9TH EDITION

Calculus and

Analytic

Geometry

George B. Thomas, Jr.

Massachusetts lnstitute of Technology

Ross L. F i n n e y

With the collaboration of

Maurice D . Weir

Naval Postgraduate School

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Copyright © 1996 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, lnc. All rights reserved. No

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4 5 6 7 8 9 10-VH-99 98

ISBN 0-201-40015-4
Contents

To the Instructor viii

To the Student xvii

P r e li m i n a r i e s 1 Real Numbers and the Real Line

2 Coordinates, Lines, and Increments 8

3 Functions 17

4 Shifting Graphs 27

5 Trigonometric Functions 35

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE YOUR REVIEW 47 PRACTICE EXERCISES 48

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 49

Limits and 1.1 Rates of Change and Limits 51

1.2 Rules for Finding Limits 61

Continuity
1.3 Target Values and Formal Definitions of Limits 66

1.4 Extensions of the Limit Concept 78

1.5 Continuity 87

1.6 Tangent Lines 97

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 103 PRACTICE EXERCISES 104

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 105

Derivatives 2.1 The Derivative of a Function 109

2.2 Differentiation Rules 121

2.3 Rates of Change 131

2.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 143

2.5 The Chain Rule 154

2.6 Implicit Differentiation and Rational Exponents 164

2.7 Related Rates of Change 172

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 180 PRACTICE EXERCISES 181

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 185

A p p l ic a t i o n s of 3.1 Extreme Values of Functions 189

3.2 The Mean Value Theorem 196

Derivatives
3.3 The First Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values 205

¡¡¡
iv Contents

3.4 Graphing with y' and y" 209

3.5 Limits as x ➔ ± 00,

Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 220

3.6 Optimization 233

3.7 Linearization and Differentials 248

3.8 Newton's Method 260

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE YOUR REVIEW 268 PRACTICE EXERCISES 269

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 272

lntegration 4.1 Indefinite Integrals 275

4.2 Differential Equations, Initial Value Problems, and Mathematical Modeling 282

4.3 Integration by Substitution-Running the Chain Rule Backward 290

4.4 Estimating with Finite Sums 298

4.5 Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals 309

4.6 Properties, Area, and the Mean Value Theorem 323

4.7 The Fundamental Theorem 332

4.8 Substitution in Definite Integrals 342

4.9 Numerical Integration 346

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE YOUR REVIEW 356 PRACTICE EXERCISES 357

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 360

A p p li c a t i o n s of 5.1 Areas Between Curves 365

5.2 Finding Volumes by Slicing 374

Integra Is
5.3 Volumes of Solids of Revolution-Disks and Washers 379

5.4 Cylindrical Shells 387

5.5 Lengths of Plane Curves 393

5.6 Areas of Surfaces of Revolution 400

5. 7 Moments and Centers of Mass 407

5.8 Work 418

5.9 Fluid Pressures and Forces 427

5.10 The Basic Pattem and Other Modeling Applications 434

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE YOUR REVIEW 444 PRACTICE EXERCISES 444

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 447

Transcendental 6.1 Inverse Functions and Their Derivatives 449

6.2 Natural Logarithms 458

Functions
6.3 The Exponential Function 467

6.4 ax and log,» 474

6.5 Growth and Decay 482

6.6 L'Hopital's Rule 491

6.7 Relative Rates of Growth 498

6.8 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 504

6.9 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions; Integrals 513

6.10 Hyperbolic Functions 520

6.11 First Order Differential Equations 529

6.12 Euler's Numerical Method; Slope Fields 541

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE YOUR REVIEW 547 PRACTICE EXERCISES 548

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 551

T e c h n i q u e s of 7.1 Basic Integration Formulas 555

7.2 Integration by Parts 562

lntegration
Contents v

7 .3 Partial Fractions 569

7 .4 Trigonometric Substitutions 578

7 .5 Integral Tables and CAS 583

7 .6 Improper Integrals 594

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE Y OUR REVIEW 606 PRACTICE EXERCISES 606

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 609

l n fi n i t e Series 8.1 Limits of Sequences of Numbers 6 13

8.2 Theorems for Calculating Limits of Sequences 622

8.3 Infinite Series 630

8.4 The Integral Test for Series of Nonnegative Terms 640

8.5 Comparison Tests for Series of Nonnegative Terms 644

8.6 The Ratio and Root Tests for Series of Nonnegative Terms 649

8.7 Altemating Series, Absolute and Conditional Convergence 655

8.8 Power Series 663

8.9 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 672

8.10 Convergence of Taylor Series; Error Estimates 678

8 . 11 Applications of Power Series 688

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE Y OUR REVIEW 699 PRACTICE EXERCISES 700

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 703

Con ic Sections, 9.1 Conic Sections and Quadratic Equations 709

9.2 Classifying Conic Sections by Eccentricity 723

Parametrized
9.3 Quadratic Equations and Rotations 728
Curves, and Polar
9.4 Parametrizations of Plane Curves 734

Coordinates 9.5 Calculus with Parametrized Curves 744

9.6 Polar Coordinates 75 1

9.7 Graphing in Polar Coordinates 756

9.8 Polar Equations for Conic Sections 764

9.9 lntegration in Polar Coordinates 770

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE YOUR REVIEW 777 PRACTICE EXERCISES 778

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 783

Vectors and 10.1 Vectors in the Plane 787

10.2 Cartesian (Rectangular) Coordinates and Vectors in Space 795

A n a l yt ic Geometry

10.3 Dot Products 806

in Space
10.4 Cross Products 815

10.5 Lines and Planes in Space 822

10.6 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces 829

10.7 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 841

QUESTI9NS TO ÜUIDE YOUR REVIEW 847 PRACTICE EXERCISES 848

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 851

Vector-Valued 11 . 1 Vector-Valued Functions and Space Curves 855

11.2 Modeling Projectile Motion 868

Functions and

11.3 Are Length and the Unit Tangent Vector T 876

Motion in Space
11.4 Curvature, Torsion, and the TNB Frame 881

11.5 Planetary Motion and Satellites 893

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 902 PRACTICE EXERCISES 902

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 905

vi Contents

Multivariable 12.1 Functions of Several Variables 909

12.2 Limits and Continuity 917

Functions and
12.3 Partial Derivatives 924
Partial Derivatives
12.4 Differentiability, Linearization, and Differentials 933

12.5 The Chain Rule 944

12.6 Partial Derivatives with Constrained Variables 952

12.7 Directional Derivatives, Gradient Vectors, and Tangent Planes 957

12.8 Extreme Values and Saddle Points 970

12.9 Lagrange Multipliers 980

12.10 Taylor's Formula 989

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE YOUR REVIEW 993 PRACTICE EXERCISES 994

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 998

M u l t i p l e Integra-Is 13 . 1 Double Integrals 1001

13.2 Areas, Moments, and Centers of Mass 10 1 2

13.3 Double Integrals in Polar Form 1020

13.4 Triple Integrals in Rectangular Coordinates 1026

13.5 Masses and Moments in Three Dimensions 1034

13.6 Triple lntegrals in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 1039

13.7 Substitutions in Multiple Integrals 1048

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE YOUR REVIEW 1055 PRACTICE EXERCISES 1056

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 1058

lntegration i n 14.1 Line Integrals 1061

14.2 Vector Fields, Work, Circulation, and Flux 1067

Vector Fields
14.3 Path Independence, Potential Functions, and Conservative Fields 1076

14.4 Green's Theorem in the Plane 1084

14.5 Surface Area and Surface Integrals 1096

14.6 Parametrized Surfaces 1106

14.7 Stokes' s Theorem 1114

14.8 The Divergence Theorem an d a Unified Theory 1123

QUESTIONS TO ÜUIDE Y OUR REVIEW 1 13 4

PRACTICE EXERCISES 1134 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY,

EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 1 13 7

Appendices A.1 Mathematical lnduction A-1

A.2 Proofs of Limit Theorems in Section 1 . 2 A-4

A.3 Complex Numbers A- 7

A.4 Simpson's One-Third Rule A-17

A.5 Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem and the Stronger Form of l'Hopital's Rule A-18

A.6 Limits That Arise Frequently A-20

A.7 The Distributive Law for Vector Cross Products A-21

A.8 Determinants and Cramer's Rule A-22

A.9 Euler's Theorem and the Increment Theorem A-29

Answers A-35

lndex 1-1

A Brief Table of lntegrals T-1

CAS E x p l o r a t i o n s a n d Projects

{ L i s t e d by c h a p t e r a n d s e c t i o n )

3 2
Preliminaries 8.5 Exploring I.; = 1
(1/(n sin n)), a series whose conver­

P.4 How the graph of y = f(ax) is affected by changing a gence or divergence has not yet been determined

P.5 How the graph of f(x) =A sin ((2rc/B)(x - C)) + D 8.1 O Comparing functions' linear, quadratic, and cubic

responds to changes in A, B, and D approximations

Chapter 1 Li m i ts and Continuity Chapter 9 C o n ic Sections, Parametrized Curves,

1 .1 Comparing graphical estimates of limits with CAS and Polar Coordinates

symbolic limit calculations 9. 5 Exploring the geometry of curves that are defined implic­

1 .3 Exploring the formal definition of limit by finding deltas itly or explicitly by parametric equations. Numerical

for specific epsilons graphically estimates of the lengths of nonelementary paths

