. m and velocity. v: K = t mv'
measure of the amount of matter; the standard unit for determine the motion of a body and predict future The SI energy unit is the Joule (J):
mass is kg. I kg = 1000 g.; inertia is a property of position and velocity: F = m a OR ~ F = m a \J = I kg m 2/s 2
matter, and as such, it occupies space 3. Newton's 3rd Law: Every action is countered by an 2. Momentum, p: Momentum is a property of motion,
I. Motion along a straight line is called rectilinear; opposing action defined as the product of mass and velocity: p = m v
the equation of motion describes the position of the
F:. 1 ~ pe\ of Forcc\ 3. Work (W): Work is a force acting on a body moving
particle and velocity for elapsed time. t
I. A body force acts on the entire body, with the force a distance; for a general force. F, and a body moving
a. Velocity (v): The mte of change of the displacement
() . h'
s WIt tIme ( t):v cis = Tt
= rlt Ll s
acting at the center of mass
a. A gravitational force. Fg. pulls an object toward
a path , s: W = JF ds
For a constant force. work is the scalar product of
the center of the Earth: Fg = mg the two vectors: force. F. and path. r:
b. Acceleration (a): The rate of change of the
b. Weight = Fg; gravitational force
· .h . dv Ll v W = F d cos (8) = F • r
ve IoClty WIt tnne: a = dt = Tt c. Mass is a measure of the quantity of material ,
independent of g and other forces F__ D r F_ _ D
a & v'are vectors , with magnitude and direction
2. Surface forces act on the body's surface
c. Speed is the absolute value of the velocity; scalar Maximum work
a. Friction. Fe. is proportional to the force normal to r No work
with the same units as velocity
the part of the body in contact with a sUlface, 4. Power (P) is energy expended per unit time:
2. Equations of Motion for One Dimension (I-D)
Equations of motion describe the future position (x) Fn·: Fr =" Fn
i. Static friction resists the
Dynamk Friction p = LlWork = LlWork

and velocity (v) of a body in terms of the initial Ll time Ll t

Fn
velocity (Vi), position (XII) and acceleration (a)
a. For constant acceleration. the position is related to
move-ment of a body
ii. Dynamic friction slows ~ Work = f P(t)dt
the time and acceleration by the following the motion of a body 1,- 0 The Sl unit for power is the Watt (W):

I W = I Joule/second = I J/s

For an object on a
equation of motion: x (I) = X u + V i ( + t ar Work for a constant output of power:

horizontal plane: Circular Motion

b. For constant acceleration. the velocity vs. time is F f = Il Fn = ll m g .... W = P Lit
given by the following: v r(t) = V i + at Net force = FI - F f II. Potrnthll Energ~ & Enrrg~ Consenation
c.lf the acceleration is a function of time, the F. Circular 'lotion I. The total energy of a body, E, is the sum of kinetic.
equation must be solved using a = aCt) I. Motion along a circular path uses
K, & potential energy. U: E = K +:Eu
R. 'Iotioll ill 1\\0 Dimcnsiolls (2-0)
I. For bodies moving along a y Polar
straight line. derive x- and y­
polar coordinates: (r,8)
2. Key Varia_b_le_s_: _ __ , _ _ _._ _ __ _---.
r
. 2. Potential energy arises from the interaction with a
potential from an external force
----r-
~,

equations of motion I The distance from the Potential energy is energy of position: U(r); the form
I of U depends on the force generating the potential:
x = vi, I ·1 ; a , t' r I Meter rotation center (center of
mass) Gravitation: U(h) = mgh
y = vi, ( + ;a, (' . q,q,
Electrostatic: U (r,,) = '"'"F;;­
2. For a rotating body, use polar Polar: (r, 9) The angle between rand
(} Radian
coordinates, an angle variable,
0 , and r. a radial distance from
the rotational center
C. 'lotion in TlJI'(~e Dimensions (3-D)
x = r cos9, .
y = r sin9,
r2=x 2 +y2 Radian/second te the (x) axis

angular velocity
If there are no other forces acting on the system, E is
constant and the system is called conservative
I. Collisions & Linear 'loml'lItulll
I. Types of Collisions
a. Elastic: conserve energy
Collisions

