Purbanchal University,

Faculty of Science and Technology

College of Applied Food and Dairy Technology (CAFODAT)

Department of Food/Dairy Technology

Approval Letter

This dissertation entitled " Preparation and quality evaluation of instant low sodium buff
dry meat" presented by Raj Khadka has been accepted as the partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Food Technology.

Research Committee
1. Chairperson

(Prof Jagat Bahadur K.C)

2. Head of Department

(Adj. Prof Uttam K. Bhattarai)

3. External Examiner

(Dr. Alok Shrestha)

4. Supervisor

(Mr. Krishna Prashad Rai)

5. Internal Examiner

(Mr. Man Bahadur Shrestha)

iii
Acknowledgement

I would like to express my deepest sense of gratitude to my supervisor, respected Mr.

Krishna Prasad Rai for his continuous encouragement, outstanding guidance and constant
instruction and directions to accomplish the study from the very beginning. I would also
like to express my special thanks to Vice-Principal Adjunct prof. Uttam Kumar Bhattarai,
Mr. Man Bahadur Shrestha, the Program Coordinator of CAFODAT for his moral support
given in all ways during the study.

I would also acknowledge the support of Prof. Jagat Bahadur KC, Chairperson of
CAFODAT for providing requisite facilities during the work. I am also very much thankful
to my teacher Mrs. Sneha Shrestha, friend Mr. Diwash Basnet, my classmates for their
belief and continuous instructions throughout the study.

I would like to express my deep gratitude to Mr. Ashish Ratna Shakya for his
continuous co-operation during my work. I am grateful to all the crucial role of the staff of
CAFODAT, who helped me directly or indirectly to complete the task.

__________________
(Raj Kumar Khadka)
December, 2018

iv
Abstract

The present work was undertaken to study the preparation and quality evaluation of instant
low sodium buff dry meat. Buffalo lean meat from local market of Kathmandu (Teku) was
used for the preparation of dried meat. Four different formulations of dry meat were
prepared by varying salt content viz; sample A: 100%NaCl, sample B: 50%NaCl and
50%KCl, sample C: 75%NaCl and 25%KCl and sample D: 25%NaCl and 75%KCl, where
equal amount of spices were added in each sample. All the samples were marinated with
curing salt and spices separately then kept in refrigerator for a 24 hours. After complete
drying the best sample was obtained from sensory evaluation using 9 point Hedonic rating
scale. The chemical and microbiological analysis of best sample (Sample B) was carried
out for moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, total ash, energy, sodium, potassium
and total plate count, salmonella, coliform and mold. Furthermore, the comparison between
control sample (A) and best sample (B) was also carried out.

Through sensory analysis, sample B (50%NaCl and 50%KCl) was highly preferred
which physico-chemical analysis showed moisture, crude fat, crude protein, crude fiber,
total ash, energy, sodium(Best sample), potassium(Best sample) were 16.28±0.34%,
1.50±0.05%, 75.27±0.26%, 0.34±0.03%, 6.61%, 317kcal, 1.4g/kg and 1.7g/kg
respectively. However the raw meat contains moisture, crude fat, crude protein and total
ash were 77.33±0.85%, 3.22±0.18%, 20.30±0.46% and 1.01±0.03% respectively.

The microbial analysis of dried meat showed that salmonella, coliform and mold were
nil and total plate count was seen. Finally comparison between the control sample i.e.
100%NaCl and best sample i.e. 50%NaCl and 50%KCl. LSD showed that the sample
treated with 50%NaCl and 50%KCl and 100%NaCl, both sample was significantly
(P>0.05) difference in terms of appearance, texture and overall acceptability but no
significantly difference (P<0.05) in terms of taste and flavor and after taste (mouth feel of
chewing meat after 2 minutes). There was slightly bitter taste in best sample. The main aim
of this work was to prepare low sodium dry meat and the percentage of sodium was
reduced. The sodium and potassium was analyzed at Soil Test Lab.

v
Table of Contents

Approval Letter………………………………………………………………………….iii

Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................... iv

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... v

Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... vi

Acronyms ..................................................................................................................................xii

Part I ........................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 General Introduction .................................................................................................................1

1.2 Buff meat composition ................................................................................................................4

1.3 Value-Added Buffalo Meat Products ........................................................................................4

1.4 Curing Salts ...............................................................................................................................5

1.5 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................................7

1.6 Objective ...................................................................................................................................7

1.7 Significance of the study ...........................................................................................................7

Part II.......................................................................................................................................... 9

Literature Review ...................................................................................................................... 9

2.1 Meat...........................................................................................................................................9

2.2 Buff meat composition, quality and sensory attributes .............................................................9

2.2.1 Meat Quality...................................................................................................................10

2.2.2 Sensory attributes ..........................................................................................................11

vi
2.4 Preservation of meat ................................................................................................................12

2.4.1 Principle of meat preservation by drying and dehydration ..........................................12

2.4.2 Technology of dried meat ..............................................................................................13

2.5 Types of dried meat products ..................................................................................................16

2.6 Preparation of dried meat (Sukuti) in Nepal ............................................................................17

2.6.1 Process of making Sukuti................................................................................................17

2.7 Drying process and storage .....................................................................................................18

2.8 Quality problems of dried meat ...............................................................................................18

2.9 Microbial activity ....................................................................................................................18

Part III ...................................................................................................................................... 19

Materials and Methods ........................................................................................................... 19

3.1 Raw material collection .................................................................................................................19

3.1.1 Materials collection ...............................................................................................................19

3.2 Methods ...................................................................................................................................19

3.2.1 Preparation of meat .......................................................................................................20

3.2.3 Formulation of salts........................................................................................................20

3.2.5 Preparation of buff dry meat using salts (NaCl and KCl) with different spice................21

3.3 Analytical procedures ................................................................................................................23

3.3.1 Physical and Chemical parameters ....................................................................................23

3.4 Microbial analysis ...................................................................................................................24

3.4.1 Total plate count ............................................................................................................24

3.4.2 Mold count .....................................................................................................................24

vii
3.4.3 Salmonella ......................................................................................................................25

3.4.4 Coliform ..........................................................................................................................25

3.5 Sensory Evaluation ..................................................................................................................25

3.6 Statistical analysis ...................................................................................................................25

Part IV ...................................................................................................................................... 26

Results and discussion ............................................................................................................. 26

4.1 Chemical composition of the fresh meat ...................................................................................26

4.1.1 Moisture content ...............................................................................................................26

4.1.2 Crude Protein .....................................................................................................................26

4.1.3 Total ash.............................................................................................................................27

4.1.4 Crude Fat............................................................................................................................27

4.2 Sensory analysis of dried meat samples ....................................................................................27

4.2.3 Texture ...........................................................................................................................29

4.2.5 Overall acceptability .......................................................................................................31

4.3 Comparison of chemical composition of final products............................................................31

4.3.1 Moisture content ................................................................................................................31

4.3.2 Crude Protein .....................................................................................................................32

4.3.3 Crude fiber .........................................................................................................................32

4.3.4 Total energy content .........................................................................................................32

4.3.5 Crude fat ............................................................................................................................33

4.3.6 Total ash.............................................................................................................................33

4.3.7 Total sodium content.........................................................................................................33

viii
4.3.8 Total potassium content ................................................................................................33

4.4 Microbial Analysis ..................................................................................................................33

4.4.1 Total plate count ............................................................................................................34

4.4.2 Mold counts....................................................................................................................34

4.4.3 Salmonella ......................................................................................................................34

4.4.4 Coliform ..........................................................................................................................34

4.5 Cost calculation .......................................................................................................................34

Part V ........................................................................................................................................ 35

Conclusions and recommendations ........................................................................................ 35

5.1 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................35

5.2 Recommendations .....................................................................................................................35

Part VI ...................................................................................................................................... 36

Summary .................................................................................................................................. 36

Reference .................................................................................................................................. 37

Appendices ............................................................................................................................... 45

ix
List of tables

Table no. Title Page no.

Table 1.1 Buffalo population and buffalo meat population in India and the 3
world in the year 2012 (top 5 countries)

Table 2.1 Chemical composition of buffalo meat (Nutrient composition and 9

Meat quality characteristics)

Table 3.1 Preparation of salts in different ratios 21

Table 3.2 Seasoning Formulations 21

Table 3.3 Sample A (100%NaCl) 22

Table 3.4 Sample B (50%NaCl & 50%KCl) 22

Table 3.5 Sample C (75%NaCl & 25%KCl) 23

Table 3.6 Sample D (25%NaCl & 75%KCl) 23

Table 4.1 Chemical composition of fresh meat 27

Table 4.3 Chemical composition of dried meat 32

Table 4.4 Microbial analysis of control and best sample 33

x
List of figures

Figure no. Title Page

no.