1.6 Observing the convergence of secant lines to tangent 9. 8 How the graph of r = kel( 1 + e cos 0) is affected by changes
2)/(
lines in e and k. How the ellipse r = a( 1 - e 1 + e cos 0)

responds to changes in a and e

Chapter 2 Derivatives

2.1 Givenf(x), findf'(x) as a limit. Compare the graphs off Chapter 1 0 Vectors and Analytic Geometry

and f' and plot selected tangents i n Space

2.6 Differentiate implicitly and plot implicit curves together 10.6 Viewing quadric surfaces from different positions

with tangent lines 1 O. 7 Equations of spheres in cylindrical, spherical, and rectan­

gular coordinate systems: Coordinate conversions and

Chapter 3 Applications of Derivatives
surface plots
3.1 Finding absolute extrema by analyzingf andf'

numerically and graphically

Chapter 1 1 Vector-Valued F u n c t i o n s and
3.7 Estimating the error in a linearization by plottingf(x),
Motion i n Space
L(x), and lf (x) - L(x)I
1 1 . 1 Plotting tangents to space curves. Exploring the general

helix
Chapter 4 lntegration
1 1 .4 Finding and plotting circles of curvature in the plane.
4.4 Find the average value off(x) and the point or points
Finding K, 't, T, N, and B for curves in space
where it is assumed

4. 5 Exploring Riemann sums and their limits

Chapter 1 2 M u l t i v a r i a b l e F u n ct i o n s a n d
4. 7 a) Investigating the relationship of F(x) = f ;¡ (t) dt to
Partial Derivatives
f (x) andf'(x)
1 2. 1 Plotting surfaces z = f (x, y) and associated level curves.
b) Analyzing F(x) = ecx>f(t)dt
Implicit and parametrized surfaces

1 2 .8 Classifying critical points and identifying extreme values

Chapter 5 Application of lntegrals
using information gathered from surface plots, level
5.1 Finding intersections of curves
curves, and discriminant values
5. 5 Are length estima tes
1 2. 9 Implementing the method of Lagrange multipliers for

Chapter 6 Transcendental F u n ct i o n s functions of three and four independent variables

6.1 Graphing inverse functions and their derivatives

Chapter 13 M u l t i p l e lntegrals
6.12 Exploring differential equations graphically and numeri­
13.3 Changing Cartesian integrals into equivalent polar
cally with slope fields and Euler approximations
integrals for evaluation

Chapter 7 Techniques of lntegration 1 3 .4 Evaluating triple integrals over solid regions

7.5 Using a CAS to integrate. An example of a CAS-resistant

Chapter 1 4 lntegration i n Vector Fields
integral

7. 6 Exploring the convergence of improper integrals

14. 1 Evaluating fcf (x, y, z) ds numerically

14.2 Estimating the work done by a vector field along a given

Chapter 8 l n fi n i t e Series path in s pace

8. 1 Exploring the convergence of sequences. Compound 1 4 .4 Applying Green's theorem to find counterclockwise

interest with deposits and withdrawals. The logistic circulation

difference equation and chaotic behavior

vii
To t h e I n s t r u c t o r

T h i s Is a M a j o r R e v i s i o n

Throughout the 40 years that it has been in print, Thomas/Finney has been used to

support a variety of teaching methods from traditional to experimental. In response

to the many exciting currents in teaching calculus in the 1990s, the new edition is the

most extensive revision of Thomas/Finney ever. We have built on the traditional

strengths of the book-excellent exercises, sound mathematics, variety in applica­

tions-to produce a flexible text that contains all the elements needed to teach the

many different kinds of courses that exist today.

A book does not make a course: The instructor and the students do. With this in

mind we have added features to Thomas/Finney 9th edition to make it the most flex­

ible calculus teaching resource yet.

• The exercises have been reorganized to facilitate assigning a subset of the

material in a section.

• The grapher explorations, all accessible with any graphing calculator, many

suitable for in-class and group work, have been expanded.

• New Computer Algebra System (CAS) explorations and projects that re­

quire a CAS have been included. Sorne of these can be done quickly while

others require severa! hours. All are suitable for either individual or group

work. You will find a list of CAS exercise topics following the Table of

Contents.

• Technology Connection notes appear throughout the text suggesting experi­

ments students might do with a grapher to supplement their understanding

of a given topic. These notes are meant to encourage students to think of

their grapher as a casually available tool, like a pencil.

• We revised the entire first semester and large parts of the second and third

semesters to provide what we believe is a cleaner, more visual, and more ac­

cessible book.

With all these changes, we have not compromised our belief that the fundamental

goal of a calculus book is to prepare students to enter the scientific community.

Students Will F i n d Even More S u p p o r t for

Creative Problem S o l v i n g

Throughout this book, we have included examples and discussions that encourage

students to think visually and numerically. Almost every exercise set has easy to
viii
To the Instructor ix

67

- • Technology Target Values You can experiment

graphing utility. Graph the function together with a target interval defined by
with target values on a

.-----
--- horizontal lines above and below the proposed limit. Adjust the range or use

zoom until the function's behavior inside the target interval is clear. Then

-
�!
observe what happens when you try to find an interval of x-values that will

keep the function values within the target interval. (See also Exercises 7-14

[O, 3) by [O, 3) and CAS Exercises 6 1 - 64 . )

For example, try this for f ( x ) = J3x - 2 and the target interval ( 1. 8 , 2.2)

Keeping x between 1 . 7 5 and 2.28 w i ll on the y-axis. That is, graph y1 = f (x) and the lines y2 = 1. 8 , y3 = 2 . 2 . Then

keep y between 1 . 8 and 2.2. try the target intervals ( 1. 9 8 , 2.02) and (1.9998, 2.0002).

mid-level exercises that require students to generate and interpret graphs

as a tool for understanding mathematical or real-world relationships.

32. Recovering a function from its derivative
Many sections also contain a few more challenging problems to extend
a) Use the following information to graph the function f over

the closed interval ( - 2 , 5]. the range of the mathematically curious.

i) The graph off is made of closed line segments joined This edition has more than 2300 figures to appeal to the students'
end to end.
geometric intuition. Drawing lessons aid students with difficult 3-
ii) The graph starts at the point (-2, 3).

iii) The derivative off is the step function in Fig. 2. 1 3 . dimensional sketches, enhancing their ability to think in 3-space. In this

y' edition we have increased the use of visualization interna! to the discus­

y' =f'(x) sion. The burden of exposition is shared by art in the body of the text

when we feel that pictures and text together will convey ideas better

than words alone.

Throughout the text, students are asked to experiment, investigate,

----2 and explain. Writing exercises are placed throughout the text. In addi­

tion, each chapter end contains a list of questions that ask students to re­

2.13 The derivative graph for Exercise 32.

view and summarize what they have learned. Many of these exercises

make good writing assignments.

b) Repeat part ( a) assuming that the graph starts at ( - 2, O)

118 instead of ( - 2 , 3 ) .

L meets C only at P L is tangen! to C at P but L is tangent to C at P but lies on

but is not tangen! to C. meets C at severa! points. two sides of C, crossing C at P.

98 1.49 Explodinq myths about tangent hnes.

Students Will Master Techniques

Problem Solving Strategies We believe that the students leam best when proce­

dural techniques are laid out as clearly as possible. To this end we have revisited the

summaries of the steps used to sol ve problems, adding sorne where necessary, delet­

ing sorne where a thought process rather than a technique was at issue, and making

each one clear and useful. As always, we are especially careful that examples in the

text follow the steps outlined by the discussion.

Exercises Every exercise set has been reviewed and revised. Exercises are now

grouped by topic, with special sections for grapher explorations. Many sections also
x To the Instructor

have a set of Computer Algebra System (CAS) Explorations and Projects, a new fea­

ture for this edition. Within each group, the exercises are graded and paired. Within

this framework, the exercises generally follow the order of presentation of the text.

Exercises that require a calculator or computer are identified by icons: i calcu­

lator exercise, 11 graphing utility (such as graphing calculator) exercise, and OCom­

puter Algebra System exercise.

Hidden Behavior
Checklist for Graphing a Function y = f(x)

Sometimes graphing f' or f" will suggest

l. Look for symmetry.
where to zoom in on a computer generated
Is the function even? odd?
graph of f to revea! behavior hidden in the

grapher's original picture.

2. Is the function a shift of a known function?

3. Analyze dorninant terms.

Divide rational functions into polynomial + remainder.

4. Check for asymptotes and removable discontinuities.

Is there a zero denominator at any point?

What happens as x -+ ± oo?

5. Compute f' and solve f' = O. ldentify critica! points and determine

intervals of rise and fa!!.

6. Compute f" to determine concavity and inflection points.

7. Sketch the graph's general shape.

8. Evaluate f at special values (endpoints, critica! points, intercepts).

9. Graph f, using dominant terms, general shape, and special points for

230 guidance.

Within the exercise sets, we have practice exercises, exercises that encourage

critical thinking, more challenging exercises (in subsections marked "Applications

and Theory"), and exercises that require writing in English about concepts. Writing

exercises are placed both throughout the exercise sets, and in an end-of-chapter fea­

ture called "Questions to Guide Your Review."

Chapter End At the end of each chapter are three features with questions that

summarize the chapter in different ways.

Questions to Guide Your Review ask students to think about concepts and ver­

balize their understanding without trying to calculate numeric answers. These

are, as always, suitable for writing exercises.

Practice Exercises provide a review of the techniques, ideas, and key applica­

tions.

Additional Exercises-Theory, Examples, Applications supply challenging ap­

plications and theoretic problems that deepen the understanding of mathemati­

cal ideas.