I. Cartesian System: Equations of a Radian/second 2 The angular acceleration

Spherical b.lnelastic: energy is lost as heat or

%,

motion with x. y and z components z deformation

The circular motion arc

2. Spherical Coordinates: Equations s Meter 2. Relative Motion & Frames of
of motion based on two angles s = r8 (8 in rad)
Reference: A body moves with vc:locity v in frame
((} and 'P) and r. the radial distance S; in frame S' the velocity is v' ; ifYs' is the velocity
from the origin. 3. Tangential acceleration & velocity: of frame S' relative to S, therefore: v = V,' + v'
x v , = rw; a , = r a ; v and a along the path of the 3. Elastic Collision

Newton's Laws are the core x = r simp cos9, Conserve Kinetic Energy: L: L:
t m v ,' = t m vI

motion arc

principles for describing the motion y = r sinep sin9,

of classical objects in response to
forces. The SI ullit of force is the
z = r coslj),
r2=x2 + y2+z2
4. Centripetal acceleration: a ,. =
toward the rotational center
v'

r; a is directed
Conserve Momentum: Lm Vi = L rn Vr z
Newton, N: IN=lkg m/s2 ; the cgs unit is the dyne: 1 a. TIle centripetal force keeps the body in circular
4. Impulse is a force acting over time
Impulse = F Ll t or f F (t) dt ~
dyne = I g cm/s2 motion with a tangential acceleration and velocity
Impulse is also the momentum change: Pfin - Pini!

1
.1. Rul:ltiulI 411 a Rigid Bud~ M. O,cillatur~ Motion
WAVE MOTION

~.
I. Center of Mass: The "average" position in the I. Simple Harmonic Motion
body, accounting for the object's mass distribution a. Force: F = - k..1 x (Hooke's A . Esampfl's 01 T~fI~S 01 \\a,cs
2. Moment ofInertia, 1: The moment ofinertia is Law) •Transverse • Longitudinal

a measure of the distribution of the mass about b. Potential Energy: Uk = + k..1 x' u mll ·Traveling • Standing

the rotational axis: ~ rn, r,' c. Frequency of the oscillation:

Hooke's
• Harmonic • Quantum mechanical
rio is the radial distance from mj to the rotational axis f=..L Ik Law 1. General fonn for a transverse OR traveling wave:
Sample I for bodies of mass m: 21l'V m Spring y = fix - vt) (to the right) OR y = f(x + vt) (to the leli)
rotating cylinder (radius R): +rn R' 2. Simple Pendulum 2. General form for a harmonic wave:
twirling thin rod (length L): ,', rnL'
a. Period of oscillation: y = A sin (kx - w t) OR Standing '\<ave

rotating sphere (radius R): trn r'

Rotating Bodies
T = 21l'jI
b. Frequency of oscillation:
T
nr,
Simple
y = A cos (kx - w t)
3 Standing Wave: Multiples of ,1/2 fits

the length of the oscillating material

f=..L !K
21l'V T Pendulum
4. Superposition Principle: Overlapping

waves interact => constructive and

\. Ful'l'~s in Solids & Fluids destructive interference

I. p , the density of a solid, gas or liquid:

a. Constructive Interference: Thc

3. Rotational Kinetic Energy = +LQ' wave amplitudes add up to produce a

p = mass/ volume = M/V

I ).
The rotational energy varies with the rotational wave with a larger amplitude than

2. Pressure, P, is the force divided by the area of

velocity and moment of inertia. I either of the two waves
Harmonic ~ave
the forces acted upon: P = forcelarea
4. Angular force is defined as torque, T: b. Destructive Interference: The

The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal, Pa:

T = la = r • f (angular acceleration force) wave amplitudes add up to

I Pa = 1 N I m 2
5. Angular momentum is · the momentum produce a wave with a smaller

a. Pascal's Law: For a Pascal's Law amplitude than either of the two

associated with rotational motion:

fluid enclosed in a vessel,

L = Iw = r • P = f r • v dm
the pressure is equal at all
waves

B. lIarnwnk \\:I'l' Propertil's

Torque is also the change in L with time: points in the vessel

T=r'F=~7 Angular
Momentum
b. Pressure Variation with
Depth
Wavelength A (m) Distance between cycles

h:. Static E(llIilihrium & Elasticit~ Period T (sec)

t Pf The pressure below the surface of a liquid:
1. Equilibrium is achieved when:
, 0~
P, = PI + pgh Frequency f(Hz) Cycles per ,eeond: f - IT
~f = O

acceleration

~T = O
The body has no linear or angular

2. Deformation of a solid body

~
h is the depth, beneath the surface
p is the density of the water
PI is the pressure at the surface
Angular
Frequency
Wave
w (rad/s) r::
= 21l'/ T = 2m
A Height of wave
a. Elasticity: A material returns to its original Amplitude
shape after the force acting on it is removed
b. Stress & Strain
Pressure
Variation ,-,.-.,.,..,.,.,.,.,,,.......==1.....,..,,......,..,.....,.'".,... Surface
Speed I v (m/s) 1