Fig 3.1 Flow diagram of buff dry meat 20

Fig 4.1 Effect of different concentration of salts and spices on the taste 28
and flavor attribute of dried meat

Fig 4.2 Effect of different concentration of salts and spice on the 29

appearance attribute of dried meat

Fig 4.3 Effect of different concentration of salts and spices on the 30

texture attributes of dried meat

Fig 4.4 Effect of different concentration of salts and spices on the after 30
taste attributes of dried meat

Fig 4.5 Effect of different concentration of salts and spices on the 31

acceptability attributes of dried meat

xi
Acronyms

°C degree Celsius
% Percentage
Kg kilogram
mg milligram
g gram
Kcal Kilogram Calorie
Fig Figure
MT Metric tonnes
FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Database
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
WHO World Health Organization
RDI Recommended Dietary Intake
CAFODAT College of Applied Food and Dairy Technology
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemist
LSD Least Significance Difference
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
AAS Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
CFU Colony Forming Unit
aw Water Activity
NaCl Sodium chloride
KCl Potassium Chloride
CaCl2 Calcium Chloride
MgCl2 Magnesium Chloride
XLDA Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate
Na Sodium
K Potassium
PDA Potato Dextrose Agar
TPCA Total Plate Count A

xii
Part I
Introduction

1.1 General Introduction

The rapidly growing world population will be consuming two-thirds more animal protein
by 2050 than it does today. Numerous studies have shown that an increase in consumer
income in fast-growing BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) countries,
which account for more than 50% of global population, tends to induce important changes
in the amount and composition of food consumption. The livestock sector can positively
contribute towards augmenting rural livelihood, poverty alleviation and food security.
However, developing and fostering livestock systems that require low to moderate amounts
of economical and external inputs and will significantly enhance production potential are
key features of sustainable development. Sustainable livestock development, including
diversifying livestock production, is a pragmatic approach to address both hunger and food
security. Of all domestic animals, Asian buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) holds the greatest
promise and potential for meat production. The performance of this species exceeds that of
other bovine species in tropical or sub-tropical regions, where pastures are poor in terms of
their quality. These differences have been attributed mainly to the capacity of buffaloes to
transform and digest feeds of low quality (Ranjan, 1992). Buffaloes have also been
reported for their diet flexibility, high disease resistance, and acceptability to a wide range
of housing, feeding and management conditions (Wanapat and Kang, 2013).

The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 2000) has termed buffalo as an
important asset that is ―undervalued.‖ Meat produced from buffaloes has gained increased
popularity in several southeastern and middle-eastern Asian countries and Africa because
of its reduced fat, reduced cholesterol and other healthier attributes. In terms of buffalo
production and population, India is the most important place in the world. With more than
50% of the buffaloes in the world, India has become the largest bovine meat exporter.
Buffalo meat does not possess any religious taboo against its consumption, is emerging as
important red meat source and is gaining popularity in many parts of the world.
Considering the similarity of buffalo meat with cattle meat (beef) for several quality
attributes and the increasing acceptability of buffalo meat, there are huge opportunities for

1
development of the buffalo meat sector. Increasing global requirements and the ever-
changing consumer demand for sustainable, economically viable, high quality, and
healthier meat and meat products warrants the livestock sector to look for an alternative
meat animal/poultry source to feed the burgeoning population. Therefore, keeping in mind
the changing face of the global scenario, the present review was written to provide
comprehensive information about buffalo slaughtering, meat quality, composition,
nutritional aspects, and value addition relative to other established meat sources, especially
beef.

The world buffalo population is estimated to be 198.88 million, spreading across 42

countries, of which 96.4% are distributed in Asia, 2.9% in Africa, and the rest in Europe
and Latin America (FAOSTAT, 2012). Population growth of buffaloes is dynamic,
increasing at 12.5% for past 10 years, with most of the growth in Asia, especially in India,
which is the largest buffalo producing country in the world with more than 50% of the
buffaloes in the world. In the year 2012–2013, India produced 1.53 million tonnes (MT) of
buffalo meat of which 1.1 MT were exported to more than 48 countries around the world
(APEDA, 2014). India overtook Brazil as the top bovine meat exporter (boneless frozen
meat) in the world, and Indian buffalo meat exports are expected to increase by 20% to 1.7
MT because of competitive pricing and quality. A small proportion of buffalo meat is
domestically consumed in India as hot-boned boneless meat without chilling or any further
processing. China (including mainland China) produces 0.62 MT of buffalo meat, most of
which is sold as fresh meat and only small proportion of which is processed into dried
meat, sausages, and ham. The Chinese government has attached great importance and
increased input to the exploitation of the buffalo industry in recent years. In the
Philippines, a massive Carabao Development Program was started in 1993 to improve
native swamp buffalo locally known as carabao to develop their meat, milk, and draught
potential. In Thailand, the swamp buffalo population has gradually decreased from 4.8
million in 1992 to 1.54 million in 2012. In Italy, because of the huge demand for buffalo
mozzarella cheese, the buffalo population has increased from 0.19 million to 0.34 million
in 2012 (Wanapat and Kang, 2013).

2
Table 1.1 Buffalo population and buffalo meat population in India and the world
in the year 2012 (top 5 countries)

Buffalo Percent of Ranking Buffalo Percent of Ranking in the

populatio world meat world world
in the
n buffaloes buffalo meat
world Production

Millions % million %
tonnes

World 198.88 — — 3.59 — —

India 115.40 58.02 1 1.53 42.61 1

China 46.50 23.38 2 0.62 17.26 3

(including
mainland
China)

Pakistan 32.70 16.44 3 0.80 22.28 2

Nepal 5.10 2.56 4 0.16 4.45 5

Egypt 3.90 1.96 5 0.40 11.14 4

1
Source: FAOSTAT (2013).

Sukuti is an indigenous dried meat product of Nepal. The term sukuti must have been
derived from the process of drying. It is generally prepared from buffalo lean meat. In the
traditional method, lean meat is cut into strips and hung over the fireplace in kitchen, and
subjected to heat and smoke of the burning woods till the strips become adequately dry and
hard. It can also be prepared by air drying or sun drying but drying and smoking over
fireplace imparts more characteristics, pleasant taste and texture than the sun-dried or air
dried counterpart. Most of the sukuti available in the local market are air-dried, sun-dried
or smoke-dried, which should be cooked prior to consumption. Steamed-and-dried sukuti is
also available in the market that need not be cooked before consumption. However, it is not

3
very common in the market. There are several styles of eating sukuti but one of the more
general style is by roasting it in burning coal.

1.2 Buff meat composition

Buffalo meat is known to be a part of the human diet with a favorable effect on vitality and
incidence of diseases as demonstrated by some comparative trials between buffaloes and
cattle or other species (de Mendozaet al., 2005). Composition, physicochemical, nutritional
and functional properties, and sensory attributes of buffalo meat are comparable with beef
(Anjaneyulu et al., 2007). Moisture percentage of 74.04 to77.75% has been reported for
fresh buffalo meat (An-janeyulu et al., 1985 ;). Buffalo meat showed a protein percentage
of 17.33 to 23.3% (Syed Ziauddin et al., 1994 ;). Among all of the red meats, buffalo meat
has been reported to have the lowest concentration of total lipids (1.37 g/100 g). Buffalo
meat from2-year-old male calves showed a fat percentage of 1.0 to3.5 (Rao and Kowale,
1991). The relatively low fat content in buffalo meat is attributed to poor marbling. Buffalo
meat has less fat and saturated fat than beef. The energy value for buffalo meat was found
to be 57.22% less than beef. Low cholesterol content and energy value (6.8 Kcal/g dry
matter) of buffalo meat was also reported by Anjaneyulu et al. (1985).

1.3 Value-Added Buffalo Meat Products

Buffalo meat has been used in the production of various value-added meat products
namely sausages; meat loaves, burger patties, corned buffalo meat, and cured and smoked
products (Anjaneyulu et al., 2007). Emulsion-type buffalo meat sausages with good
acceptability were developed using a combination of 80% meat components with 20%
pork back fat. Low-sodium, calcium-fortified restructured buffalo meat rolls were
developed by replacing sodium tripolyphosphate with calcium phosphate, which improves
tenderness and binding without affecting proximate composition and microbial quality
(Mendiratta et al., 2002). Effect of different binders on the quality of enrobed buffalo meat
cutlets and their shelf life at refrigeration storage (4 ± 1°C) has been studied. The study on
dry fermented buffalo meat sausage with sage oil extracts revealed production of biogenic
amines similar to other dry fermented sausages. Low-fat comminuted buffalo meat burger
containing different legume flours as binders with acceptable quality have been developed.
Quality and shelf life of buffalo meat emulsion and restructured buffalo meat nuggets was

4
acceptable for at least 20 days at 4 ± 1°C under aerobic conditions in polypropylene bags
(Thomas et al., 2006). The investigation to explore the possibilities of commercial
utilization of buffalo liver in comminuted meat products indicated that buffalo liver could
be commercially utilized for the preparation of acceptable comminuted meat products.
Market research and consumer panels have suggested that corned beef produced from
buffalo meat and cows is indistinguishable in terms of its sensory attributes. Corned beef
made from buffalo meat also proved better in appearance due to the white color of the fat
in buffaloes. Combination of hydrocolloid fat substitutes, 0.1% sodium alginate, and
0.75% carrageenan significantly increased the sensory attributes of low-fat ground buffalo
meat patties (Suman and Sharma, 2003). Smoked buffalo meat chunks with acceptable
color and flavor were produced using 150 ppm of sodium nitrite. Shelf-stable and extruded
buffalo meat products were also produced by different researchers.