A p p l ic a t i o n s , Technology, History-Features That

B r i n g C a lc u l u s to Life

Applications and Examples It has been a hallmark of this book through the years

that we illustrate applications of calculus with real data based on already familiar sit­

uations or situations students are likely to encounter soon. Throughout the text, we

cite sources f01 the data and/or articles from which the applications are drawn, help­

ing students understand that calculus is a current, dynamic field. Most of these appli-
To the Instructor xi

cations are directed toward science and engineering, but there are

many from biology and the social sciences as well.

i 17. A sailboat's displacement. To find the volume of water dis­

placed by a sailboat, the common practíce is to partition the

waterline into 10 subintervals of equal length, measure the cross

Technology: Graphing Calculator and Computer Algebra Sys­

section area A(x) of the submerged portion of the hull at each

tems Explorations Virtually every section of the text contains cal­
partitíon point, and then use Simpson's rule to estímate the inte­
culator exercises that explore numerical pattems and/or graphing
gral of A(x) from one end of the waterline to the other. The table

here lists the area measurements at "Stations" O through 10, as calculator exercises that ask students to generate and interpret
the partition points are called, for the cruising sloop Pipedream,
graphs as a tool to understanding mathematical and real-world rela­
shown here. The common subinterval length (distance between
11
consecutíve stations) is h = 2.54 ft (about 2' 6 1/2 , chosen for tionships. Many of the calculator and graphing calculator exercises
the convenience of the builder).
are suitable for classroom demonstration or for group work by stu­

dents in or out of class.

Computer Algebra System ( CAS) exercises have been added to

every chapter. These exercises, 160 in all, have been tested on both

Mathematica and Maple. A full list of CAS exercise topics follows

the Table of Contents.

-1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1
As in previous editions, sec- x has been defined so that its

range,[0, rc/2) u (rc/2, re], and derivative, 1/(lxl Jx2 - 1), agree with
a) Estímate Pipedream's displacement volume to the nearest
the results retumed by Computer Algebra Systems and scientific cal­
cubic foot.

culators.

Station Submerged area (ft2)

Notes appear throughout the text encouraging students to ex­

plore with graphers.

o o
1 1.07

2 3.84
History Any student is enriched by seeing the human side of
3 7.82

4 12.20 mathematics. As in earlier editions, we feature history boxes that de­

5 15.18
scribe the origins of ideas, conflicts concerning ownership of ideas,
6 16.14

7 14.00 and interesting sidelights into popular topics such as fractals and
8 9.21
chaos.
9 3.24.

10 o

b) The figures in the table are for seawater, which weighs

3
64 lb/ft • How many pounds of water does Pipedream dis­
The Many Faces of T h i s Book
place? (Displacement is given in pounds for small craft, and

443 long tons [1 long ton = 2240 lb] for larger vessels.)
Mathematics Is a Formal and Beautiful Language A good part

of the beauty of the calculus lies in the fact that it is a stunning ere­

ation of the human mind. As in previous editions we have been care­

ful to say only what is true and mathematically sound. In this edition we reviewed

every definition, theorem, corollary, and proof for clarity and mathematical correct-

ness.

Even Better Suited to Be the Reference Text in a Reform Course Whether cal­

culus is taught by a traditional lecture or entirely in labs with individual and group

leaming which focuses on numeric and graphical experimentation, ideas and tech­

niques need to be articulated clearly. This book provides the exercises for computer

and grapher experiments and group leaming and, in a traditional format, the summa­

tion of the lesson-the formal statement of the mathematics and the clear presenta­

tion of the technique.

Students Will Learn from This Book for Many Years to Come We provide far

more material than any one instructor would want to teach. We do this intentionally.

Students can continue to leam calculus from this book long after the class has ended.

It provides an accessible review of the calculus a student has already studied. It is a

resource for the working engineer or scientist.

xii To the Instructor

Content Features of the N i n t h Edition

To the Instructor xiii

S u p p l e m e n t s for the Instructor

3
OmniTest in DOS-Based Format: This easy-to-use software is developed ex­

clusively for Addison-Wesley by ips Publishing, a leader in computerized testing

and assessment. Among its features are the following.

• DOS interface is easy to Iearn and operate. The windows look-alike inter­

face makes it easy to choose and control the items as well as the format for

each test.

• You can easily create make-up exams, customized homework assign­

3
ments, and multiple test forms to prevent plagiarism. OmniTest is
xiv To the Instructor

algorithm driven-meaning the program can automatically insert new num­

bers into the same equation-creating hundreds of variations of that equa­

tion. The numbers are constrained to keep answers reasonable. This allows

you to create a virtually endless supply of parallel versions of the same test.

This new version of OmniTest also allows you to "lock in" the values shown

in the model problem, if you wish.

• Test items are keyed by section to the text. Within the section, you can se­

lect questions that test individual objectives from that section.

• You can enter your own questions by way of Omni'Iesr'ts sophisticated

editor--complete with mathematical notation.

Instructor's Solutions Manual by Maurice D. Weir (Naval Postgraduate School).

This two-volume supplement contains the worked-out solutions for all the exercises

in the text.

Answer Book contains short answers to most exercises in the text.

S u p p l e m e n t s for the Instructor a n d Student

Student Study Guide by Maurice D. Weir (Naval Postgraduate School). Orga­

nized to correspond with the text, this workbook in a semiprogrammed format in­

creases student proficiency with study tips and additional practice.

Student Solutions Manual by Maurice D. Weir (Naval Postgraduate School).

This manual is designed for the student and contains carefully worked-out solutions

to all of the odd-numbered exercises in the text.

Differential Equations Primer A short, supplementary manual containing ap­

proximately a chapter's-worth of material. Available should the instructor choose to

cover this material within the calculus sequence.

Technology-Related Su pplements

Analyzer* This program is a tool for exploring functions in calculus and many

other disciplines. lt can graph a function of a single variable and overlay graphs of

other functions. It can differentiate, integrate, or iterate a function. lt can find roots,

maxima and minima, and inflection points, as well as vertical asymptotes. In addi­

tion, Analyzer" can compose functions, graph polar and parametric equations, make

r1,111ilin:;;:, ""ÓJ. --C,Ul ·n;;.:,, ~aul..-n.?&{.'\.,n.nim?&�r\...c-6'.cqw.nr.-es.., u1hh.r-hm.9"Jn9"o�eters. J t .ex-

ploits the unique flexibility of the Macintosh wherever possible, allowing input to be

either numeric (from the keyboard) or graphic (with a mouse). Analyzer" runs on

Macintosh 11, Plus, or better.

The Calculus Explorer Consisting of 27 programs ranging from functions to vec­

tor fields, this software enables the instructor and student to use the computer a s a n

"electronic chalkboard." The Explorer is highly interactive and allows for manipula­

tion of variables and equations to provide graphical visualization of mathematical

relationships that are not intuitively obvious. The Explorer provides user-friendly

operation through an easy-to-use menu-driven system, extensive on-line documenta­

tion, superior graphics capability, and fast operation. An accompanying manual in-
To the Instructor xv

eludes sections covering each program, with appropriate examples and exercises.

Available for IBM PC/compatibles.

InSight A calculus demonstration software program that enhances understanding

of calculus concepts graphically. The program consists of ten simulations. Each pre­

sents an application and takes the user through the solution visually. The format is

interactive. Available for IBM PC/compatibles.

Laboratories for Calculus I Using Mathematica By Margaret Hoft, The Univer­

sity of Michigan-Dearbom. An inexpensive collection of Mathematica lab experi­

ments consisting of material usually covered in the first term of the calculus se­

quence.

Math Explorations Series Each manual provides problems and explorations in

calculus. lntended for self-paced and laboratory settings, these books are an excel­

lent complement to the text.

Exploring Calculus with a Graphing Calculator, Second Edition, by Char­

lene E. Beckmann and Ted Sundstrom of Grand Valley State University.

Exploring Calculus with Mathematica, by James K. Finch and Millianne

Lehmann of the University of San Francisco.

Exploring Calculus with Derive, by David C. Amey of the United States Mili­

tary Academy at West Point.

Exploring Calculus with Maple, by Mark H. Holmes, Joseph G. Ecker,

William E. Boyce, and William L. Seigmann of Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti­

tute.

Exploring Calculus with Analyzer*, by Richard E. Sours of Wilkes Univer­

sity.

Exploring Calculus with the IBM PC Version 2.0, by John B . Fraleigh and

Lewis l. Pakula of the University of Rhode Island.

xvi To the Instructor

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our thanks for the many valuable contri­ Exercises

butions of the people who reviewed this book as it developed In addition, we thank the following people who reviewed the exer­

through its various stages: cise sets for content and balance and contributed man y of the in­

teresting new exercises:

Manuscript Reviewers
Jennifer Earles Szydlik, University ofWisconsin-Madison
Erol Barbut, University of Idaho
Aparna W. Higgins, University of Dayton
Neil E. Berger, University of Illinois at Chicago

William Higgins, Wittenberg University

George Bradley, Duquesne University

Thomas R. Caplinger, Memphis State University Leonard F. Klosinski, Santa Clara University

Curtís L. Card, Black Hills State University David Mann, Naval Postgraduate School

James C. Chesla, Grand Rapids Community College

Kirby C. Smith, Texas A & M University
P.M. Dearing, Clemson University

Kirby Smith was also a pre-revision reviewer and we wish to

Maureen H. Fenrick, Mankato State University

thank him for his many helpful suggestions.

Stuart Goldenberg, CA Polytechnic State University

We would like to express our appreciation to David Canright,

Johnny L. Henderson, Aubum University

Naval Postgraduate School, for his advice and his contributions to

James V. Herod, Georgia Institute ofTechnology

the CAS exercise sets, and Gladwin Bartel, at Otero Junior Col­
Paul Hess, Grand Rapids Community College

lege, for his many helpful suggestions.