Linear velocity v = Af

i. Strain is the deformation of the body Liquid P Pl h C. Sound \\ aH',

ii. Stress is the force per unit area on the body 1. Wave Nature of Sound: Sound is a compression wave that
c. Archimedes' Principle: An object of volume
c. Hooke's Law: The stress IS linearly displaces the medium carrying the wave; sound cannot tra, el
V immersed in liquid with density p, feels a through a vacuum
proportional to the strain; stress = elastic
~
buoyant force that tends to force the object
modulus x strain: 2. General Speed of Sound: v =
out of the water: g, = p V g
i. Linear Stress: a. B is the bulk modulus, the volume compressibilit. of
Young's Modulus, symbolized Y the solid, liquid or gas
ii . Shape Stress: Archimedes' ,,\.\I\i{fWV""hXXhhH omAA"""" Surface
Principle b. p is the density
Shear Modulus, symbolized S
iii. Volume Stress:
Bulk Modulus, symbolized B
Liquid 3. For a Gas: v = J,r RTM

L lIniH'rsal (;nl\ itatiull 3. Examine Fluid Motion & Fluid Dynamics

r = Cp/C,· (the ratio of heat capacities)
...._......_._......... r ......_ . ..........................., 4. Loudness - Intensity & Relative Intensit~·
a. Properties of an Ideal Fluid Loudness (sound i11lensity) is the power carried by a
M 1 ... Universal Gravitation ... M2 i. Nonviscous - minimal interactions sound wave
ii. Incompressible - the density is constant a. Relative Loudness - Decibel Scale (dB):
1. Gravitational Force & Energy

. . I energy: U,= -GM,M,

iii. Steady flow - no turbulence

iv. At any point in the flow, the product of area
P(dB) = 10 log (f.)
a. GravltatlOna -r-­ i. The decibel scale is delined relative to the threshold
and velocity is constant: AI VI = Al VI
. . I rlorce: F, = ~
b. Gravltatlona GM,M, b. Variable Fluid Density of hearing, I,,: P(I,,) = 0 dB
If the density changes, the following equation ii. A change in 10 dB, represents a lOx increase in sound
Fg is a vector, along r, connecting M J and M2 intensity, I
described properties of the fluid:
c. Acceleration due to Gravity, g: For an object on b. Doppler Effect
p,A,v, = p,A,v,
the Earth's surface, Fg can be viewed as Fg =m The sound frequency shifts (f'/t) due to relative motion of
g; g is the acceleration due to gravity on the the source of the sound and the observer or listener: Vo ­
Variable Fluid
speed of the observer; vs ­
Earth's surface: g = 9.8 m1s 2 Density
Doppler Effect
speed of the source;v
2. Gravitational Potential Energy, Ug
speed of sound O => <=S
a. The Earth's gravitational
i. Case I: If the source

potential => Ug = mgh

of sound is

c. Bernoulli's Equation is a more general approaching the

b. Weight is the gravitational

description of fluid flow observ.::r, the

force exerted on a body by the

frequency increases:

i. For any point y in the fluid tlow: ii. Case #2: If the source

Earth: Weight = Fg = mg

Weight is ill!! the same as mass

P + +p v' + p g y constant = of sound is moving

ii.For a fluid at rest (special case): away from the

Gravitational

observer, the

Potential
P,-P,=pgh
frequency decreases: L
f
_ (~)
\ + \,

<=0 s =>
Energy

2
~j 'i~t'to.t~~l"".CiljJi.

THERMODYNAMICS .
Thermodynamics is the study Thermodynamics e. Carnot's Law: For ideal gas: C p - C. = R c. Reversible, isothermal expansion of an Ideal Gas
of the work. heat & energy of a Q W Carnot's Law is exact for monatomic gases; it against P ext; gas expands from V I to V 2 using an
process infinite number of steps; the system remains in

~
must be modified for molecular gases
C. Ideal Gas L:m: P\ = 11 R I equilibrium: W = n RT In (~: ) . This type of
-
I. The Ideal Gas Law process gives the maximum work
a. Pressure, P: The standard unit is the Pascal (Pa), but SIa&Ie Step EspDIIoa
Heat: Q +Q added to the system
I the bar is more commonly used: I bar = 105 Pa
Work: W +W done by the system ! b. Volume, V: The standard unit is the m 3, but the
liter, L. is more common: I L = I dm 3
Energy: E System intemal E
----
c. Temperature, T: The standard temperature unit is
Enthalpy: H