1.4 Curing Salts

Salt (NaCl) is generally added to foodstuffs to improve taste and as a preserving agent.
Indeed, historically, salt was among the very few effective preserving methods known.
With the advent of refrigeration, better processing, packaging, transport and storage, there
is less need for high salt levels to maintain product integrity. Furthermore, consumers want
products with reduced sodium levels (e.g. due to its relationship with hypertension), but
where salt has been added as a preservation hurdle, removal or reduction of the salt will
reduce shelf-life and could affect safety in more microbiologically fragile products. Salt, an
essential nutrient was only added to food 5,000 years ago. Now our consumption is 2030
times greater than 5,000 years ago. Salt has been used for food preservation, and for adding
flavor and texture to foods. There is a growing body of evidence of the adverse health
effects of some of the foods that we eat.

Salt has many adverse effects on people‘s health. By the aim of reduction the risk of
both coronary heart disease and both types of stroke, sodium intake in dietary should be
limited wherefore it influences the blood pressure levels in populations (WHO, 2003).
Sodium chloride is the main source of sodium. High sodium intake correlated with
mortality and risk of coronary heart disease, independent of other cardiovascular risk
factors, including blood pressure (Tuomilehto et al., 2001). Many governments are trying
to moderate salt intake by establishing or recommending limitations to salt used in

5
processed foods for the improvement of the health of the population health (Toldrá and
Reig, 2011).

Common approaches, include reducing the amount of salt added during food processing
(Corral et al., 2013) replacement with low-sodium blends (KCl, CaCl2 or MgCl2) (Lilic et
al., 2008) the use of flavor enhancers such as monosodium glutamate Dos slight salt
reduction (Liem et al., 2011), and a change in the form of salt (Kilcast and den Ridder,
2007) have been applied. Alternatively, there are a number of techniques that have or can
be implemented in food manufacturing in the various sectors, especially high-pressure
processing (Rodrigues et al., 2015). It was suggested that high pressure has changed the
interactions between sodium ions and proteins, resulting in the release of Na+ and making
them more accessible to the taste cells (Clariana et al., 2011). Thus, there is evidence that
high pressure can provide a natural increase saltiness, thus being an alternative for salt
reduction. The most important properties of alternative methods are the same as sodium
chloride and eliminate the disadvantages of salt. It is known that textural problems occur in
meat products which have reduced salt (Stringer and Pin, 2005). This situation has an
adverse effect on consumers of dietary products. Thus, to eliminate the quality problems,
which may occur in these products, is an important subject area (Aşkın, 2007). The major
handicap of salt substitution is the cost, because salt is the cheapest food additive. At the
same time, consumer habits make this substitution more difficult. Because of the current
tendency to consume low-salt products, the processing conditions for pastirma need to be
standardized at a lower amount of salt in order to avoid negative implications on the
quality (Uğuz et al., 2011).

The most obvious replacement for salt (NaCl) in food products is potassium chloride
(KCl). Foster et al., (1970) reported that for the growth of Clostridium perfringens, solute
identity had a bearing on the amount of growth for a given aw, with KCl having a
demonstrably greater effect than NaCl. Beuchat (1974), however, reported that at
equivalent aw NaCl and KCl had equivalent effects against Vibrio parahaemolyticus; it
was reported that in fermented meat products, the replacement of NaCl with KCl did not
affect the degree of inhibition and or inactivation, but did alter the taste of the foodstuffs
(Gimeno et al., 1999; Gimeno et al., 2001). More recently, Boziaris, Skandamis,
Anastasiadi, and Nychas (2007) have reported that equal-molar concentrations of NaCl or
KCl exerted similar inhibitory effects against Listeria monocytogenes in terms of lag phase

6
duration, growth or death rate and that NaCl can be replaced by KCl without risking the
microbiological safety, with respect to L. monocytogenes, of the product.

1.5 Problem Statement

The issue of sodium content in common salt and its health implication has been addressed
at national level in many countries. In 1994 in the UK, the Committee on Medical Aspects
on Food and Nutrition in a review of the nutritional aspects of cardiovascular disease made
a recommendation to reduce dietary salt intake from 9g/day to 6g/day. In 2003, in the UK,
the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition appraised the evidence since 1994, to
assess whether the previous recommendations were valid, and found that the evidence was
overwhelming in favor of salt reduction (SACN, 2003). Sodium chloride is the main source
of sodium. High sodium intake correlated with mortality and risk of coronary heart disease,
independent of other cardiovascular risk factors, including blood pressure (Tuomilehto et
al., (2001). Now a day‘s people are suffering from different cardiovascular diseases and
blood pressure. Many people consumed meat where salt is more than recommended daily
intake. The Recommended dietary intake (RDI) of sodium is 2300mg per day. Low sodium
means not more than recommended dietary intake. Low sodium is made by mixture of
sodium and potassium in the meat.

1.6 Objective

The main objective of this present work is to prepare an acceptable quality of dry buff meat
with reduced sodium content. The specific objectives include;

1) To prepare different dry meat samples with different ratio of sodium and
potassium chloride.
2) To analyze the best samples for chemical and microbiological qualities by
different methods and parameters.
3) To select the best sample based on sensory quality.

1.7 Significance of the study

There is a positive correlation between excessive intake of sodium and incidence of

hypertension. As diet is the main source of sodium, awareness among people regarding its
possible role upon health has driven demand for various low sodium foods including meat

7
products. Therefore, preparation of buff dry meat with reduce sodium level can be
prepared. High sodium is harmful to our body which causes hypertension and increases
blood pressure. The buff dry meat can be commercialized widely with reduction of sodium
level. The outcome of this research is expected to provide a healthy eating habits regarding
buff meat.

8
Part II

Literature Review

2.1 Meat

In the broadest sense, meat is the edible postmortem component originating from live
animals. On the other hand, meat is defined as those tissues exclusively originating from an
animal‘s carcass-a proportion amounting to about one-half to three-fourths of the animal‘s
live weight. This carcass proportion of the live animal weight is classically calculated as
dressing percentage and can vary considerably. Some species, such as the turkey, can yield
a carcass weighing about 80% of the live weight, whereas a market lamb‘s yield is closer
to 50%. Animals with small and empty gastrointestinal tracts (such as hogs or poultry
rather than ruminants) that are not pregnant, that are more heavily muscled and fatter, that
do not have long fleeces or dirty hides and that have been slaughtered in a manner that
leaves the skin and feet intact with the carcasses (hogs), will have higher dressing
percentages (Hui et al., 2001).

2.2 Buff meat composition, quality and sensory attributes

Buffalo meat is known to be a part of the human diet with a favorable effect on vitality and
incidence of diseases as demonstrated by some comparative trials between buffaloes and
cattle or other species (de Mendozaet et al., 2005). Composition, physicochemical,
nutritional and functional properties, and sensory attributes of buffalo meat are comparable
with beef (Anjaneyulu et al., 2007). Moisture percentage of 74.04 to77.75% has been
reported for fresh buffalo meat (An-janeyulu et al., 1985). Buffalo meat showed a protein
percentage of 17.33 to 23.3% (Syed Ziauddin et al., 1994 ;). Among all of the red meats,
buffalo meat has been reported to have the lowest concentration of total lipids (1.37 g/100
g). Buffalo meat from2-year-old male calves showed a fat percentage of 1.0 to3.5 (Rao and
Kowale, 1991). The relatively low fat content in buffalo meat is attributed to poor
marbling. Buffalo meat has less fat and saturated fat than beef. The energy value for
buffalo meat was found to be 57.22% less than beef. Low cholesterol content and energy
value (6.8 Kcal/g dry matter) of buffalo meat was also reported by Anjaneyulu et al.
(1985). Palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids were reported to be predominant fatty
acids in the phospholipids of buffalo meat (Rao and Kowale, 1991). Buffalo meat has an

9
advantage of having low fat and cholesterol compared with beef and is rated superior to
beef by a few researchers (Valin et al., 1984; Rao and Kowale, 1991).
Table 2.1 Chemical composition of buffalo meat (Nutrient composition and Meat
quality characteristics)

Nutrient composition (value per 100g raw, lean meat)