Alice J. Kelly, Santa Clara University

Jeuel G. LaTorre, Clemson University

Pamela Lowry, Lawrence Technological University

Answers

We would like to thank Cynthia Hutcherson for providing answers

John E. Martín, 111, Santa Rosa Junior College

for exercises in sorne of the chapters in this edition. We also ap­

James Martino, Johns Hopkins University

preciate the work of an outstanding team of graduate students at

James R. McKinney, California State Polytechnic University

Stanford University, who checked every answer in the text for ac­
Jeff Morgan, Texas A & M University

curacy: Miguel Abreu, David Cardon, Tanya Kalich, Jeffrey D.

F. J. Papp, University of Michigan=-Dearbom
Oldham, and Julie Roskies. Jeffrey D. Oldham also tested ali the
Peter Ross, Santa Clara University

CAS exercises, and we thank him for his many helpful sugges­
Rouben Rostamian, University of Maryland=Baltimore County

tions.
William L. Siegmann, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

John R. Smart, University ofWisconsin-Madison

Dennis C. Smolarski, S. J., Santa Clara University

Other Contributors

We are particularly grateful to Maurice D. Weir, Naval Postgradu­

Bobby N. Winters, Pittsburgh State University

ate School, who shared his teaching ideas throughout the prepara­

tion of this book. He produced the final exercise sets and wrote
Technology Notes Reviewers
most of the CAS exercises for this edition. We appreciate his con­
Lynn Kamstra Ipina, University ofWyoming

stant encouragement and thoughtful advice.

Robert Flagg, University of Southern Maine

We thank Richard A. Askey, University of Wisconsin-Madi­

Jeffrey Stephen Fox, University of Colorado at Boulder

son, David McKay, Oregon State University, and Richard G.

James Martino, Johns Hopkins University

Montgomery, Southern Oregon State College, for sharing their

Carl W. Morris, University of Missouri=Columbia

teaching ideas for this edition.

Robert G. Stein, California State University=-San Bernardino

We are also grateful to Erich Laurence Hauenstein, College

of DuPage, for generously providing an improved treatment of

Accuracy Checkers
chaos in Newton's method, and to Robert Carlson, University of
Steven R. Finch, Massachusetts Bay Community College

Colorado, Colorado Springs, for improving the exposition in the

Paul R. Lorczak, MathSoft, /ne.

section on relative rates of growth of functions.

John R. Martín, Tarrant County Junior College

Jeffrey D. Oldham, Stanford University

To t h e S t u d e n t

What Is C a l c u l u s ?

Calculus is the mathematics of motion and change. Where there is motion or growth,

where variable forces are at work producing acceleration, calculus is the right math­

ematics to apply. This was true in the beginnings of the subject, and it is true toda y.

Calculus was first invented to meet the mathematical needs of the scientists of

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, needs that were mainly mechanical in na­

ture. Differential calculus dealt with the problem of calculating rates of change. It

enabled people to define slopes of curves, to calculate velocities and accelerations of

moving bodies, to find firing angles that would give cannons their greatest range,

and to predict the times when planets would be closest together or farthest apart. In­

tegral calculus dealt with the problem of determining a function from information

about its rate of change. lt enabled people to calculate the future location of a body

from its present position a n d a knowledge of the forces acting on it, to find the areas

of irregular regions in the plane, to measure the lengths of curves, and to find the

volumes and masses of arbitrary solids.

Today, calculus and its extensions in mathematical analysis are far reaching in­

deed, and the physicists, mathematicians, and astronomers who first invented the

subject would surely be amazed and delighted, as we hope you will be, to see what a

profusion of problems it solves and what a range of fields now use it in the mathe­

matical models that bring understanding about the universe and the world around us.

The goal of this edition is to present a modem view of calculus enhanced by the use

of technology.

How to Learn C a lc u l u s

Leaming calculus is not the same as leaming arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. In

those subjects, you leam primarily how to calculate with numbers, how to simplify

algebraic expressions and calculate with variables, and how to reason about points,

lines, and figures in the plane. Calculus involves those techniques and skills but de­

velops others as well, with greater precision and at a deeper level. Calculus intro­

duces so many new concepts and computational operations, in fact, that you will no

longer be able to leam everything you need in class. You will have to leam a fair

amount on your own or by working with other students. What should you do to

leam?

l. Read the text. You will not be able to leam all the meanings and connections

you need just by attempting the exercises. You will need to read relevant

xvii
xviii To the Student

passages in the book and work through examples step by step. Speed reading

will not work here. You are reading and searching for detail in a step-by-step

logical fashion. This kind of reading, required by any deep and technical con­

tent, takes attention, patience, and practice.

2. Do the homework, keeping the following principies in mind.

a) Sketch diagrams whenever possible.

b) Write your solutions in a connected step-by-step logical fashion, as if you

were explaining to someone else.

e) Think about why each exercise is there. Why was it assigned? How is it re­

lated to the other assigned exercises?

3. Use your calculator and computer whenever possible. Complete as many gra­

pher and CAS (Computer Algebra System) exercises as you can, even if they are

not assigned. Graphs provide insight and visual representations of important

concepts and relationships. Numbers can reveal important pattems. A CAS

gives you the freedom to explore realistic problems and examples that involve

calculations that are too difficult or lengthy to do by hand.

4. Try on your own to write short descriptions of the key points each time you

complete a section of the text. If you succeed, you probably understand the ma­

terial. If you do not, you will know where there is a gap in your understanding.

Leaming calculus is a process-it <loes not come all at once. Be patient, perse-

vere, ask questions, discuss ideas and work with classmates, and seek help when you

need it, right away. The rewards of leaming calculus will be very satisfying, both in­

tellectually and professionally.

G . B . T . , Jr., State College, PA

R. L. F. , Monterey, CA
Preliminaries

Overview This chapter reviews the main things you need to know to start calculus.

The topics include the real number system, Cartesian coordinates in the plane,

straight lines, parabolas, circles, functions, and trigonometry.

Real N u m b e r s a n d the Real Li n e

This section reviews real numbers, inequalities, intervals, and absolute values.

Real N u m b e r s a n d the Real U n e

Much of calculus is based on properties of the real number system. Real numbers

are numbers that can be expressed as decimals, such as

3
-¡ = -0.75000 . . .

1
3 = 0.33333 .

✓2 = 1. 4 1 4 2 .

The dots . . . in each case indicate that the sequence of decimal digits goes on

forever.

The real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a number line

called the real line.

-�---��--��--��--�---�---�-�
-2 -1 3 O 1 fi 2 3 1T 4

4 3

The symbol [ij donotes either the real number system or, equivalently, the real line.

Properties of Real N u m b e r s

The properties of the real number system fall into three categories: algebraic prop­

erties, order properties, and completeness. The algebraic properties say that the real

numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided ( except by O) to produce

more real numbers under the usual rules of arithmetic. You can never divide by O.

1
2 Preliminaries

The order properties of real numbers are summarized in the following list.

The symbol ⇒ means "implies."

Rules for Inequalities

lf a, b, and e are real numbers, then:

1. a < b =} a + e < b + e

2. a < b =} a - e < b - e

3. a < b a n d e > O ::::} ae < be

4. a < b and e < O ::::} be < ae

Notice the r u l e s for m u l t i p l y i n g a n Special case: a < b =} -b < -a

i n e q u a l i t y by a n u mb e r . M u l t i p l y i n g by a
1
positive n u m b e r preserves t h e i n e q u a l i t y ; 5. a > 0 =} - > 0
m u l t i p l y i n g by a negative n u m b e r a

reverses the inequality. Also, 1 1

reciprocation reverses the i n e q u a l i t y for
6. If a and b are both positive or both negative, then a < b =} - < -
b a
n u m b e r s of the s a m e s i g n .

The completeness property of the real number system is deeper and harder to

define precisely. Roughly speaking, it says that there are enough real numbers to

"complete" the real number line, in the sense that there are no "boles" or "gaps"

in it. Many of the theorems of calculus would fail if the real number system were

not complete, and the nature of the connection is important. The topic is best saved

for a more advanced course, however, and we will not pursue it.

Subsets of [ij

We distinguish three special subsets of real numbers.

l. The natural numbers, namely 1 , 2, 3 , 4, . . .

2. The integers, namely O, ± 1 , ±2, ± 3 , . . .

3. The rational numbers, namely the numbers that can be expressed in the form

of a fraction m / n , where m and n are integers and n # O. Examples are

1 4 200 57
- and 57 =
3, 9, 13 , 1.

The rational numbers are precisely the real numbers with decimal expansions

that are either

a) terminating ( ending in an infinite string of zeros ), for example,

3
= 0.75000 . . . = 0.75 or
4

b) repeating (ending with a block of digits that repeats over and over), for example

The bar indicates the

23 -
block of repeating
U = 2.090909 . . . = 2.09.
digits.

The set of rational numbers has all the algebraic and order properties of

the real numbers but lacks the completeness property. For example, there is no

rational number whose square is 2; there is a "hole" in the rational line where J2
should be.
R e a l N u m b e r s a n d the Real Li n e 3

Real numbers that are not rational are called irrational numbers. They are char­

acterized by having nonterminating and nonrepeating decimal expansions. Examples

are it , ,J'i, �. and I o g . ¿ 3 .

l n t e rv a l s

A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least two numbers and

contains all the real numbers lying between any two of its elements. For example,

the set of all real numbers x such that x > 6 is an interval, as is the set of all x such

that -2 :::; x :::; 5 . The set of all nonzero real numbers is not an interval; since O is

absent, the set fails to contain every real number between - 1 and 1 (for example).