Entropy: S
H = E+ PV

Thermal disorder
absolute temperature, the Kelvin scale: T(K)
d. Amount of gas, n: # of moles of gas (mol)
e. R is a proportionality constant, the gas constant,
PL' p..

given the symbol R : R=O.083 L bar mol-I K-I V

Temperature: T I Measure of thermal E
2. Applications of Gas Laws
Pressure: P Force exerted by a gas a. Boyle's Law (constant temperature, T): Pressure E. rhl' Kinetic rhe()r~ of Gases
is proportional to I/volume I . Gas particles of mass, M, are in constant motion,
Volume: V Space occupied b. Pressure is proportional to temperature, with with velocity. v, exerting pressure on the container
- volume fixed 2. Equations for Energy of an Ideal Gas:

I. Thermodynamic variables are variables of state c. Charles' Law (constant pressure, P): Volume is 3

and are independent of the process path; other proportional to temperature +

E = M v' and E = 2' RT
variables are path-dependent d. Avogadro's Law (constant P and T) : Volume is a. Average Speed of a Gas Molecule:
2. Types of Processes: Experimental conditions can be proportional to the # of moles, n
contro lied to allow for di fferent types of I'W"""'" e. General Ideal Gas Law Application V n ", = /3~T
r
Thermodynamic i. Use PV = n RT to examine a gas sample under
Condition Constraints b. Gas Speed & Temperature: v "". , IS
Result specific conditions ofP,V. nand T
proportional to IT ; a change from TI to T2
Isothermal ~T = 0 I ~E = O, Q = w
jl\ -,... Charlet' Law

--
Adiabatic

Isobaric
Q=0
No heat flow

~P = 0
I ~E

W = P~V
= -w
PV' = constant

O.
~~
El1lhalp~
Pressure (Pa)
IL
& I st Lan of Thumod~ l1amics
Temperature(K)
changes the speed by V{T;
1";'

c. Gas Speed & Mass: v,,'" is proportional to

d. Kinetic Energy for 1.00 Mole of an Ideal Gas:
!l:r
Fixed pressure ~H = Q - lRT
K -
I. Wand Q depend on path of the process; however, 2
~ V= 0 ~E = Q ~ E is independent of path e. For a Real Gas: Add heat capacity and energy
Isochoric
Fixed volume w= 0 2. lst Law of Thermodynamics: ~E = Q- W terms for molecular vibrations and rotations
F. F:1l'ro(l~ & 2nd I.a\\ of rhenll(l(l~ Ita m ics
a. The change in energy of the system (~ E ) is
I. measures thermal energy determined by the difference between the heat The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics is concerned with
a. The SI unit is Kelvin. absolute temperature: gained (Q) by the system and the work performed the driving force for a process
(W) by the system on the mechanical surrounding
T(K) = T (OC) + 273.15 I . Entropy. S
3. Enthalpy, H Entropy measures the thermal disorder of a system:
T is always in Kelvin, unless noted in the equation
Enthalpy is a new state variable derived from the 1st
b. Z e roth Law of Thermodynamics: If two dS -- dQ
T
Law of Thermodynamics at constant pressure:
bodies. # I and #2. are separately in thermal H = E + PV ~H = ~ E +P~V Entropy is a state variable, like E & H:
equilibrium with a third body, #3, then # 1 and #2 a. ~ H =Q for a process at constant pressure; the ~ S (universe) = ~ S (system) + ~ S (thermal
are also in thermal equilibrium di fference between E and H is the work reservoir)
2. Thermal E xpansion of Solid, Liquid or Gas performed by the process 2. 2nd Law of Thermodyna mics:
a. Solid: tL = a LIT i. Endothermic: Positive ~ H ; the system absorbs For anyspontaneous process. ~ s,,"" >0
heat from the surroundings (EX: evaporation of ~ S,,"h = 0 for a system at

b. Liquid: LI: = /3 LI T liquid to gas; melting of a solid) equilibrium or for a reversible

process

ii .Exothermic: Negative ~ H; the system releases

(T, - T,)nR , 3. Examples of Entropy Changes
c. Gas: LI V = - p (Charles Law) heat to the surroundings (EX: combustion of fuel,
condensation of vapor to liquid) a. Natural Heat Flow: Heat flows Q
3. Heat C apacity, C