Water, g 76.30

Protein, g 20.39

Total lipids, g 1.37

Ash, g 0.98

Energy, kcal 173

Saturated fatty acids, g 0.460

Monounsaturated fatty acids, g 0.420

Polyunsaturated fatty acids, g 0.270

Meat quality characteristics

Ultimate pH 5.56

Water holding capacity, % 15.33

Collagen content, mg/g tissue 0.67

Collagen solubility, % 45.5

(Naveena and Kirant, 2014)

2.2.1 Meat Quality

The major attractive features of buffalo meat are red color, reduced fat and cholesterol with
poor marbling, low connective tissue, desirable texture, high protein, water-holding
capacity, myofibrillar fragmentation index, and emulsifying capacity (Kandeepan et al.,
2013). It is to be noted that buffalo meat is similar in tenderness to beef and has the added

10
advantage of reduced cholesterol content (Paleari et al., 1997). Buffalo meat quality was
often studied in comparison with cattle meat (beef), and lots of similarities were reported
for various meat quality characteristics and sensory attributes between these two meats
(Neath et al., 2007; Tateo et al., 2007. Buffalo meat is stated to have physicochemical,
biochemical, and technological properties comparable to those of beef. Post-mortem
muscle pH ranging from 5.50 to 5.70 has been reported in fresh buffalo meat cubes
(Naveena et al., 2004; Kandeepan et al., 2009) and ground buffalo meat patties (Naveena
et al., 2011b). Myoglobin content of fresh buffalo meat varied from 2.7 to 9.4 mg/g
depending on the type of the muscle and animal age, and meat becomes darker with
increasing age (Valin et al., 1984). Buffalo meat cubes and ground buffalo meat was
reported to have a water-holding capacity ranging from 23.73 to 39.76% (Irurueta et al.,
2008) and 25.3 to 40.20% (Naveena et al., 2011b), respectively. Sarcoplasmic and
myofibrillar protein concentration of 5.12 and 8.2% were recorded in buffalo meat
(Anjaneyulu et al., 1985; Kandeepan et al., 2009). Muscles from young buffaloes of 1 to 2
years showed less collagen content (0.91 to 1.71 g/100 g) compared with old buffaloes of
12 years of age (1.16 to 2.23 g/100 g; Syed Ziauddin et al., 1994). Collagen solubility of
45.5% was observed in spent buffalo meat chunks (Naveena et al., 2011a).

2.2.2 Sensory attributes

The study comparing recent consumers of buffalo meat, consumers who had never
consumed buffalo meat, and long-standing consumers of water buffalo meat demonstrated
that water buffalo meat consumption could be associated with several beneficial effects on
cardiovascular risk profile, including less carotid atherosclerotic burden and susceptibility
to oxidative stress (Giordano et al., 2010). Palatability characteristics of buffalo meat and
beef obtained from identical age groups were found to be either almost similar or the
buffalo meat had better scores on many occasions (Charles, 1982). Buffalo meat
organoleptic characteristics were reported to be similar to beef. It is to be noted that buffalo
meat is similar in tenderness to beef and has the added advantage of reduced cholesterol
content (Paleari et al., 1997). Slaughter age (20 to 34 months) or feeding regimes were
reported not to influence the flavor and tenderness of buffalo meat (Charles, 1982). Lapitan
et al. (2007) reported that water-holding capacity, tenderness, firmness, and marbling score
in buffalo beef were all comparable to the cattle beef.

11
2.4 Preservation of meat

Meat is defined as the flesh of animal used as food. In practice this definition is restricted
to a few dozen of the 3000 mammalian species; but it is often widened to include, as well
as the musculature, organs such as liver and kidney, brains and other edible tissues
(Lawrie, 2006) Because of its composition (wide variety of essential nutrients and high
water content), meat is not only a highly nutritious food, but also is an extremely
perishable product. So in order to have a more or less continuous supply, it is necessary to
keep meat in an edible state (Cassens, 1994a). The origin of methods for preserving foods
in times of plenty for use in times of food scarcity is buried in antiquity. In Asia and the far
north of Europe, freezing and icing of fresh foods for preservation have been practiced
since time immemorial. It is difficult to say which of the early methods of food
preservation was the first to be devised but it was probably drying either in the sun or by
fire; an early observation would have been the good keeping qualities of dry food, e.g.
nuts, cereals and grains (Mahato, 1997).The primary purpose of food preservation is to
prevent food spoilage. Whether food spoilage is mild or extreme; the primary cause is the
action of microorganism – bacteria, molds or yeasts- aided by enzymes. As living
organisms they can survive and develop only under particular environmental conditions;
under unfavorable conditions they die or fail to develop. The underlying principle of all
food preserving methods, then, is the creation of conditions unfavorable to the growth or
survival of spoilage organisms by, for Example, extreme heat or cold, deprivation of water
and sometimes oxygen, excess of saltiness or increased acidity. The methods by which
meat foods may be preserved are drying, curing, cold, heat, chemicals, irradiation, and high
pressure (Gracey et al., 1999b).

2.4.1 Principle of meat preservation by drying and dehydration

In physical terms, drying is the lowering of the water activity a w in meat and meat product.
Water activity is the measure of free unbound water available for microbial growth.
Microorganisms need certain amounts of free water for growth, and their growth is halted
below defined minimum levels of moisture. Minimum levels vary from species to species
of microorganisms. Drying may be done for the single purpose of dehydrating fresh meat
for extension of storage, but it may also be one of various processing steps during the
manufacture of specific meat products (Heinz and Hautzinger, 2007b).The manufacture of

12
fermented meat products such as, raw hams or dry sausages, is an example, where drying is
one processing amongst several others. To have an extended shelf life, fermented products
need to lose moisture during their fermentation, they are dehydrated or ―dried‖ to a certain
extend. Drying and fermentation must go hand in hand to achieve the desired flavor and
shelf life. The drying of such products is mostly done in climates chambers with exact
temperature and humidity parameters. Drying under natural conditions is increasingly rare.
Another example is the drying of meat preparations in ovens with temperatures in the
range of 70-80°C, to become fast-dried products such as beef sticks formed of ground,
salted and flavored meat. Furthermore, for a number of Indigenous meat products,
moderate drying is part of the manufacturing technique with the aim of lowering the water
activity (aw), thus curbing microbial growth (Heinz and Haut zinge, 2007b).

In contrast to simply drying, most preparation of dried foods is more correctly referred
to as dehydration in which there is a least some degree of control over air temperature and
movement, and control of humidity. In fact, some of the dehydration systems are quite
sophisticated. Driers range from simple boxes to continuous systems. Other systems, such
as spray drying, have special applications for certain food forms. Dehydration of meat
often involves a cooking step before the drying. In this case the beginning moisture content
is about 50% and is lowered during the process to about 4%. This is contrasted to a
moisture content of 25 to 50% in typical dry and semi-dry meat products (Cassens, 1994b).
From a bacteriological standpoint, dehydration is a method of reducing the water activity
to a level that prevents microbial growth. There are different degrees of dehydration as
applied to meat products, ranging from ordinary smoke house treatment, through semi-dry
and dry sausage and dried beef, up to relatively complete lyophilization.

The milder forms of drying progressively restrict the types of microorganisms that may
grow and cause spoilage, and they are most effective when combined with other methods
of preservation such as salting and refrigeration (Price and Schweigert, 1971).

2.4.2 Technology of dried meat

The products of traditional meat dehydration may be of low or intermediate aw depending

on the intensity of water removal or binding which also controls product quality and
stability. Product packaging is generally unreliable and practiced more for convenient
handling than as a preservative measure. Product storage, similarly involves no

13
preservative measure such as environmental control or treatment with chemical
preservatives. The standard of hygiene at all levels of production, handling and storage is
abhorrently poor (Mann and Obanu, 1967).

2.4.2.1 Hot-air drying of meat

Cooked ground meat can be dehydrated satisfactorily in a hot-air dryer. Factors such as
particle size, temperature, and velocity of the air flow must be carefully controlled.
However, when properly prepared, initially the product has a high degree of acceptability.
Pork fat has a tendency to turn rancid after hot-air drying, but this may be retarded by the
addition of an antioxidant during cooking and by packaging the dried product to prevent
exposure to oxygen. A suitable diet for the pig before slaughter providing high level
nutrition and stable fat has been shown to be effective in reducing or preventing rancidity
development during drying. Hot-air drying is not suitable for uncooked meat or for cooked
chops and steaks. For products as large as chops and steaks it is too slow, causes surface
hardening and gives product with poor rehydration and acceptability (Price and
Schweigert, 1971).

