Lecture 2

Electron Spin

January 24, 2011

Lecture 2
Electron Spin

As we noted last semester, the degeneracy of the

energy eigenstates of the hydrogen atom and their
splitting in the presence of an external magnetic
field cannot be explained by only the spatial
wave function of the electron. More information is
needed to completely describe the state of the electron.

In addition, to a spatial part, the electron state has a

part that transforms under rotations like a j = 1/2
state.
|ψispace ⊗ |ψispin

|ψispace is the spatial part that we are already familiar

with. It is an element of an infinite dimensional
vector space that when contracted with the spatial
coordinates gives the wave function.

ψ(r, θ, φ) = hr, θ, φ |ψispace

On the other hand, |ψispin is something new. It is

an element of a two dimensional vector space and is
represented by a 1 × 2 complex matrix called a spinor.

a
where |a|2 + |b|2 = 1
b spin

Lecture 2 1
Product Vector Space

The state of an electron is then an element of a

product vector space (a space that is the the product
of two vector spaces.)

In this case, one part |ψispace is an element of an

infinite dimensional vector space while |ψispin is an
element of a two dimensional vector space.

These two spaces are independent in the sense that

any operator will operate on the elements of either
one of the spaces or the other.

For example, the orbital angular momentum operator

~ˆ is the generator of rotations of the spatial part but
L
does nothing (is the identity operator) when acting on
the spin part.
~ˆ = L
L ~ˆ space ⊗ Iˆspin

~ˆ is the generator of rotations

Similarly, the operator S
of the spin part but does nothing (is the identity
operator) when acting on the spatial part.

~ˆ = Iˆspace ⊗ Ŝspin
S

Lecture 2 2
Spin Angular Momentum

The generator of rotations of an electron consists of

two parts. One that rotates |ψispace and one that
rotates |ψispin.
ˆ ~ˆ
~ˆ + S
J~ = L

Just as L~ˆ is the orbital angular momentum operator

and hψ|L̂i|ψi is the expectation value of measuring
orbital angular Li, S~ˆ is the spin angular momentum
operator and hψ|Ŝi|ψi is the expectation value of
measuring spin angular momentum Si.

Spin is an intrinsic angular momentum carried by the

electron (and all spin-1/2 objects). It has nothing to
do with motion in space. Even if an electron is at rest
it will have spin angular momentum.

If [Ĥ, L]~ˆ = [Ĥ, S]

~ˆ = 0, then orbital and spin angular
momentum are individually conserved. However, in
general, the hydrogen atom is an example, [Ĥ, L] ~ˆ 6= 0
and [Ĥ, S]~ˆ 6= 0 but [Ĥ, J]
~ˆ = 0. In that case the
orbiltal and spin angular momenta are not individually
conserved but rather J~ the total angular momentum is
conserved.

Lecture 2 3
Fundamental Spin 1/2 Particles

With the exception of the gauge particles:

photon, gluons, W and Z

and the still hypothetical Higgs particle, all of the

fundamental particle have spin-1/2. These include the:

electron, muon, tau, neutrinos and quarks

We will see later, that the existence of fundamental

spin-1/2 particles is a basic consequence of relativistic
quantum mechanics. One of the fundamental
equations of relativistic quantum mechanics, the Dirac
equation, is the equation of motion for spin-1/2
particles.

We’ll also find that the Dirac equation tells us that even
for a free (non-interacting) electron, the orbital and
spin angular momentum are not individually conserved
but only the total angular momentum J~ = L ~ + S.
~

Lecture 2 4
j = 1/2 States

Despite the fact the spatial part of a state is a

superposition of only integral values of j, the j = 1/2
states have an important role to play in physics. They
will be needed to describe the spin part of the electron
wave function. We will describe that shortly, but
first let’s see some general properties of j = 1/2 states.

An interesting feature is that the two-component

j = 1/2 states |1/2, mi change sign under rotation
by 360 degrees. In order to get the same phase back
again, we must rotate by 720 degrees!

Note that in terms of observation this doesn’t matter

since all that we can observe is the norm squared of
the state, hjm|jmi, which doesn’t change sign.

Let’s see why a two-component state must change sign

under a 360 degree rotation.