~
b. Phase Transitions: s olid +- liquid +- gas from Thot to Tcold
C depends on LI l' and Q, the heat lost or gained:
A phase change corresponds to a change in enthalpy: b. Entropy & Phase Changes:
C = LI<;' OR Q = CLIT i. Enthalpy of vaporization: ~ H ... LI H (change) Heat Flow
T( h
a. Specific heat capacity is C per gram ii. Enthalpy of fusion: ~ H,,,,
LlS(changc) =
c a nge )
b. Molar heat capacity is C per mole c. Enthalpy & Variable Temperature: solid --. liquid positive ~ S ~ S,...
c. Two special experimental cases: ~H = jCpdT liquid -+ solid positivI.' ~ S ~ S"p
i. Heat capacity for constant pressure, C p :
For constant C p : ~ H = C. ~ T c. Entropy & Temperature for an Ideal Gas:
LI H is the key variable
ii . Heat capacity for constant volume, C.: 4. Examples of Work: W = j PdV SeT): LIS = nCpln( i : )
LI E is the key variable Increasing T increases the disorder
5 3 a. P opposes the ~ V for an expansion; P causes the
d. ldeal Gas: C" = 2'R AND C, = 2'R d . Entropy & Volume for an Ideal Gas

~ V for compression; W depends on the path A gas expands from V I to V~ :

i. The ratio of these two heat capacities is called y b. Single step isobaric expansion from V I to V 2
S(V): ~S = n R In(~: )

ii.For Ideal Gas: r= g~ = i = 1.667 against an opposing pressure, Pext '

The disorder of a gas increases if it expands

3
Thennocl namics

Il(
2. The efficiency of an engine. 7J, is defined as the
I. Thermal Engine: A heat
engine transfers heat, Q,
ratio ofW divided by Qhot: 7J = QW p CanotCyde
"",
from a hot to a cold
3. Idealized Heat Engine: The Carnot Cycle
reservoir, to produce
a. The Carnot Cycle consists of two isothermal
work. W
a. The I st Law of steps and two adiabatic steps
Thermodynamic states i. For overall cycle:
that the work, W. must Q...w T.
t. T ~ n, t. H = 0 and t. S = 0 AT - O
equal the di fference T.
between the heat terms:
W= Qhot - QCOld
b. Camot Thermal Efficiency = 7J = 1 ­ i: ~-----------------v

ELECTRICITY. MAGNETISM
r----- r ------, c. For a material with dielectric constant K: 2. Ohm's Law: Current density, J, is in
proportion to the fi eld; IJ is called the
conductivity: J = IJE
Electric FIelds &; Eleetrle Charge 3. Resistance
a. The resistance, R, accounts for the fact that

\. Electric Fi~lds & Electric Char:.:e energy is lost by electron conduction ;

Examine the nature of the field generated by an I. A capacitor consists of two separated electrical resistance is defined as the voltage divided

electric charge and the forces between charges conducting plates carrying equal and opposite V
I. Coulomb, given the symbol C, is a measure of charge. A capacitor stores charge/electrical by the current: R = T
the amount of charge: potential energy
I Coulomb = I amp· I sec 2. Capacitance, C. is defined as the ratio of charge, b. The SI resistance unit is the Ohm. ,Q
w
e is the charge of a single electron : u
Q, divided by the voltage, V, for a capacitor: a:
1 h ( n) = Ivolt(V) 0.
e = 1.6022 x 10-19 C c. 0 m 1 amp (A)
= ~;
0&

C V is the measured voltage; Q is the

2. Coulomb's Law for electrostatic force, Fcoul : 4. ReSistivity: The inverse of conductivity is
F
rou'
1 q,q,­
= 41r€o --r;- r
charge
a. Energy stored in a charged capacitor: resistivity, given the symbol p : p = 1
3. Electric Field, E, is the potential generated by a ' Q' 5. Voltage for current I flowing through a
charge that produces Fcoulon charge qo: U = ,. c = t QV = KV' conductor with resistance R: V = IR
6. Power Dissipation: Power is .Iost as 1 passes
b. Parallel plate capacitor, with a vacuum,
E -- F...:
qo
u'
with area A, and spacing d :
through the conductor with R:

Power =VR = 12 R

4. Superposition Principle: The total F and E have . C ' C=

contributions from each charge in the system: I.apacltance: .0" dA 7. Resistors in Circuits: Certain groups of
resistors in a circuit are found to behave as a
ii. Energy Stored: single resistor
R. Sources flf Electric Fields: Gauss's La\\ U = t CII AdE' a. For resistors in series: Rio, = L R
I. Electric flux, (/J.. gives rise to electric fields and iii . Electric Field:
Coulombic forces E =.Y.=..JL
PanIIeI Plate Capacitor b. For resistors in parallel: i,,,, - ~ A,