Geometrically, intervals correspond to rays and line segments on the real line,

along with the real line itself. Intervals of numbers corresponding to line segments

are finite intervals; intervals corresponding to rays and the real line are infinite

intervals.

A finite interval is said to be closed if it contains both of its endpoints, half­

open if it contains one endpoint but not the other, and open if it contains neither

endpoint. The endpoints are also called boundary points; they make up the in­

terval's boundary. The remaining points of the interval are interior points and

together make up what is called the interval's interior.

Table 1 Types of intervals

Notadon Graph

Ftm�::. (a, b) { x l a < x < b}

a b

[a, b] { x l a :S x :S b}

a b

[a, b) { x l a :S x < b }

a b

(a, b] { x l a < x :S b }

a b

(a, oo) {xlx > a}

[a, oo) { x l x ?: a }

( - oo , b) { x ] x < b}

(-oo, b] [ x ] x :S b}

(-oo, oo) IR (set of all real b

numbers)
4 P r e li m i n a r i e s

Solving lnequalities

Toe process of finding the interval or intervals of numbers that satisfy an inequality

in x is called solving the inequality.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve the following inequalities and graph their solution sets on

the real line.

X 6
a) 2x - 1 < x + 3 b) -- < 2x + 1 e) -- > 5
3 X - 1 -

Solution
--------------e---
o 1 4
➔X

a) 2 x - 1 < x + 3
(a)

2x < X +4 Add 1 to both sides.

x < 4 Subtract x from both sides.

3 o
7 Toe solution set is the interval ( - oo , 4) (Fig. la).

(b)
b) X

-- < 2x + 1
3

o 11 -x < 6x + 3 Multiply both sides by 3.

(e)
O < 7x + 3 Add x to both sides.

-3 < 7x Subtract 3 from both sides.

1 S o l u t i o n s for E x a m p l e 1 .
3
-- < X Divide by 7.

Toe solution set is the interval ( -3 /7, oc) (Fig. 1 b ).

e) The inequality 6/(x - 1 ) � 5 can hold only if x > 1, because otherwise

6/(x - 1 ) is undefined or negative. Therefore, the inequality will be preserved

if we multiply both sides by (x - 1 ) , and we have

6
- - > 5
x - 1 -

6 � 5x - 5 Multiply both sides by (x - 1 ).

11 � 5x Add 5 to both sides.

11 1 1
- > x . Or x < - .
5 - - 5

The solution set is the half-open interval (1 , 11 / 5] (Fig. le). o

Absolute Value

The absolute value of a number x, denoted by lx 1 , is defined by the formula

x � O
[ x ] = { x,
-X, X < 0.

EXAMPLE 2 1 3 1 = 3, 1 0 1 = O, 1 - 5 1 = - ( - 5 ) = 5, 1 - l a l l = [ rz ] o

Notice that lx 1 � O for every real number x, and lx 1 = O if and only if x = O.

Real N u m b e r s a n d the R e a l Li n e 5

Since the symbol ,Ja always denotes the nonnegative square root of a, an alternate

definition of lx I is

lt is important to remember that l x l = H- .

JaI = 1 a 1 . Do not write JaI = a unless

Geometrically, [x I represents the distance from x to the origin O on the real

you already know that a ::: O.

line. More generally (Fig. 2)

lx - y 1 = the distance between x and y.

The absolute value has the following properties.

+-- l - 5 1 = 5 --H-----131 �

Absolute Value Properties

-5 o 3

l. 1 - a l = lal A number and its negative have the same absolute

+------ 1 4 - 1 1 = 11 -41 = 3�
value.

4 2. l a b l = la l l b l The absolute value of a product is the product of

the absolute values.

2 Absolute values give distances

The absolute value of a quotient is the quotient of

between points on the number line.
3. J � I = :::
the absolute values.

4. la + b 1 :::: 1 a 1 + l b 1
The triangle inequality The absolute value of

the sum of two numbers is less than or equal

to the sum of their absolute values.

lf a and b differ in sign, then la+ b l is less than [ rz ] + lbl. In all other cases, l a + bl

equals lal + lbl.

EXAMPLE 3
N o t ic e that absolute value bars in

expressions like j - 3 + 5 1 also work like

1 - 3 + 51 = 121 = 2 < 1 - 31 + 151 = 8
parentheses: We do the a r i t h m e t ic inside

befare taking the absolute value. 13 + 51 = 181 = 1 3 1 + 151

1 - 3 - 51 = 1 - 81 = 8 = 1 - 31 + 1 - 51 o

EXAMPLE4 Solve the equation 12x - 3 1 = 7.

Solution The equation says that 2x - 3 = ± 7, so there are two possibilities:

Equivalenr equations
2 x - 3 = 7 2 x - 3 = - 7
w i t h o u t absolute v a l u e -,

2x = 10 2x = -4 Solve as u s u a l.

x = 5 X = -2

The solutions of 12x - 3 1 = 7 are x = 5 and x = -2. o

l_nequalities lnvolving Absolute Values

The inequality la 1 < D says that the distance from a to O is less than D. Therefore,

a must lie between D and - D .

6 Preliminaries

Intervals and Absolute Values

The symbol {:} means "if and only if," or

If D is any positive number, then
"implies and is implied by."

lal < D � -D < a < D, (1)

lal :::: D � - D :::: a ::: D. (2)

EXAMPLE 5 Solve the inequality lx - 5 1 < 9 and graph the solution set on

the real line.

Solution lx - 5 1 < 9

-9 < X - 5 < 9 Eq. ( 1)

Add 5 to each part to

-9 + 5 < X < 9 + 5 isolate x.
-4 5 14

-4 < X < 14

3 The s o l u t i o n set of the i n e q u a l i t y

l x - 5 1 < 9 is the interval (-4, 14) g r a p h e d

The solution set is the open interval (-4, 14) (Fig. 3). o
here ( E x a m p l e 5).

EXAMPLE6 Solve the inequality 1 5 - � 1 < l.

Solution We have

2
Eq. ( I )
� - 1 < 5 - - < l
i s - � 1 <1 X

2
� -6 < - - < -4 Subtract 5 .
X

1 1

� 3 > - > 2 M u lt i p l y by
2
X

- < X < - . Take reciprocals.

3 2

Notice how the various rules for inequalities were used here. Multiplying by a

negative number reverses the inequality. So <loes taking reciprocals in an inequality

in which both sides are positive. The original inequality holds if and only if (1 / 3 ) <

x < (1 / 2 ) . The solution set is the open interval (1 / 3 , 1 / 2 ) . O

EXAMPLE 7 Solve the inequality and graph the solution set:

a) l 2 x - 3 1 :::: l h) 12x - 3 1 � 1
___.,_ ..,.__� X

2 Solution

(a)

a) 12x - 3 1 :::: 1

Eq. (2)
2 -1 :::: 2 x - 3 :::: 1

(b)
2 :::: 2 x :::: 4 Add 3.

4 G r a p h s of the s o l u t i o n sets (a) [ 1 , 2] Divide by 2.

1 :'.S X :'.S 2
a n d (b) (-oo, 1 ] U [2, oo) in E x a m p l e 7.

The solution set is the closed interval [ 1 , 2] (Fig. 4a).

Exercises 1 7

b) 12x - 3 1 � 1

U n i o n a n d intersection

2 x - 3 � 1 or -(2x - 3) � 1

Notice the use of the symbol U to denote the

union of intervals. A number lies in the 2 x - 3 � 1 or 2 x - 3 :S - 1 M u l t i p l y sccond

union of two sets if it lies in either set. incquality by - 1 .

3 1 3 1

Similarly we use the symbol n to denote

x - - > - or X - - < -- D i v i d e by 2 .
2 -
2 - 2

intersection. A number lies in the 2

intersection / n J of two sets if it lies in 3

x � 2 or X :'.: 1 Add -.
both sets / and J. For example, 2

[ 1 , 3) n [2, 41 = [2, 3 ) . The solution set is ( - oo , 1 ] U [2, oc ) (Fig. 4b). o

Exercises 1

D e ci m a l Representations Absolute Value

l. Express 1 /9 as a repeating decimal, using a bar to indicate the Solve the equations in Exercises 13 - 1 8 .

repeating digits. What are the decimal representations of 2 /9? 3 /9?

13. IYI = 3 14. IY - 31 = 7 15. 12t + 51 = 4

8/9?
9

2. Express 1/1 1 as a repeating decimal, using a bar to indicate the

16. 11 - t i = 1 17. 18 - 3sl =
2
18. 1 í- 1 I = 1

repeating digits. What are the decimal representations of 2/ 1 1 ?

Solve the inequalities in Exercises 19-34, expressing the solution sets

3 / 11 ? 9 / 11 ?

as intervals or unions of intervals. Also, graph each solution set on

the real line.

lnequalities

3. lf 2 < x < 6, which of the following statements about x are nec­ 19. [x] < 2 20. [x] s 2 21. l t - 1 I S 3

essarily true, and which are not necessarily true?