Lecture 2 5
Rotation of j = 1/2 State by 180o
For j = 1/2, in the |jmi basis the representations of
the generators of rotations are:

h̄ 0 1 h̄ 0 −i h̄ 1 0
Jx = Jy = Jz =
2 1 0 2 i 0 2 0 −1

a
Under rotation by φ about the z-axis the state
b
transforms as:
−iφ/2
a e 0 a
→
b 0 eiφ/2 b

If φ = 2π:

a a a
→− ∝ same state, different phase
b b b
If φ = π:

a −a −a
→i ∝ different state
b b b

Let’s see if there is a contradiction if a two-component

system transforms like:
−iφ
a e 0 a
→
b 0 eiφ b

Lecture 2 6
Rotation of Jˆx Eigenstate

In the |jmi basis, the eigenstates of Jˆx with eigenvalues

+h̄/2 and -h̄/2 are:

1 1 1 1
|+ix = √ |−ix = √
2 1 2 −1
−iφ
a e 0 a
If →
b 0 eiφ b

under a rotation by π:
|+ix → −|+ix

which is still an eigenstate of Jˆxwith eigenvalue +h̄/2.

But, under a 180o rotation about z, the eigenvalue of

Jˆx must change sign.
hψ|Jˆx|ψi → −hψ|Jˆx|ψi

⇒| ↑ix → c| ↓ix

1 1
Therefore, j must be 1/2. → −i
1 −1

Lecture 2 7
In summary, under a 180o rotation, we must get a
different state. In the case of a two-component system,
this requires that the relative sign of the components
changes under the rotation. This in turn requires that
the rotation matrix be

−iπ/2

e 0 1 0
= −i
0 eiπ/2 0 −1

while under a 360o rotation

−iπ

e 0 1 0
= −
0 eiπ 0 1

Under a 180o rotation about z:

|+ix → −i|−ix |−ix → −i|+ix

while under 360o rotation about z:

|+ix → −|+ix |−ix → −|−ix

For j = 1 also, the eigenstate of Jˆx with eigenvalue

+h̄ must transform into a differentent state, i.e., the
eigenstate with eigenvalue −h̄ under rotatation by
180o about z. So, why can we have an integral j for a
three-component system?

Lecture 2 8
j = 1 States

In the case of a j = 1 three-component system, we

have under a 180o rotation about z:
   −iπ    
a e 0 0 a −a
b →  0 1 0  b =  b 
c 0 0 eiπ c −c

and we get a different state (with a change in the

relative sign of the middle component with respect to
the other two) even though j is an integer.
Here we have:
     
1 1 1
1 √  1   1 √ 
|+ix = 2 |0ix = √ 0 |−ix = − 2
2 2 1 2
1 1

Under a 180o rotation about z:

|+ix → −|−ix |0ix → −|0ix |−ix → −|+ix

while under a 360o rotation about z:

|+ix → |+ix |0ix → |0ix |−ix → |−ix

Lecture 2 9
Pauli Spin Matrices

In the case of j = 1/2, it is useful to remove the

factor of h̄/2 from the generator matrices.This gives
the Pauli spin matirces.

0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = σ2 = σ3 =
1 0 i 0 0 −1

These matrices obey several important identities.

1) [Ji, Jj ] = ih̄ijk Jk ⇒ [σi, σj ] = 2iijk σk

2) σiσj = −σj σi for i 6= j

2
3) (n̂ · ~σ ) = I

4) σiσj = δij I + iijk σk

5) {σi, σj } = 2δij I

6) ~ · ~σ B
A ~ · ~σ = A~·B
~ I +i A~×B
~ · ~σ

Lecture 2 10
Complete Set

The three Pauli matrices with the indentity matrix

form a complete set
„ « „ « „ « „ «
1 0 0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ0 = σ1 = σ2 = σ3 =
0 1 1 0 i 0 0 −1

Any 2 × 2 complex matrix can be written as a linear superposition

of these matrices
X3
M = c α σα
α=0

where since Tr(σiσj) = 2δijI

cβ = Tr(Mσβ )/2

Lecture 2 11
Finite Rotation Matrices for j = 1/2

Since the basis states |jmi are eigenstates of Jˆz , it is

straight forward to find the matrix representation of
finite rotations about the z axis.

−iφ/2

ˆ e 0
Û [R(φk̂)] = e−iφJz /h̄ =
0 eiφ/2

What about for a finite rotation about x, y or an

arbitrary direction n̂?

~
Û [R(θn̂)] = e−iθn̂·J/h̄ = e−iθn̂·~σ/2

∞ n ∞ n
X (−iθn̂ · ~σ /2) X iθ 1 n
= = − (n̂ · ~σ )
n=0
n! n=0
2 n!