&
d c"A
2. Gauss's Law: (1),. =f E • dA =~ c. ParaUei plate capacitor,

dielectric material with

The electric flux, cp, • depends on the total charge

in the closed region of interest dielectric constant K,
with area A. spacing d:
C. Electric "otential & Coulflmhic Ener:.:~
I. Coulombic potential energy is derived from C = Kc" A = . f'
d "'--II
Coulombic force using the following equation:
U roo' = f
F"." dr
C, = vacuum capacitor
i. Capacitors in Circuits: A group of
a. Coulombic Potential Energy:
capacitors in a circuit is found to behave like F, Ilin'ct ( urn'nt ('il'cuit (1)( )
1 qq'
a single capacitor
U e,.,ul = 4Jreor
I. Goal: Examine a circuit containing battery.
b. Coulombic PotentiaWoltage " . Capacltors
II "S IRerles:
' -c
1 = ,,1
L... C.
101 I
resistors and capacitors; determine voltage and
i. The Coulomb potential, V(q), generated by current properties
q is obtained by di viding the Ucoul by the iii. Capacitors in Parallel: C ", = ~ C 2. Key Equations & Concepts
EMF: The voltage of a circuit is called the
test charge, q': V (q) - U - _1_3. Two Capadton In Series Two Capaciton In PanDel electromotive force, denoted emf
- q' 47[.011 r

~C' i C2 j
a. This voltage accounts for the battery, Vb' and
U = V(q)q '
the circuit voltage, denoted IR :
c. For an array of charges, qj' V",", = LV, emf=Vb + IR
2. Potential for a Continuous Charge Distribution: b. The battery has an internal resistance, r:
Vb =1 r
V- _1_fd q
- 47[.00 r ., Capadtan In CIreuIIi
3. Circuit Terminology
a. Junction: Connection of three or more
3. The Dielectric Effect
conductors
a. Electrostatic forces and energies are
b. Loop: A closed conductor path
diminished by placing material with dielectric E. Current & Resistance: Ohm's L:m
c. Replace resistors in series or parallel with
constant K between the charges I. Current & Charge: The current, I, measures the
RIOt
b. Voltage and electrostatic force (V & F) depend charge passing through a conductor over a time; d. Replace capacitors in series or parallel with
on the dielectric constant, K total charge, Q: Q = I • t Ctot

4
4. Kirchoff's Circuit Rules ii.For a closed current loop: F = 0 6. Gauss's Law: The net magnctic flux through any
a. Constraints on the Voltage
i. For any loop in the circuit the voltage must
3. Magnetic Moment closed surface is always zero: f B • dA = 0
A magnetic moment, denoted M, is produced a. Gauss's Law is based on the fact that isolated
be the same: LV = LIR by a current loop magnetic poles (monopoles) do not exist
ii. The energy must be a. A current loop, with current 1 and area A, I. I' arada~', I.a\\ - J' ll'ctrol1la~nctic Induction
conserved in a circuit loop
b. Constraints on the Current
i. The current must balance at
every node or junction
--< generates a magnetic moment of strength M :
M=IA
b. Torque on a loop: A loop placed in a
magnetic field will experience a torque,
Faraday's Law: Passing a magnet through a
current loop induces a current in the loop

Faraday' Law
ii.For any junction :~" rotating the loop: r = M • B

LI = 0
iii. The total charge must be conserved in the
circuit; the amount of charge entering and
leaving any point in the circuit must be
equal
( •. 'Ja~lIl'1k J kid . 1\
I. Magnetic Field: A moving electric charge or
I. Faraday's Law of Induction
current generates a magnetic field, denoted by
The EMF induced in a circuit is directly
the symbol B; the vector 8 is also called the
Torque OD a Loop proportional to the time rate of change of the
magnetic Induction or the magnetic nux
density magnetic flux, Q)"" passing through the circuit:
a. The SI unit for a magnetic field is the Tesla, T
b. The SI unit for magnetic flux is the Weber, Wb EMF = fEds AND EMF = -~tl/)m
4. U (magnetic): Magnetic potential energy arises
Wb N m N a. Special Case: Uniform field 8 over loop of
IT = Ill' = C . s = A • m from the interaction of Band M:
area A; B is the angle formed by dA and 8:

d:
U (magnetic) = - M • B
c. The CGS unit is the Gauss, G: 1 T = 104 G
d. For a bar magnet, the field is generated from 5. Lorentz Force: A charge interacts with both E EMF = (BA cos 8)
the ferromagnetic properties of the metal and 8, the force is given by the following
expression: F = q E + q v • B b. Motional EMF: Moving a conductor of
forming the magnet
length I through a magnetic field 8 with a
i. The poles of the magnet are denoted a. Band E contribute to the force
speed v induces an EMF (8 is perpendicular
North/South. The field lines are show in the b. The particle must be moving to interact with
to the bar and to v): EMF = - B I v
figure below the rna etic field c. Lenz's Law: The direction of the induced