2.4.2.2 Smoke drying of meat

Smoking of cured pork improves its keeping properties further, as well as imparting an
appetizing color and flavor. Traditionally, smoking was carried out over several days in a
brick oven with smouldering oak, hickory or hardwood sawdust and hot ash piled on the
floor. It is now more common to use an insulated steel cabinet enclosing a heat-exchanger
system. The cuts to be smoked are hung on racks and placed in the cabinet and the
temperature raised to approximately 32°C for 30 minutes. Smoke, produced by a smoke
generator consisting of a hopper which automatically feeds dry hardwood sawdust on to a
cast iron hotplate, is drawn into the cabinet for 1-2 hours. It is important to ensure that the
temperature does not rise above 37°C or the fat may melt. The chief bacteriostatic and
bactericidal substance in wood smoke is formaldehyde. The combination of heat and
smoke usually causes a significant reduction in the surface bacterial population. In
addition, a physical barrier is provided by superficial dehydration, coagulation of protein
and the absorption of resinous substances (Gracey et al., 1999a). The disadvantage of this
method is that intensive smoking has a negative influence on the quality, especially in the

14
case of prolonged storage in which concentrated smoke compounds develop increasingly
unpleasant tarry flavors (FAO, 1990).

2.4.2.3 Sun drying

The basic traditional drying method is called sun drying, characterized by direct solar
radiation and natural air circulation on the product. Meat pieces are cut into strips or flat
leaf-shaped pieces as described above. They are then suspended in the open air or spread
on drying trays made of fiber or wire mesh with a wooden or metallic frame. For sun
drying, in particular for the suspension method, the meat is sometimes dipped in salt
solution (approx. 14% common salt). This helps to limit microbial growth on the meat
surfaces and protects to some extend against insects (Heinz and Hautzinger, 2007a).

The sun drying method is known to have certain disadvantages, such as exposure to
contamination from sources such as dirt, wind, rain, insects, rodents and birds. Quality
deficiencies, such as changes in color, off-flavors, foreign contaminating substances such
as dirt and sand and even high surface microbial contamination may occur. Heavy
microbial contamination can affect the meat after rehydration, when sufficient moisture for
renewed bacterial growth is available, as this will lead to product deterioration and even
possible food poisoning. The sun drying method can be done at the domestic or farm level
for quick and uncomplicated preservation for example of surplus meat which cannot be
consumed immediately or stored properly. Possible contamination can be limited at the
small-scale level, as these operations are easy to manage and supervise. For relatively
small pieces of meat the drying process can be completed in the course of one day by
starting in the morning. If the drying cannot be finished in the lapse of 8-10 hours, which is
usually the case with meat pieces of a thickness >1 cm, the meat should be stored overnight
in a safe and dry place and exposed the following morning again to the sun (Heinz and
Hautzinger, 2007a).

2.4.2.4 Solar drying

In contrast to sun drying, where the meat is exposed directly to the sun, the solar drying
method uses indirect solar radiation. The principle of the solar drying technique is to
collect solar energy by heating-up the air volume in solar collectors and conduct the hot air
from the collector to an attached enclosure, the meat drying chamber. Here the products to

15
be dried are laid out. In this closed system, consisting of a solar collector and a meat drying
chamber, without direct exposure of the meat to the environment, meat drying is more
hygienic as there is no secondary contamination of the products through rain, dust, insects,
rodents or birds. The products are dried by hot air only. There is no direct impact of solar
radiation (sunshine) on the product. The solar energy produces hot air in the solar
collectors. Increasing the temperature in a given volume of air decreases the relative air
humidity and increases the water absorption capacity of the air. A steady stream of hot air
into the drying chamber circulating through and over the meat pieces results in continuous
and efficient dehydration (Anonymous, 2006).

2.5 Types of dried meat products

There are several types of Chinese traditional dried meat products such as Rou Gan, La
Chang, Ban Ya, La Rou, Ho Tui, etc. which are shelf stable intermediate moisture meat
products (aw 0.60-0.90) and some are in the low moisture range (aw ˂ 0.69). Chinese dried
meats are easy to prepare and can be processed and stored without refrigeration. Some
meat products such as Rou Gan are spiced and dried at 50-60oC until they reach
approximately 50% of their original weight. Finally it is dried at room temperature to aw
0.69 (Seow et al., 1988). Odka was originated from Somalia and other East African
countries. Odka is basically a sun-dried meat product made of lean beef. The production of
Odka is similar to the simple drying technique. Qwanta was from Ethiopia and other East
African countries. Qwanta is manufactured from lean muscles of beef, which are further
sliced into long strips ranging from 20 to 40 cm and are hung over wire in the kitchen to
dry for 24 to 36 hours. Kilishi is a typical Nigerian meat product. It is produced from sliced
lean muscles of beef, goat or lamb. It is produced by sun-drying the thin slices of meat.
However, recent experience indicates that Kilishi can also be produced industrially using
tray drying in a warm air oven (Halwai, 2004).Biltong is a product of Southern African
countries. It is well-known salted, dried meat prepared from beef or antelope meat. The
finest Biltong with the best flavor is made from the sirloin strip and the tenderers is derived
from the fillet. The Biltong is ready when the inside of the muscle is soft, moist and red in
color, with a hard brown outer layer. Pastrima was originated from Turkey, Egypt and
Armenia. Pastrima is salted and dried beef from not too young animals. The meat is taken
from the hindquarters and is cut into 50-60 cm long strips with a diameter of not more than
5cm. The strips are rubbed and covered with salt and nitrate. The production of Pastrima

16
requires several weeks. Charque is a Brazilian and other South American meat product.
Charque consists of flat pieces of beef preserved by salting and drying (Halwai, 2004).

2.6 Preparation of dried meat (Sukuti) in Nepal

Dried meat products have a history of more than a thousand years in China. During the
Sung Dynasty already 200 types of dried meat products, based on red meat, poultry and
fish were known. In Nepal, there is lack of such meat and fish products documented
record. Different types of Sukuti are smoked dried Sukuti, sun dried Sukuti, solar dried
Sukuti, oven dried Sukuti.

2.6.1 Process of making Sukuti

2.6.1.1 Slaughtering of buffalo

Local butchers slaughter the buffaloes in open ground by traditional method. In general the
buffaloes are stunned by direct blow in the skull using a pole axe, then bleeded with
sticking the major arteries of the neck immediately. Jhatka (deheading with heavy knife)
method is rarely used. The most objectionable thing is that there is lack of slaughter
hygiene and no provision of modern slaughtering. So meat often becomes contaminated
with dust, mud, etc., leading to entry of different types of spoilage and pathogenic
microorganisms in the meat. The buffaloes themselves may be suffering from various
zoonotic diseases, which are very dangerous for human health (Paudel, 2016).

2.6.1.2 Cutting and trimming

In general, hind quarter portion is taken for the preparation of Sukuti. However, forequarter
and sirloin parts can also be used. Bones, fat and other undesirable portions are removed
(Paudel, 2016).

2.6.1.3 Strip preparation

There is no any fixed standard dimension for meat strips. In general, they are stripped in
the dimensions of approximately (250 × 20 × 20 mm) (Paudel, 2016).

17
2.7 Drying process and storage

Traditionally these meat strips were hung over a fireplace of the kitchen where the strips
dried due to the mild heat and smoke produced during cooking the meal. Sometimes air-
and sun drying may be used. A typical sun-dried product requires a drying time of 3-10
days. In the rural areas, some people still used perungo (a bag prepared by weaving
bamboo strips) as a packaging material. Perungo (along with the product) is often hung in
the andiron for storage.

2.8 Quality problems of dried meat

The quality and stability of traditional dried meats, as for other dried foods, depends on the
extent of aw depression and water removal which vary with the degree of roasting,
smoking, sun-drying, salting and fermentation during processing (Labuza, 1971).

2.9 Microbial activity

A decrease in water activity increases the osmotic stress to microbial cells because the cell
always tries to maintain a slightly lower internal osmolality (i.e., water activity).This
causes an influx of water into the cell to maintain surface integrity. It is the disruption of
this process by solutes that leads to cell damage and death (Halwai, 2004).The minimal
water activity is the limit below which microorganisms or group of microorganisms can no
longer reproduce. There is a critical water activity below which no microorganisms can
grow. For most of the foods this is in the 0.60-0.70 water activity range. Pathogenic
bacteria cannot grow below water activity of 0.85-0.86, whereas yeast and molds are more
tolerant of a reduced aw of 0.80, but usually no growth occurs below aw of about 0.60. The
critical limits of water activity may also be shifted to higher or lower levels by other
factors, such as pH, salt, antimicrobial agents, heat treatment, and temperature to some
extent (Rahman, 1999). During storage special care has to be taken to prevent dried meat
from becoming wet, resulting in rapid growth of bacteria and molds (FAO, 1990).