2n 2n+1
(n̂ · ~σ ) = I (n̂ · ~σ ) = n̂ · ~σ

∞
(iθ/2)2n (iθ/2)2n+1
X
⇒ Û [R(θn̂)] = I − (n̂ · ~σ )
n=0
(2n)! (2n + 1)!

= cos(θ/2)I − i (n̂ · ~σ ) sin(θ/2)

Lecture 2 12
General Rotation of a Two-Component
Spinor

Let’s rotate the state |+iz into the state |+in̂

where n̂ = (sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ, cos θ)

To do this we rotate by the angle θ about the axis in

the direction θ̂ which is the unit vector perpendicular
to k̂ and n̂.

k̂ × n̂ 1
θ̂ = = (− sin θ sin φ, sin θ cos φ, 0)
|k̂ × n̂| sin θ

= (− sin φ, cos φ, 0)

The rotation matrix is then

e−iθ~σ·θ̂/2 = cos(θ/2)I − i(~σ · θ̂) sin(θ/2)

!
cos(θ/2) −(cos φ + i sin φ) sin(θ/2)
=
(cos φ − i sin φ) sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)

iφ
!
cos(θ/2) − sin(θ/2)e
=
sin(θ/2)e−iφ cos(θ/2)

Lecture 2 13
Eigenstate of J~ · n̂

Let’s put this is more symmetric form by rotating by

−φ about z first

iφ iφ/2
! !
cos(θ/2) − sin(θ/2)e e 0
sin(θ/2)e−iφ cos(θ/2) 0 e−iφ/2

iφ/2 iφ/2
!
cos(θ/2)e − sin(θ/2)e
=
sin(θ/2)e−iφ/2 cos(θ/2)e−iφ/2

1
If we now rotate the state |+iz = we get:
0

iφ/2 iφ/2
! !
cos(θ/2)e − sin(θ/2)e 1
|+in̂ =
sin(θ/2)e−iφ/2 cos(θ/2)e−iφ/2 0

 
iφ/2
cos(θ/2)e
 
 
sin(θ/2)e−iφ/2

Let’s check that this is an eigenstate of J~ · n̂ with

eigenvalue +h̄/2.

Lecture 2 14
Eigenstate of J~ · n̂

ˆ
~ h̄ nz nx − iny
J · n̂ =
2 nx + iny −nz

−iφ

h̄ cos θ sin θe
=
2 sin θeiφ − cos θ
!
iφ/2
cos(θ/2)e
For the state:
sin(θ/2)e−iφ/2
ˆ
hJ~ · n̂i =

cos θ2 eiφ/2
! !
−iφ
h̄ “ θ −iφ/2 θ iφ/2
” cos θ sin θe
cos 2 e , sin 2 e =
2 sin θeiφ − cos θ θ
sin e −iφ/2
2

» „ « „ «–
h̄ θ θ θ θ θ θ
cos cos θ cos + sin θ sin + sin sin θ cos − cos θ sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

h̄ θ θ θ θ
= cos θ cos2 − sin2 + 2 sin θ cos sin
2 2 2 2 2

h̄ 2 2

= cos θ + sin θ = 1
2

Lecture 2 15
A Check on Consistency

Under a −π/2 rotation about the x-axis, the

expectation valuer of Ŝy for the rotated system should
equal the expectation value of Ŝz for the non-rotated
system.
hψ 0|Ŝy |ψ 0i = hψ|Ŝz |ψi

Let’s check it.

hψ|Ŝz |ψi = hψ|e−iπσx/4eiπσx/4Ŝz e−iπσx/4eiπσx/4|ψi

= hψ 0|eiπσx/4Ŝz e−iπσx/4|ψ 0i

Now, does

eiπσx/4Ŝz e−iπσx/4 = Ŝy

Lecture 2 16
Generalization of the Anticommutation
Relations

σiσj = −σj σi for i 6= j

⇒ σiσjn = (−1)nσjnσi = (−σj )nσi

Then for any analytic function of σj , i.e. and function

that can be expanded as a power series, we have
σif (σj ) = f (−σj )σi

Using this result we have

iπσx /4 −iπσx /4 h̄ iπσx/4 −iπσx/4

e Ŝz e = e σz e
2

h̄ iπσx/4 iπσx/4 h̄ iπσx/2

= e e σz = e σz
2 2

h̄ π π h̄ h̄
= (cos + iσx sin )σz = iσxσz = σy = Ŝy
2 2 2 2 2

It checks.

Lecture 2 17