22. lt + 21 < 1 23. 13 y - 71 < 4 24. 12 y + 5 1 < 1

a) 0 < x < 4 b) O < x - 2 < 4

X 1 1 1 25. 1 � - 11 s 1 26. 11z - 1 i s 2 27. ¡3 - �I < �

e) 1 < 2 < 3 d) - < - < -

6 X 2
1
6 29. 1 2 s l :::: 4 30. I s + 3 1 ::::
28. < 3
2
1 � - 4 1

e) 1 < - < 3 f) lx - 4 1 < 2

X

r + 1 1
g) -6 < -x < 2 h) -6 < -x < -2 3 1. 1 1 - x l > l 32. 12 - 3x 1 > 5 33. - 2
- ::: 1
I

4. lf - 1 < y - 5 < 1 , which of the following statements about y are

necessarily true, and which are not necessarily true? 3r 1 2

34. 5 - 1 > 5
l

a) 4 < y < 6 b) -6 < y < -4

e) y > 4 d) y < 6
Quadratic l n e q u a l i t i e s

e) Ü < y - 4 < 2 f) 2 < 2:'. < 3

Solve the inequalities in Exercises 35-42. Express the solution sets
2
as intervals or unions of intervals and graph them. U se the result
1 1
,,/ái = l a l as appropriate.
g) - < - < - h) IY - 5 1 < 1
6 y 4 2 2 2
35. x < 2 36. 4 S x 37. 4 < x < 9

In Exercises 5 - 1 2 , solve the inequalities and graph the solution sets. 2

38 ! < x < ! 39. (x - 1 )
2
< 4 40. (x + 3)2 < 2
• 9 4
5. -2x > 4 6. 8 - 3 x ::: 5
2 2
41. x - X < Ü 42. x - X - 2 :::'.: Ü

1. 5x - 3 S 7 - 3x 8. 3 ( 2 - x ) > 2(3 + x )

1 7 6 - X 3x - 4
9. 2x - - > ?x + - 10. -- < --
2 - 6 4 2 Theory a n d Examples

4 1 x + 5 12+3x 43. Do not fall into the trap 1 - a 1 = a. For what real numbers a is
11. (x - 2) < (x - 6) 12. --- <---
2 - 4 this equation true? For what real numbers is it false?
5 3
8 Preliminaries

44. Sol ve the equation lx - 1 1 = 1 - x. 48. Graph the inequality lx 1 + 1 y 1 ::::: l.

45. A proof o f the triangle inequality Give the reason justifying 11 49. G R A P H ER

each of the numbered steps in the following proof of the triangle

a) Graph the functions f(x) = x/2 and g ( x ) = 1 + (4/x) to­
inequality.
gether to identify the values of x for which
2
l a + bl = ( a + b)2 (1) X 4
- > 1 + -.
2 2
2 X
= a + 2ab + b

2 2
(2) b) Confirm your findings in (a) algebraically.
::::: a + 2Iallbl + b

2 2
::::: l a l + 2!a!lbl + 1h1 (3) 11 50. GRAPHER

2
= ( l a l + lbl) a) Graph the functions f (x) = 3 / (x - 1 ) and g (x) =
2/(x + 1) together to identify the values of x for which
l a + b ! ::::: [ zz ] + lbl (4)

3 2
46. Prove that !abl = l a l l b l for any numbers a and b. -- < - - .
x - 1 x + l
47. lf lx 1 ::::: 3 and x > - 1 /2, what can you say about x?
b) Confirm your findings in (a) algebraically.

��jfil['1l:;1i'[¡fJ¡¡i:¡¡¿�. .•.:� .·����¡,.���

Coordinates, U n e s , a n d l n c r e m e n t s

This section reviews coordinates and lines and discusses the

notion of increment.

y
Cartesian Coordinates i n the P l a n e

b --------1 P(a, b) The positions of all points in the plane can be measured with respect to two

perpendicular real lines in the plane intersecting in the 0-point of each (Fig. 5).
Positive y-axis
3
These lines are called coordinate axes in the plane. On the horizontal x-axis,

--------=- numbers are denoted by x and increase to the right. On the vertical y-axis, numbers
2

are denoted by y and increase upward. The point where x and y are both O is the

origin of the coordinate system, often denoted by the letter O.

Negative x-axis
If P is any point in the plane, we can draw lines through P perpendicular to
-��-���---...-����.._._-X
-3 -2 -1 O
the two coordinate axes. If the lines meet the x-axis a t a and the y-axis at b, then a
a 3

is the x-coordinate of P, and b i s the y-coordinate. The ordered pair ( a , b) is the

-1
Positive x-axis point's coordinate pair. The x-coordinate of every point on the y-axis is O. The
Negative y-axis
y-coordinate of every point on the x-axis is O. The origin is the point (O, 0).
---=: The origin divides the x-axis into the positive x-axis to the right and the

-3
negative x-axis to the left. lt divides the y-axis into the positive and negative y­

axis above and below. The axes divide the plane into four regions called quadrants,

numbered counterclockwise as in Fig. 6.

5 Cartesian co o r d i n a t e s .

A Word About Scales

When we plot data in the coordinate plane or graph formulas whose variables have

different units of measure, we do not need to use the same scale on the two axes. If

we plot time vs. thrust for a rocket motor, for example, there is no reason to place

the mark that shows 1 sec on the time axis the same distance from the origin as the

mark that shows 1 lb on the thrust axis.

When we graph functions whose variables do not represent physical measure­

ments and when we draw figures in the coordinate plane to study their geometry

and trigonometry, we try to make the scales on the axes identical. A vertical unit
2 Coordinates, Lines, a n d l n c r e m e n t s 9

3 (0, 3)

Second First
2 (O, 2)
quadrant quadrant

( - , +) ( + , +)

(0, 1)

(O, O)
(-2, O) � (1 , O) (2, O)

---�-------------x
-2 -1 o 2

-1 (0, - 1)
Third Fourth

quadrant quadrant

(-, -) (+, -)
6 The points on the axes a ll have coordinate pairs,
-2 (0, -2)
but we usually l a b e l them with s i n g l e n u m b e r s .

Notice the coordinate s i g n patterns i n the q u a d r a n t s .

of distance then looks the same as a horizontal unit. As on a surveyor's map or a

scale drawing, line segments that are supposed to have the same length will look

as if they do and angles that are supposed to be congruent will look congruent.

Computer displays and calculator displays are another matter. The vertical

and horizontal scales on machine-generated graphs usually differ, and there are

corresponding distortions in distances, slopes, and angles. Circles may look like

ellipses, rectangles may look like squares, right angles may appear to be acute

or obtuse, and so on. Circumstances like these require us to take extra care in

interpreting what we see. High-quality computer software usually allows you to

compensate for such scale problems by adjusting the aspect ratio (ratio of vertical

to horizontal scale). Sorne computer screens also allow adjustment within a narrow

range. When you use a grapher, try to make the aspect ratio 1 , or close to it.
6 C(5, 6)

B(2, 5)
lncrements and Distante
5

When a particle moves from one point in the plane to another, the net changes

4 in its coordinates are called increments. They are calculated by subtracting the
ax= o
coordinates of the starting point from the coordinates of the ending point.
ay= -5
3

EXAMPLE 1 In going from the point A ( 4 , - 3 ) to the point B(2, 5) (Fig. 7),

2 the increments in the x- and y-coordinates are

� X = 2 - 4 = -2, �y = 5 - ( - 3 ) = 8 . o
ay= s D(5, 1)

o 3 5

-1

-2

-3 ------A(4, -3)

EXAMPLE 2 From C ( 5 , 6) to D ( 5 , 1 ) (Fig. 7) the coordinate increments are

7 Coordinate increments may be

positive, negative, or zero. � X = 5 - 5 = Ü, �y= 1 - 6 = -5. o

10 Preliminaries

y
This distance is The distance between points in the plane is calculated with a formula that

2 2 comes from the Pythagorean theorem (Fig. 8).

d = ✓h-xd + IY2-Y11
Q(x2, Y2)
Y2
= ✓(x2-x1)2 + ( Y 2 - Y 1 )2

\ Distance Formula for Points in the Plane

¡IY,-Y1I
The distance between P ( x 1 , y 1 ) and Q(x2, Y2) is
Y¡
P(x1, y C(x2, y 2
1)

!xi - x 1 I
1)
d = ✓ c !).. x ) 2 + ( !).. y ) = ✓cx2 - X1)2 + (Y2 - Y 1 ) 2 .

X
o X¡ X2

8 To c a lc u l a t e the distance between EXAMPLE 3

P(x,, y,) and Q(x2, Y2), a p p l y the

Pyt h a g o r e a n theorem to t r i a n g l e PCQ.

a) The distance between P ( - 1 , 2) and Q ( 3 , 4) is

2 2 2 2
J(3 - ( - 1 ) ) + (4 - 2) = J(4) + (2) = v'20 = J4-:s = 2.../5.

b) The distan ce from the origin to P (x, y) is

J (x - 0)2 + (y - 0)2 = Jx2 + y2. o

Graphs

The graph of an equation or inequality involving the variables x and y is the set of

all points P (x, y) whose coordinates satisfy the equation or inequality.