~ """LIBeI
.n'_ current and EMF tends to maintain the
original flux through the circuit; Lenz's Law
Z a. Given the current I and the conductor segment
is a consequence of energy cbnservation

III of length dl, the induced magnetic field

contribution, dB, is described by the
Eleetremapede Wave

A. . p"ldI'r
followmg: dB = 41!' --r­
a b. The total magnetic field for the conductor is
~ e. For a current loop, the field is generated by . pojdl'r
gIven by: B = 41!'1 ~
the motion of the charged particles in the
current. 2. The magnetic field strength varies as the I. Electromagnetic wa ves are formed by
inverse square of the distance from the transverse 8 and E fields
conducting element a. The relative field strengths arc defined by the
3. Special Case - Infinitely long straight wire:
. . E
followmg equatIOn: B = c
B (a) = : ; i ;a is the distance from the wire; b. The speed of light, c, correlates the magnetic
I is the current; B, is inversely proportional to a constant, 11", and the electric constant,
. _ _ 1_
BIot-savart Law I Cu.c- IlloE!)
B c. In a vacuum, an electromagnetic wave. with
2. Magnetic Force: F mag on charge, q, moving at wavelength, ..t ,and frequency, f, travels at the
velocity, v, in magnetic field B: speed oflight, c: c = fA
F .... = q v·B = qvB sin 8 d. X-rays have short wavelength, compared with
a. B is the angle between radio waves
vectors v and 8 e. Visible light is a very small part of the spectrum
i. For v parallel to B; F = 0
4. Ampere's Law: For a circular path around wire, Summarize the general behavior of electrical and
(B 0, minimum force)
=
the total of the magnetic flux, B . dS, must be magnetic fields in free space
ii.For v perpendicular to I. Gauss's Law for Electrostatics:
B; F = q v B ( B = 7[/2, a
"---->-..... A
consistent with the current, I: f B • dS = Po I fE. dA = ~
maximum force)
Z iii. The "right hand rule"
RlPt-llaDd
Rule
5. Magnetic Flux, 1/)",
a. The magnetic flux, 1/)"" associated with an
2. Gauss's Law for Magnetism:

III defines the force direction

b. Force on a conducting segment: For a current
area, dA, of an arbitrary surface is given by
fB'dA=O

A. I passing through a conductor of length I in a the following equation: I/)m = j B • dA;

3. Ampere-Maxwell Law:

a magnetic field B, the force is given by:

F=II· B
dA is vector perpendicular to the area dA f B • ds = p"I + p"e" ~~"
4. Faraday's Law: f E • dS = ~~..
i. For a general current path s: b. Special Case - Planar area A and uniform B at
-
angle I with dA: I/)m = B A cos B
F=ljds.B

5
2. Key Variables & Concepts
I. Light exhibits a duality, having both wave I . Lenses and mirrors generate images of objects a. Constructive interference occurs when
and particle properties wave amplitudes add up to produce a new
- .~--~'- wave with a larger amplitude than either of
2. Key Variables - ~ --"'-----:l
o .. ~ the component waves
a. Speed of light in a vacuum, c
b. Index of refraction, n:
The index of refraction, symbolized n, is
the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum N

divided by the speed of light in the material: Images & Objects

c (vacuum) o
n= c (material)
c. View light as a wave--Iocus on wave
2. Lenses and mirrors are characterized by a
number of optical paramcters:
u. The radius of curvature, R, defines the
\"2 ~x
properties: wavelength and frequency
shape of the lens or milTor; R is two times Constructive Interference
i. For light as an electromagnetic wave :

the foca l lengt h, f: R = 2 f

b. Destructive interference occurs when
Af =c
wave amplitudes add up to produce a new
ii. Light is characterized by its wavelength LeD II. Mirror Properties wave with smaller amplitude than either of
("color"), or by its frcquency, f.
the component waves: the wave amplitudes
d. View light as a particle in order to Parameters i+ Sign - sign cancel out