18
Part III
Materials and Methods

3.1 Raw material collection

3.1.1 Materials collection

 Boneless Buff meat was collected from local slaughter house of teku and kept
chilled at 4oC
 Spices were collected from local market from Ason Kathmandu
 Salts (NaCl and KCl). NaCl used was commercial salt and KCl used was lab salt

3.2 Methods

The method of buff dry meat is shown below:

Deboned buff meat

Removal of fat and connective tissues

Cutting into strips (Thickness 2cm x 5cm)

Curing (Different concentration of salts and spices)

Chilling (at 4oC for 24hrs)

Solar drying (for 2days at 45-50oC)

Dry meat

Packaging (LDPE of 50micron)

Fig 3.1 Flow diagram of buff dry meat

19
3.2.1 Preparation of meat

Fresh buffalo meat (5 kg) was washed with water and trimming was done on a clean table
with the help of clean and sharp knife and clean chopping board. During trimming,
connective and fatty tissue were separated from the meat. The washed and trimmed meat
was sliced with a sharp knife so as to get meat strips of thickness about 2cm × 5cm. Length
of the meat strip was approx. 10-15 cm. After slicing, the strips were mixed well with
different spices and different concentration of salts.

3.2.3 Formulation of salts

Table 3.1 Preparation of salt in different ratio

NaCl (%) KCl (%)

100 0

50 50

75 25

25 75

20
Table 3.2 Seasoning Formulations:

Spices Weight

White pepper 2g/kg

Black Pepper 1g/kg

Chili Powder 2g/kg

Cumin 1g/kg

Coriander 1g/kg

Cardamom 1g/kg

Cinnamon 0.4g/kg

Salt 12g/kg

Sodium Nitrite 0.2g/kg

Monosodium Glutamate 0.6g/kg

3.2.5 Preparation of buff dry meat using salts (NaCl and KCl) with different spice

The meat strips was collected 4kg removing fat and tissues. Strips were mixed with curing
salts along with different spices. Spices are mixed in equal amount (Table 3.3) in all
samples with different percentage of salts. The different percentage of salts and spices are
tabulated as below:

21
Table 3.3 Sample A (100%NaCl)

Salts and Spices Percentage (%)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 56.6

White pepper 9.43

Black pepper 4.7

Chili powder 9.43

Cardamom 4.7

Cinnamon 1.89

Coriander 4.7

Cumin 4.7

Sodium nitrite 0.94

Monosodium glutamate 2.83

Table 3.4 Sample B (50%NaCl & 50%KCl)

Salts Percentage (%)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 28.3

Potassium chloride (KCl) 28.3

Table 3.5 Sample C (75%NaCl & 25%KCl)

Salts Percentage (%)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 42.45

Potassium chloride (KCl) 14.15

22
Table 3.6 Sample D (25%NaCl & 75%KCl)

Salts Percentage (%)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 14.15

Potassium chloride (KCl) 42.45

After curing with salt and spices meat strips kept in utensils were covered with
aluminum foil and kept in refrigerator for 24 hours and meat strips was dried in solar dryer
for 2 days. The dried meat was packaged in Low density polypropylene and kept for
sensory evaluation.

3.3 Analytical procedures

3.3.1 Physical and Chemical parameters

Fresh buffalo meat was taken from local market. The following parameters of raw meat
were analyzed i.e., moisture content, protein content, fat content, ash content and water
holding capacity. The raw meat was mixed with different percentage of salt and spices as
mentioned above. Further process was done for preparation of dry meat. Four samples
were made, out of which one sample (i.e., 50%NaCl and 50%KCl) was obtained as best
sample by sensory evaluation and compared with control sample (i.e., 100%NaCl). The
following chemical parameter of dried meat was determined.

3.3.1.1 Determination of moisture content

The moisture content of raw meat and dried meat was determined by hot air oven method
as described by AOAC, (2005).

3.3.1.2 Determination of Crude fat

Crude fat of raw and dried meat was determined by Soxhlet method as per AOAC (2005).

3.3.1.3 Determination of Crude protein

Crude protein of raw and dried meat was determined by Micro-Kjeldhal method described
by AOAC (2005).

23
3.3.1.4 Determination of Total Ash content

Total ash of raw and dried meat was determined by muffle furnace method as per AOAC
(2005).

3.3.1.5 Estimation of Carbohydrate

By difference Methods as per Ranganna (2007). Carbohydrate was calculated from

difference method and total energy content was calculated by multiplying protein, fat and
carbohydrate with their respective physiological value.

3.3.1.6 Estimation of sodium content

Sodium content of meat was determined by AAS method as per AOAC (2005). The
sodium content was analyzed in soil test lab.

3.3.1.7 Estimation of potassium content

Potassium content of meat was determined by AAS method as per AOAC (2005). The
potassium content was analyzed in soil test lab.

3.4 Microbial analysis

3.4.1 Total plate count

Total plate count was done by Total Plate Count Agar (TPCA) media (Rangana, 2007).

3.4.2 Mold count

The media used was potato dextrose agar. PDA was prepared by weighing 9.75g of the
agar in 500ml conical flask and dissolving it with 250 ml distilled water. The conical flask
was plugged with cotton wool wrapped with aluminum foil and the mixture was warmed
on a heating mantle to homogenize. Then the medium in the flask was sterilized in an
autoclave at 2 C for minute. The isolation of the microorganisms was done by using
the pour plate method. Then the media was incubated for 48 hours at 37ºC (Rangana
2007).

24
3.4.3 Salmonella

Salmonella analysis carried out by using xylose lysine Deoxycholate agar (XLDA)
(Rangana, 2007).

3.4.4 Coliform

Coli form analysis was carried out by using Mac Conkey agar (Rangana, 2007).

3.5 Sensory Evaluation

The prepared Sukuti samples were cut into pieces of equal length about 2cm and were
evaluated in terms of appearance, taste and flavor, texture, after taste and overall
acceptability on nine- point hedonic scale as per Ranganna (2007). The panelist were given
instruction to give ‗9‘ points to extremely liked one and ‗ ‘ points to the extremely disliked
sample. The coded samples were randomly presented to 12 panelists.

3.6 Statistical analysis

The data obtained from the laboratory analysis were analyzed by one way ANOVA at 5%
level of significance and independent sample T test using SPSS 16 (2007). All sample
parameters were analyzed in triplicate. All the physico-chemical analysis were analyzed in
college CAFODAT laboratory and sodium and potassium content was analyzed in soil test
lab.

25
Part IV
Results and discussion

The different formulations of salt and spices were carried out. Raw meat was mixed with
different formulation of salts (i.e. 100%NaCl, 50%NaCl and 50%KCl, 75%NaCl and
25%KCl and 75%KCl and 25%NaCl) and spices. The meat mixed with salt and spices
were left 24hrs in refrigerator and dried in solar drying for 2 days. The best products
obtained through sensory evaluation were subjected to physico-chemical analysis.

4.1 Chemical composition of the fresh meat

Fresh buff meat was brought from local market of Kathmandu. Before preparing dried
meat, analysis of fresh meat was carried. The chemical composition of meat is shown in
table
Table 4.1 Chemical composition of fresh meat

Components Value (%)

Moisture 77.33±0.85

Total ash 1.01±0.02

Crude Fat 3.23±0.18

Crude Protein 20.30±0.46

* Values are the means of triplicate ± standard deviations. All the parameters are in wet
basis.

4.1.1 Moisture content

The moisture content of raw buff meat was found to be 77.33±0.85 which was quite similar
comparison to (Naveena and Kirant, 2014) i.e. 76.30%.

4.1.2 Crude Protein

The protein content of raw meat was found to be 20.30±0.46 which is quite similar
comparison to (Naveena and Kirant, 2014) i.e. 20.39%.

26
4.1.3 Total ash

The total ash content of raw meat was found to be 1.01±0.03 which is quite similar
comparison to (Naveena and Kirant, 2014) i.e. 0.98%.

4.1.4 Crude Fat

The crude fat of raw meat was found to be 3.22±0.18 which is higher comparison to
(Naveena and Kirant, 2014) i.e. 1.37%. Crude fat was high because of aged buffalo meat
(Lawrie, 1998).

The values so obtained for moisture content, protein, fat and ash content were similar
to the result obtained by (Naveena and Kirant, 2014) which were 77.33±0.85%,
20.30±0.46%, 3.22±0.18%, % 1.01±0.03 respectively. A large number of factors affect
carcass traits and meat quality. These include: the animal itself, including breed or breed
crosses, age, frame size, sex, age, and weight at slaughter, diet, management (production
system, exercise, weather etc.), stress, preslaughter condition and slaughtering (Uriarte et
al., 2006).

4.2 Sensory analysis of dried meat samples

Sensory evaluation was done according to Hedonic Rating Test for each product
(Ranganna 2007). Sensory evaluation was based on five sensory parameters viz., taste and
flavour, appearance, texture, aftertaste and overall acceptance of the product. Control
sample and best sample was compared. The average sensory scores are shown in figure.