EXAMPLE4 Circ/es centered a t the origin

2
a) If a > O, the equation x2 + y2 = a represents all points P (x, y) whose dis­

tance from the origin is Jx 2 + y

2
= ,./ai- = a . These points líe on the circle

of radius a centered at the origin. This circle is the graph of the equation
2 2 2
x +') = a (Fig. 9a).
2
b) Points (x, y) whose coordinates satisfy the inequality x2 + y2 ::; a all have

distance ::: a from the origin. The graph of the inequality is therefore the circle

of radius a centered at the origin together with its interior (Fig. 9b ).

y y

-+----+---+---�x ----x
a a

(a) (b)

9 G r a p h s of (a) the equation a n d (b) the i n e q u a l i t y in E x a m p l e 4.

The circle of radius 1 unit centered at the origin is called the unit circle.
2 Coordinates, Lines, a n d l n cre me n ts 11

y 2•
EXAMPLE 5 Consider the equation y = x Sorne points whose coordinates
y = x2

satisfy this equation are (O, 0), (1 , 1) , (-1, 1), (2, 4), and ( - 2 , 4). These points

(2, 4) (and all others satisfying the equation) make up a smooth curve called a parabola

(Fig. 10). 0

Straight U n e s

Given two points P1 (x 1 ,

y1) and P2 (x 2 , y2) in the plane, we call the increments

�x = x2 - x1 and �y = y2 - y1 the run and the rise, respectively, between P1

and P2• Two such points always determine a unique straight line (usually called
-2 -1 O 2
simply a line) passing through them both. We call the line P1 P2•

2• Any nonvertical line in the plane has the property that the ratio
10 The p a r a b o l a y = x

rise �y Y2 - Y1
m = - = - = - - -
run �x x2 - X¡

has the same value for every choice of the two points P1 ( x 1 , y 1 ) and P2 (x 2 , y2) on

the line (Fig. 1 1 ).

Definition

The constant

rise �y Y2 - Y1
m = - = - = - - -
run �X X2 - X¡

is the slope of the nonvertical line P1 P2•

The slope tells us the direction (uphill, downhill) and steepness of a line. A line

with positive slope rises uphill to the right; one with negative slope falls downhill

----+----------x to the right (Fig. 1 2 ) . The greater the absolute value of the slope, the more rapid
o
the rise or fall. The slope of a vertical line is undefined. Since the run �x is zero

for a vertical line, we cannot form the ratio m.

11 T r i a n g l e s P 1 QP 2 a n d P{Q'P� are

s i m i l a r , so

L1y' L1y y
- = - = m .
L1x' L1x

12 The slope of L 1 is

L1y 6 - (-2) 8

m = L1x = 3 - O = 3·

That is, y increases 8 units every t i m e x increases 3

units. The slope of L2 is

L1y 2 - 5 -3

m = L1x = 4 - O = 4·

That is, y decreases 3 units every t i m e x increases 4

units.
12 P r e li m i n a r i e s

The direction and steepness of a line can also be measured with an angle. The

angle of inclination (inclination) of a line that crosses the x-axis is the smallest

counterclockwise angle from the x-axis to the line (Fig. 13). The inclination of a

horizontal line is O º . The inclination of a vertical line is 90º. If </> ( the Greek letter

phi) is the inclination of a line, then O :::: </> < 1 8 0 º .

The relationship between the slope m of a nonvertical line and the line's incli­

13 A n g l e s of i n cl i n a t i o n are measured nation </> is shown in Fig. 14:

counterclockwise from the x-axis.

m = tan é .

Parallel a n d P e r p e n d i c u l a r U n e s

Lines that are parallel have equal angles of inclination. Hence, they have the same

slope (if they are not vertical). Conversely, lines with equal slopes have equal angles

of inclination and so are parallel.

If two nonvertical lines L 1 and L 2 are perpendicular, their slopes m 1 and m 2

satisfy m i m 2 = - 1 , so each slope is the negative reciproca[ of the other:

1 1
m = ay = tan <p m i = - - , m2 = - - .
ax m2 mi

The argument goes like this: In the notation of Fig. 1 5 , m i = tan </> 1 = a/ h , while
14 The s l o p e of a nonvertical l i n e is the

t a n g e n t of its a n g l e of i n cl i n a t i o n . m2 = tan</> 2 = - h / a . Hence, nu m¿ = ( a / h )( - h / a ) = - 1.

E q u a t i o n s of U n e s

Straight lines have relatively simple equations. All points on the vertical line through

y the point a on the x-axis have x-coordinates equal to a . Thus, x = a is an equation

for the vertical line. Similarly, y = b is an equation for the horizontal line meeting
the y-axis at b.

EXAMPLE 6 The vertical and horizontal lines through the point (2, 3) have

equations x = 2 and y = 3 , respectively (Fig. 16).

15 11ADC is s i m i l a r to 11CDB. Hence </)1 is

also the u p p e r a n g l e i n 11CDB. From the Along this line,

si des of 11CDB, we read tan </)1 = a/h. 6 x = 2

4
Along this line,

y = 3

(2, 3)

16 The standard e q u a t i o n s for the vertical a n d

horizontal l i n e s t h r o u g h (2, 3) are x = 2 a n d y = 3. o

2 Coordinates, Li n e s , and l n cr e m e n t s 13

We can write an equation for a nonvertical straight line L if we know its slope

m and the coordinates of one point P1 ( x 1 , y 1 ) on it. If P ( x , y) is any other point

on L , then

y - y ¡
- - = m ,
X - X ¡

so that

y - y1 = m(x - x 1 ) or y = y1 + m ( x - x 1 ) .

D e fi n i t i o n

The equation

y = y 1 + m(x - x 1 )

is the point-slope equation of the line that passes through the point ( x 1 , y 1 )

and has slope m.

EXAMPLE7 Write an equation for the line through the point (2, 3) with slope

-3/2.

Solution We substitute x 1 = 2, y 1 = 3 , and m = - 3 / 2 into the point-slope equa­

tion and obtain

3
or y = --x + 6.
2 o

EXAMPLE 8 Write an equation for the line through ( - 2 , - 1 ) and (3, 4).

Solution The line's slope is

-1 - 4 -5
16 The l i n e i n E x a m p l e 8. m - - - - - - - 1
- - 2 - 3 - -5 - .

We can use this slope with either of the two given points in the point-slope equation:

With (xi, Y 1 ) = (-2, - 1 ) With (xi, Y 1 ) = (3, 4)

y

y = - l + l • ( x - ( - 2 ) ) y = 4 + 1 • (x - 3)

y = - l + x + 2 y = 4 + x - 3

y = x + l / y = x + l

--------- Same result

Either way, y = x + 1 is an equation for the line (Fig. 17).

The y-coordinate of the point where a nonvertical line intersects the y-axis is

called the y-intercept of the line. Similarly, the x-intercept of a nonhorizontal line

is the x-coordinate of the point where it crosses the x-axis (Fig. 18). A line with

slope m and y-intercept b passes through the point (O, b ), so it has equation
17 Li n e L has x-intercept a a n d

y-intercept b. y = b + m(x - O), or, more simply, y = mx + b .

14 P r e li m i n a r i e s

Definition

The equation

y = mx + b

is called the slope-intercept equation of the line with slope m and

y-intercept b.

EXAMPLE 9 The line y = 2x - 5 has slope 2 and y-intercept - 5 .

The equation

Ax+ B y = C (A and B not both O)

is called the general linear equation in x and y because its graph always represents

a line and every line has an equation in this forrn (including lines with undefined

slope).

y EXAMPLE 1 0 Find the slope and y-intercept of the line 8x + 5y = 20.

m = -3
m = 2

Solution Solve the equation for y to put it in slope-intercept forrn. Then read the

slope and y-intercept frorn the equation:

8x + 5y = 20

5y = -8x + 20

8
y = -sx +4.

The slope is m = -8/5. The y-intercept is b = 4.

EXAMPLE 1 1 Lines t h ro u g h the origin

Lines with equations of the form y = mx have y-intercept O and so pass through

19 The l i n e y = mx has slope m a n d the origin. Several exarnples are shown in Fig. 19. ,J

passes t h r o u g h the o r i g i n .

Applications-The l m p o rt a n c e of U n e s a n d Slopes

Light travels along lines, as do bodies falling frorn rest in a planet's gravitational

field or coasting under their own rnornenturn (like a hockey puck gliding across the

ice). We often use the equations of lines (called linear equations) to study such

rnotions.

Many irnportant quantities are related by linear equations. Once we know that

a relationship between two variables is linear, we can find it frorn any two pairs of

corresponding values j u s t a s we find the equation of a line frorn the coordinates of

two points.

Slope is irnportant because it gives us a way to say how steep sornething is

(roadbeds, roofs, stairs). The notion of slope also enables us to describe how rapidly

things are changing. For this reason it will play an irnportant role in calculus.
Exercises 2 15

EXAMPLE 12 Celsius vs. Fahrenheit

Fahrenheit temperature (F) and Celsius temperature ( C) are related by a linear

equation of the form F = mC + b. The freezing point of water is F = 32º or

C = Oº, while the boiling point is F = 2 1 2 º or C = 100º. Thus

32 = 0m + b , and 212 = 100m + b,

so b = 32 and m = ( 2 1 2 - 3 2 ) / 10 0 = 9/5. Therefore,

9 5
F = c + 32, or C = ( F - 32).
5 9 o

Exercises 2

lncrements and Distance 24. Passes through (1 / 3 , 4) and has no slope

In Exercises 1-4, a particle moves from A to B in the coordinate 25. Has y-intercept 4 and x-intercept - 1

plane. Find the increments �x and �y in the particle's coordinates.

26. Has y-intercept -6 and x-intercept 2
Also find the distance from A to B.
27. Passes through ( 5 , - 1 ) and is parallel to the line 2x + 5y = 15
1. A ( - 3 , 2), B ( - 1 , -2) 2. A ( - 1 , -2), B ( - 3 , 2)
28. Passes through ( - -/2 , 2) parallel to the line -/2x + 5y = ./3
3. A ( - 3 . 2 , -2), B ( - 8 . 1 , -2) 4. A ( -/2 , 4), B(0, 1. 5 )
29. Passes through ( 4, 1 O) and is perpendicular to the line

Describe the graphs of the equations in Exercises 5-8. 6x - 3 y = 5

2 2 2 2
5. x + y = 1 6. x + y = 2 30. Passes through (O, 1 ) and is perpendicular to the line

2 2 2 2 8x - 1 3 y = 13
7. x + y _:::: 3 8. x + y = O

In Exercises 3 1 - 3 4 , find the line's x- and y-intercepts and use this

Slopes, Unes, a n d lntercepts information to graph the 'line.