understand the energetic properties of light

+ y, - OE
::j '"'"g;",
- y = y, al
i. Energy is quanti zed in packet s called diverging Y J't )
gJU
ill
:)i
photons
f foca l length
lens lens «$>- z«
~"
C)
ii. The energy of photon de pends on the concave convex
",0 :::1 ill

t.,
mirror mirror lli
frequcncy, f, with the proportionality
I-- ­ ~~ <Ii
constant h, Planck's Constant:
s obj ct virtual
~
'Cc U
;:;
w
E (photon) = h f 'bj,"
Q)::J. C)
a:0.
distance object ~ :::I
3. Reflection & Refraction of Light Destructive Interference a'
Renection of Light
Incident virtual c. Huygens' Principle: Each portion of wave
s' image distance real image

Ray image front acts as a source of new waves

- +- - 3. Diffraction of light from a grating with

h obj ect size erect inverted spacing d produces an interfer~nce pattern
governed by the following equation:
-- d sin B = mA, (rn 0, 1, 2, = a, ...)
h' image size erect inverted 4. Single Slit Experiment:
I
For a wave passing through a slit of width a,
a. Law of Reflection: For light rcfkcting
destructive interference is observed for:
from a mirrored surface, the incident and b. The optic axis: Line from base of object
retlected beams must have the ame angle through center of lens or mi rror sin () =rnA / a, (m =
0, ± 1, ± 2, ... )
5. X-ray difi'raction from a crystal with atomic
with the surface nOl1nal: 0, =
0, c. Magnification: The magnifying power of a

*
spacing d gives constructive interference lor:

b. Refraction: lens is given by M, the ratio of image si ze

Li ght changes Refraction of Light 2 d sin B = rnA, (rn = 0, I, 2, a....)
to object size: M =
speed as it
d. Laws of Geometric O ptics
pa sses through i. The m irror equ ation: The focal length, Fundamental Physical Con tanh

materials with
image distance and object distance are
ditTcrent indices Mass of
described by the following relationship: Electron
of refraction; 1 1 1
this change in Glass s+"S' =y Mass of Proton I mr 1.67x10-27 kg

'hr-

speed bends the

ii. The object and image distances can also be

light ray as it
used to detennine the magnification: Avogadro .
passes from n I
s h ~C_o_sta_t
n__n__ __ A I 6.022x I 0 23 mol-I
to 11 2 "S'=-1l'=M
Elementary o
i. The angles of the incident and relracted C. A combination of two thin lenses gives a e 1.602x10- 19 C Jf\­
Charge , 0­
rays are governed by Snell's Law: lens with properti es of the two lenses ~ lI"\-
Faraday rnoo=
n, sin 8,= n , s in 8,; n l, n2: indices of i. The focal length is given by the
Constant
5 96.4R5 C mol-I
~~lf)_
1
retraction of two materials
. 0 n ·,
follo\\ill1g equation' -f -1f,
= + - f, 1
1 ~ ms-I rn .... - ­
rurn=
c. Internal Reflectance: SID " = n; ; Light
3. G ener al Guidelines for Ray Tracing
Speed of Light c ~DiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiO
, rn iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiO
r-=tnJ___ ~

~ru~tt"'I
passing fromlllaterial of higher n to a lower a. Rays that parallel optic axis pass through
Molar Gas ~~_o
nmay be trapped in the material if the angle
'T' R R.314 J mol-I K·I .-N
b. Rays pass through center of the lens Constant nlO_rt'I
of incidence is too large
4. Polarized Light: The E tield of th.:
unchanged
c. Image: Formed by convergence of ray Boltzmann
Constant
k 11.3RX 10-23 JK -I
I
22
CD CD
I

~~-r---
===.­
r-=!,...:!=N
===:4'
=co
electromagnetic wave is not spherically tracings
Ray Tracing I 0­
symmetric (EX: plane (linear) polarized light, d. Illustration of
circularly polarized light) ray tracing for a Gravitation
C on verging G 16.67XIO-llm3 kg·IS· 1
a. One way to generate a polarized wave is by Constant
Lens
retlecting a beam on a surface at a preci se
Permeability of
angle , called B,
Space
14;< x 10-7 N A-l
b. The angle depends on the relative indices of
refraction and is defined by Brewster's
l. Goal: Examine

Law: tan B, =
n·,
n.
constructive and
destructive interference of light waves
Permittivity of

Space
IR.R5 x 10. 12 F 111. 1