27
4.2.1 Taste and flavor

Fig 4.1 Effect of different concentration of salts and spices on the taste and flavor
attribute of dried meat

In case of taste and flavor attribute, the mean sensory score for sample A, sample B,
sample C, and sample D were found as 7.83±0.39, 7.67±0.49, 6.92±0.29, and 5.25±0.45
respectively. Sample A has the highest mean score whereas D has lowest. From one way
ANOVA, sample A and sample B was found to be not significantly different (P>0.05),
which means there is no significant difference in taste and flavor of the samples. The taste
is slightly bitter in best sample than control sample.

28
4.2.2 Appearance

Fig 4.2 Effect of different concentration of salts and spice on the appearance attribute
of dried meat.

In case of appearance attribute, the mean sensory score for sample A, sample B, sample C,
and sample D were 7.33±0.49, 8.33±0.49, 6.50±0.52, and 5.83±0.58, respectively. Sample
sample B has the highest mean score whereas D has lowest. From one way ANOVA,
sample A and sample B was found to be P<0.05, which means there is significant
difference in appearance of the samples. This showed that sample B was found to be
superior in appearance.

4.2.3 Texture

In case of texture attribute, the mean sensory score for sample A, sample B, sample C, and
sample D were 7.42±0.51, 8.33±0.49, 6.67±0.49, and 5.50±0.52 respectively. Sample B
has the highest mean score whereas D has lowest. From one way ANOVA, sample A and
sample B was found to be P<0.05, which means there is significant difference in texture of
the samples. This showed that sample B was found to be superior in texture.

29
Fig 4.3 Effect of different concentration of salts and spices on the texture attribute of
dried meat.

4.2.4 After taste (mouth feel of chewing meat after 2mins.)

Fig 4.4 Effect of different concentration of salts and spices on the after taste
attributes of dried meat.

In case of after taste attribute, the mean sensory score for sample A, sample B, sample C,
and sample D were 7.50±0.52, 7.16±0.17, 6.25±0.45, and 5.17±0.39 respectively. Sample
A has the highest mean score whereas D has lowest. From one way ANOVA, sample A
and sample B was found to be P>0.05, which means there is no significant difference in

30
aftertaste attribute of the samples. There was slightly bitter after taste in best sample than
control sample. However no statistical significant different was found.

4.2.5 Overall acceptability

Fig 4.5 Effect of different concentration of salts and spices on the acceptability
attributes of dried meat.

In case of overall acceptability, the mean sensory score for sample A, sample B, sample C,
and sample D were 7.83±0.39, 8.25±0.45, 6.25±045, and 5.00±0.00 respectively. Sample B
has the highest mean score whereas D has lowest. From one way ANOVA, sample A and
sample B was found to be P<0.05, which means there is significant difference in overall
acceptability of the samples. This clearly showed that sample B was found to be superior in
overall acceptability.

4.3 Comparison of chemical composition of final products

4.3.1 Moisture content

The moisture content of dried meat was found to be 16.28±0.34% which was high
compared to (Paudel, 2010) i.e. 12%. This might be due to less drying time.

31
Table 4.3 Chemical composition of dried meat

Components Value (%)

Moisture 16.28±0.34

Total ash 6.61±0.70

Crude Fat 1.50±0.50

Crude Protein 75.27±0.26

Crude fiber 0.34±0.03

Energy 317kcal/100g

Sodium (Control sample) 2.2g/kg

Sodium (Best sample) 1.4g/kg

Potassium (Control sample) 1.2 g/kg

Potassium (Best sample) 1.7g/kg

*Values are the means of triplicate determination. All the parameters are in wet basis.

4.3.2 Crude Protein

The crude protein of dry meat was found to be 75.27±0.26% which is higher compared to
(Paudel, 2016) i.e. 85.76%. Crude protein was less because salt solubilizes the protein.
About 35% of meat protein was salt soluble (Swan et al., 1995).

4.3.3 Crude fiber

Total crude fiber of dry meat was found to be 0.34±0.03% which is high compared to
jomsom dried buffalo meat i.e. 0%

4.3.4 Total energy content

The total energy content of dry meat was found to be 317kcal/100g which was high
compared to jomsom dried buffalo meat i.e. 289kcal/100g.

32
4.3.5 Crude fat

Crude fat of dry meat was found to be 1.50±0.50% which was quite similar compared to
(Paudel, 2016) i.e. 0.13%.

4.3.6 Total ash

Total ash of dry meat was found to be 6.61±0.70 which was high compared to (Paudel,
2016) i.e. 2.11%. The total ash was more because of salts and spices mixed in the meat.

4.3.7 Total sodium content

The total sodium content of dry meat of control sample was found to be 2.2g/kg and best
sample was found to be 1.4g/kg. From analysis, it can be concluded that sodium content
was reduced in best sample.

4.3.8 Total potassium content

The total potassium content of dry meat of control sample was found to be 1.2g/kg and best
sample was found to be 1.7g/kg.

4.4 Microbial Analysis

Table 4.4 Microbial analysis of control and highly preferred sample

Parameter Control sample ( A) Sample(B)

Salmonella Nil Nil

Coliform Nil Nil

Mold Nil Nil

Total plate count 8.09x109 6.48x109

33
4.4.1 Total plate count

During analysis of total plate count, there was presence of colonies of microorganism in
agar media. The total plate counts for control sample was 8.09x109 and best sample was
6.48x109. Sample B was inhibitory than sample A which might be due to presence of
potassium chloride.

4.4.2 Mold counts

During analysis of mold counts, there was no any presence of colonies of mold in agar
media in dried meat of control sample i.e. 100%NaCl and best sample i.e. 50%NaCl and
50%KCl. The observance was carried for 7 days.

4.4.3 Salmonella

During analysis of salmonella, there was no any presence of colonies of salmonella in agar
media in dried meat of control sample i.e. 100%NaCl and best sample i.e. 50%NaCl and
50%KCl. The sample was kept for 24 hours in incubator at 37OC. No presence of colonies
might be due to hygienic meat and different concentration of salts and spices.

4.4.4 Coliform

During analysis of coliform count, there was no any presence of colonies of coliform in
agar media in dried meat of control sample i.e. 100%NaCl and best sample i.e. 50%NaCl
and 50%KCl. The samples was kept for 24 hours in incubator at 30oC.

4.5 Cost calculation

The cost of the product mentioned in Appendix B was based on the cost of raw materials,
other raw ingredients, used during sample overhead cost of total ingredients. The cost
becomes Rs 2645 for overall processing. The cost of dry meat per kg was Rs. 1889.29.

34
Part V

Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Conclusions

The following conclusions were drawn from the research

1. The dry meat which was made with 50%NaCl and 50%KCl reduces the total
sodium content and found to be best sample.
2. The comparative study of control sample with best sample was done. Among
them best sample was superior to control sample because reduction in sodium
chloride to 50% significantly decreased perceived saltiness.
3. Among four samples, sample B (50%NaCl and 50%KCl) was highly preferred
in sensory evaluation. Overall sensory attributes was found best.
4. Cost of per kg dried meat was Rs. 1889.28.
5. During microbial analysis salmonella, coliform, mold were nil and total plate
count was seen which was 8.09x109 in control sample and 6.48x109 in best
sample.

5.2 Recommendations

The following recommendations can be made for further study:

1. The commercial production of reduced sodium salt dried meat with comparable
taste and quality can be made available in the market.
2. Detail study in shelf life of dried product could be done by using different
packaging materials and in different storage conditions.
3. Comparative study on drying of meat with different temperatures in electrical
dryer and solar dryer can be done.

35
Part VI

Summary

The Nepalese analogue of dried meat is known by Sukuti. The term Sukuti is derived from
drying of lean meat, is an indigenous dried meat product of Nepal. In traditional method
meat strips are hung over the fireplace in kitchen and subjected to heat and smoke till the
meat becomes adequately dry. Sukuti is either consumed directly or charbroiled and spiced
as an appetizer or snack or mixed with other ingredients and served as side dish, usually
with tomato sauce. Sukuti is prepared by cutting meat into thin strips and carefully
removing the fat. The strips are then coated with spices such as salt, cumin, pepper, and
chili powder. The strips of meat are then dried out in the sun or hung over fire to dry. After
many days when all the moisture has escaped and the meat has shriveled, it is ready to eat.
Much research works have not been done on Sukuti. The main aim of this research was to
study the preparation of low sodium buff dry meat and quality evaluation. In this present
work, buffalo lean meat from local market of Kathmandu was used for the preparation of
dried meat. The meat was then washed, trimmed, and sliced. The physico-chemical
analysis of raw meat for its moisture, protein, fat and ash content was carried out. The
different formulation of salts and spices were carried out. Four samples were taken i.e.
sample A 100%NaCl, sample B 50%NaCl and 50%KCl, sample C 75%NaCl and 25%KCl,
sample D 25%NaCl and 75%KCl. Raw meat was mixed with different percentage of salt
and spices. After all the process, through sensory analysis the product i.e. sample B
50%NaCl and 50%KCl was found to be best.

The physic-chemical analysis of dried meat was done. Physical and chemical
parameters were analyzed and found to be nearly or equal of sample A and sample B.

Finally comparison between the control sample i.e. 100%NaCl and best sample i.e.
50%NaCl and 50%KCl. LSD showed that the sample treated with 50%NaCl and 50%KCl
and 100%NaCl, both sample was significantly (P>0.05) difference in terms of appearance,
texture and overall acceptability but no significantly difference (P<0.05) in terms of taste
and flavor and after taste. There was slightly bitter taste in best sample. The main aim of
this work was to prepare low sodium dry meat and the percentage of sodium was reduced.

36
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44
Appendix A

Sensory Evaluation Card

Hedonic rating test
Name………………. Date ……………………
Observe the product by testing and check how much you like or dislike each one that is by
your perception of individual parameter. Give your appropriate point that based describe
you‘re feeling about the product and honest expression of your personnel feeling will help
me…..
Give points as follows…………
Attributes points Attributes points
Like extremely 9 Dislike slightly 4
Like very much 8 Dislike moderately 3
Like moderately 7 Dislike very much 2
Like slightly 6 Dislike extremely 1
Neither like nor dislike 5

Attributes Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D

Taste and flavor

Appearance

Texture

After taste

Overall
acceptability

Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………

Signature

45
Appendix B

Calculation of yield Weight (kg)

Weight of fresh meat 5kg
Weight of by-product 1 kg
Weight of final product (yield) 4 kg

Cost calculation of dried meat

Raw Materials Cost (Rs.)

Fresh meat 360/kg

Spices 500

Cost of the product was calculated with considering only the cost of spices and fresh meat
with 15% overhead cost.

Raw Materials Cost of product

Fresh meat 1800

Spices 500

Cost 2300

15% overhead cost 345

Total cost 2645

Total weight 1.4

Final cost per kg 1889.29

46
Appendix C

Table C.1 Descriptive for raw and final product

95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Std. Lower Upper Minimu Maxim
N Mean Deviation Std. Error Bound Bound m um
moisture Raw
3 77.3333 .85049 .49103 75.2206 79.4461 76.50 78.20
product
Final
3 16.2767 .33501 .19342 15.4444 17.1089 15.98 16.64
product
Total 6 46.8050 33.44711 13.65473 11.7044 81.9056 15.98 78.20
protein Raw
3 20..3033 .45611 .26333 19.1703 21.4364 19.83 20.74
product
Final
3 75.2667 .25658 .14814 74.6293 75.9040 75.05 75.55
product
Total 6 47.7850 30.10648 12.29092 16.1902 79.3798 19.83 75.55
crude fat Raw
3 3.2233 .17616 .10171 2.7857 3.6609 3.08 3.42
product
Final
3 1.5000 .05000 .02887 1.3758 1.6242 1.45 1.55
product
Total 6 2.3617 .95099 .38824 1.3637 3.3597 1.45 3.42
Crude Raw
3 .0000 .00000 .00000 .0000 .0000 .00 .00
fiber product
Final
3 .3367 .03786 .02186 .2426 .4307 .31 .38
product
Total 6 .1683 .18595 .07591 -.0268 .3635 .00 .38
Ash Raw
3 1.0067 .02517 .01453 .9442 1.0692 .98 1.03
product
Final
3 6.6133 .07024 .04055 6.4389 6.7878 6.54 6.68
product
Total 6 3.8100 3.07126 1.25384 .5869 7.0331 .98 6.68

47
Table C.2 ANOVA for raw and final product

Sum of
Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

Moisture Between
5591.875 1 5591.875 1.338E4 .000
Groups

Within Groups 1.671 4 .418

Total 5593.546 5

protein Between
4531.452 1 4531.452 3.309E4 .000
Groups

Within Groups .548 4 .137

Total 4532.000 5

crude fat Between

4.455 1 4.455 265.695 .000
Groups

Within Groups .067 4 .017

Total 4.522 5

Crude fiber Between

.170 1 .170 237.233 .000
Groups

Within Groups .003 4 .001

Total .173 5

ash Between
47.152 1 47.152 1.694E4 .000
Groups

Within Groups .011 4 .003

Total 47.163 5

48
Table C.3 Descriptive for Sensory evaluation

Taste and Flavour

N Mean Std. Std. 95% Confidence Minim Maxim

Deviation Error Interval for Mean um um
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Sample
12 7.8333 .38925 .11237 7.5860 8.0807 7.00 8.00
A
Sample
12 7.6667 .49237 .14213 7.3538 7.9795 7.00 8.00
B
Sample
12 6.9167 .28868 .08333 6.7333 7.1001 6.00 7.00
C
Sample
12 5.2500 .45227 .13056 4.9626 5.5374 5.00 6.00
D
Total 48 6.9167 1.10768 .15988 6.5950 7.2383 5.00 8.00

Table C.4 ANOVA for taste and flavour

Sum of Df Mean F Sig.

Squares Square
Between
50.167 3 16.722 98.104 .000
Groups
Within Groups 7.500 44 .170
Total 57.667 47

49
Table C.5 Descriptive for appearance

N Mean Std. Std. 95% Confidence Minim Maxim

Deviation Error Interval for Mean um um
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Sample
12 7.3333 .49237 .14213 7.0205 7.6462 7.00 8.00
A
Sample
12 8.3333 .49237 .14213 8.0205 8.6462 8.00 9.00
B
Sample
12 6.5000 .52223 .15076 6.1682 6.8318 6.00 7.00
C
Sample
12 5.8333 .57735 .16667 5.4665 6.2002 5.00 7.00
D
Total 48 7.0000 1.07188 .15471 6.6888 7.3112 5.00 9.00

Table C.6 ANOVA for appearance

Sum of Df Mean F Sig.

Squares Square
Between
42.000 3 14.000 51.333 .000
Groups
Within Groups 12.000 44 .273
Total 54.000 47

50
Table C.7 Descriptive for Texture

N Mean Std. Std. 95% Confidence Minim Maxim

Deviation Error Interval for Mean um um
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Sample
12 7.4167 .51493 .14865 7.0895 7.7438 7.00 8.00
A
Sample
12 8.3333 .49237 .14213 8.0205 8.6462 8.00 9.00
B
Sample
12 6.6667 .49237 .14213 6.3538 6.9795 6.00 7.00
C
Sample
12 5.5000 .52223 .15076 5.1682 5.8318 5.00 6.00
D
Total 48 6.9792 1.15758 .16708 6.6430 7.3153 5.00 9.00

Table C.8 ANOVA for texture

Sum of Df Mean F Sig.

Squares Square
Between
51.729 3 17.243 67.440 .000
Groups
Within Groups 11.250 44 .256
Total 62.979 47

51
Table C.9 Descriptive for After taste (mouth feel chewing after 2 mins.)

N Mean Std. Std. 95% Confidence Minim Maxim

Deviation Error Interval for Mean um um
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Sample
12 7.5000 .52223 .15076 7.1682 7.8318 7.00 8.00
A
Sample
12 7.1667 .57735 .16667 6.7998 7.5335 6.00 8.00
B
Sample
12 6.2500 .45227 .13056 5.9626 6.5374 6.00 7.00
C
Sample
12 5.1667 .38925 .11237 4.9193 5.4140 5.00 6.00
D
Total 48 6.5208 1.03121 .14884 6.2214 6.8203 5.00 8.00

Table C.10 ANOVA for after taste (mouth feel chewing after 2 mins.)

Sum of Df Mean F Sig.

Squares Square
Between
39.316 3 13.132 54.596 .000
Groups
Within Groups 10.583 44 .241
Total 49.979 47

52
Table C.11 Descriptive for Overall acceptability
N Mean Std. Std. 95% Confidence Minim Maxim
Deviation Error Interval for Mean um um
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Sample
12 7.8333 .38925 .11237 7.5860 8.0807 7.00 8.00
A
Sample
12 8.2500 .45227 .13056 7.9626 8.5374 8.00 9.00
B
Sample
12 6.2500 .45227 .13056 5.9626 6.5374 6.00 7.00
C
Sample
12 5.0000 .00000 .00000 5.0000 5.0000 5.00 5.00
D
Total 48 6.8333 1.35793 .19600 6.4390 7.2276 5.00 9.00

Table C.12 ANOVA for overall acceptability

Sum of Df Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
Between
80.500 3 26.833 191.459 .000
Groups
Within Groups 6.167 44 .140
Total 86.667 47

53
Appendix D

Name of instruments used during analysis:

1. Muffle furnace
2. Hot air oven
3. Incubator
4. Filtration unit
5. Weighing arrangement
6. Solar dryer
7. Cutting equipment
8. Heating arrangement
9. Digestion set
10. Distillation set

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Appendix E

Fig E.1 : Dried meat

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Fig E.2 : Packing of dried meat

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Fig E.3 : Laboratory analysis

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