Plot the points in Exercises 9 - 1 2 and find the slope (if any) of the
31. 3x + 4y = 12 32. X + 2y = -4
line they determine. Also find the common slope (if any) of the lines

perpendicular to line AB.

33. -/2x - ./3y = J6 34. 1.5x - y = -3

35. Is there anything special about the relationship between the lines
9. A ( - 1 , 2), B(-2, - 1 ) 10. A(-2, 1), B(2, -2)
A x + By = C1 and Bx - Ay = C2 (A #- O, B #- O ) ? Give rea­
11. A(2,3), B(-1,3) 12. A ( - 2 , O), B ( - 2 , -2)
sons for your answer.

In Exercises 1 3 - 1 6 , find an equation for (a) the vertical line and (b) 36. Is there anything special about the relationship between the lines

the horizontal line through the given point. A x + B y = C1 and A x + B y = C2 (A #- O, B #- O)? Give rea­
sons for your answer.
13. ( - 1 , 4/3) 14. (-/2, - 1.3 )

15. (0, - -/2 ) 16. ( - rr , O)

lncrements a n d Motion
In Exercises 17-30, write an equation for each line described.
37. A particle starts at A ( - 2 , 3) and its coordinates change by in­

17. Passes through ( - 1 , 1 ) with slope - 1 crements �x = 5 , � y = -6. Find its new position.

18. Passes through (2, - 3 ) w i t h slope 1 /2 38. A particle starts at A ( 6 , O) and its coordinates change by incre­

19. Passes through ( 3 , 4) and ( - 2 , 5)

ments �x = -6, � Y = O. Find its new position.

20. Passes through ( - 8 , O) and ( - 1 , 3)

39. The coordinates of a particle change by �x = 5 and � Y = 6 as

it moves from A ( x , y) to B ( 3 , - 3 ) . Find x and y.

21. Has slope -5/4 and y-intercept 6
40. A particle started at A (l , O), circled the origin once counterclock­
22. Has slope 1 / 2 and y-intercept -3
wise, and retumed to A ( 1 , O ) . What were the net changes in its

23. Passes through ( - 1 2 , -9) and has slope O coordinates?

16 Preliminaries

y
Applications

4 1. lnsulation. By measuring slopes in Fig. 20, estimate the temper­

ature change in degrees per inch for (a) the gypsum wallboard;

(b) the fiberglass insulation; (c) the wood sheathing. (Graphs can

shift in printing, so your answers may differ slightly from those

in the back of the book.)

80°

70°
_____________,,._ X

o
60°

21 The path of the l i g h t ray i n Exercise 44. A n g l e s of

50°
t i n ci d e n c e a n d reflection are measured from the

� perpendicular.
B
40°
e
Q) i 46. The Mt. Washington Cog Railway. Civil engineers calculate
o..
E the slope of roadbed as the ratio of the distance it rises or falls
� 30º
to the distance it runs horizontally. They call this ratio the grade

of the roadbed, usually written as a percentage. Along the coast,

20° commercial railroad grades are usually less than 2%. In the moun­

tains, they may go as high as 4 % . Highway grades are usually

10° less than 5 % .

The steepest part of the Mt. Washington Cog Railway in

Oº New Hampshire has an exceptional 37 . 1 % grade. Along this part

o 2 3 4 5 6 7
of the track, the seats in the front of the car are 1 4 ft above those

Distance through wall (inches) in the rear. About how far apart are the front and rear rows of

seats?

20 The temperature chang e s i n the w a ll i n Exercises 41

a n d 4 2 . (Source: Differentiation, by W. U . Walton et a l. , Theory a n d E x a m p l e s

Project CALC, Education Development Center, l n c. ,

47. By calculating the lengths of its sides, show that the triangle with
Newton, Mass. [ 1 9 7 5 ], p. 2 5 . )
vertices at the points A ( l , 2), B ( 5 , 5 ) , and C(4, -2) is isosceles

but not equilateral.

42. /nsulation. According to Fig. 20, which of the materials in Ex­

48. Show that the triangle with vertices A ( 0 , 0 ) , B (l , ,J3 ), and
ercise 4 1 is the best insulator? the poorest? Explain.
C (2, 0) is equilateral.

43. Pressure under water. The pressure p experienced by a diver

49. Show that the points A ( 2 , - 1 ) , B ( l , 3 ) , and C ( - 3 , 2) are vertices
under water is related to the diver's depth d by an equation of
of a square, and find the fourth vertex.
the form p = kd + 1 (k a constant). At the surface, the pres­

50. The rectangle shown here has sides parallel to the axes. It is three
sure is 1 atmosphere. The pressure at 100 meters is about 10.94

times as long as it is wide, and its perimeter is 56 units. Find the

atmospheres. Find the pressure at 50 meters.

coordinates of the vertices A, B, and C.

44. Ref/ected light. A ray of light comes in along the line x + y = 1

from the second quadrant and reflects off the x-axis (Fig. 21). y

The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Write

an equation for the line along which the departing light travels.

A D(9, 2)
45. Fahrenheit vs. Celsius. In the FC-plane, sketch the graph of the

equation X

o
5
C = - ( F - 3 2 )
9
B e

linking Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures (Example 12). On

the same graph sketch the line C = F. Is there a temperature at 51. Three different parallelograms have vertices at ( - 1 , 1 ) , (2, O ) ,

which a Celsius thermometer gives the same numerical reading and (2, 3 ) . Sketch them and find the coordinates of the fourth

as a Fahrenheit thermometer? If so, find it. vertex of each.

3 F u n ct i o n s 17

52. A 90º rotation counterclockwise about the origin takes (2, O) to 54. Find the line that passes through the point (1 , 2) and through

(O, 2), and (O, 3) to ( - 3 , O), as shown in Fig. 22. Where does it the point of intersection of the two lines x + 2y = 3 and 2x -

take each of the following points? 3y = - 1.

a) (4, 1) b) (-2, -3) e) (2, -5) 55. Show that the point with coordinates

d) (x, O) e) (O, y) f) (x, y)

+x2 Y1 + Y2)
g) What point is taken to (10, 3)? (X¡
2 ' 2

y
is the midpoint of the line segment joining P ( x 1 , y 1 ) to Q(x2, Y2).

56. The distance from a point to a line. We can find the distance

from a point P(x 0, y0) to a line L : A x + B y = C by taking the

(4, 1 ) following steps (there is a somewhat faster method in Section

• 10.5):

--------------x
(-3, O) (2, O) l. Find an equation for the line M through P perpendicular to L.

2. Find the coordinates of the point Q in which M and L in-

tersect.
(-2, -3)
3. Find the distance from P to Q.

U se these steps to find the distan ce from P to L in each of the

•
(2, -5) following cases.

a) P(2, 1 ) , L: y = x + 2
22 The points moved by the 90º rotation in Exercise 52.
b) P(4, 6), L : 4x + 3y = 12

53. Por what value of k is the line 2x + ky = 3 perpendicular to the e) P ( a , b), L: x = -1

line 4x + y = 1 ? Por what value of k are the lines parallel? d) P(xo, Yo), L: Ax+ By= C

■■ 11 11 1 11 11 1 11 iUH!IH 11

Functions
111 ru1n11111nm11111111111 !IH U m mm1n n: I! 11 ílijlllli!&l!IHl!!illUlll!l�!llffilllHll!ililaUilll1i!I

Functions are the major tools for describing the real world in mathematical terms.

This section reviews the notion of function and discusses sorne of the functions

that arise in calculus.

Functions

The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the

boiling point drops as you ascend). The interest paid on a cash investment depends

on the length of time the investment is held. In each case, the value of one variable

quantity, which we might call y, depends on the value of another variable quantity,

which we might call x. Since the value of y is completely determined by the value

of x, we say that y is a function of x.

Toe letters used for variable quantities may come from what is being described.

When we study circles, we usually call the area A and the radius r. Since A = nr",
2
we say that A is a function of r. Toe equation A = rr r is a rule that tells how to

calculate a unique (single) output value of A for each possible input value of the

radius r.

Toe set of all possible input values for the radius is called the domain of the

function. The set of all output values of the area is the range of the function. Since

circles cannot have negative radii or areas, the domain and range of the circle area

function are both the interval [O, oo ) , consisting of all nonnegative real numbers.

The domain and range of a mathematical function can be any sets of objects;

they do not have to consist of numbers. Most of the domains and ranges we will

encounter in this book, however, will be sets of real numbers.

18 Preliminaries

In calculus we often want to refer to a generic function without having any

Leonhard E u l e r ( 1 7 0 7 - 1 7 8 3 )
particular formula in mind. Euler invented a symbolic way to say "y is a function
Leonhard Euler, the dominant mathematical
of x" by writing
figure of his century and the most prolific

mathematician who ever lived, was also an y = f(x) ("y equals f of x")

astronomer, physicist, botanist, chemist, and

In this notation, the symbol f represents the function. The letter x, called the in­
expert in Oriental languages. He was the first

scientist to give the function concept the dependent variable, represents an input value from the domain o f f, and y, the

prominence in his work that it has in dependent variable, represents the corresponding output value f (x) in the range

mathematics today. Euler's collected books off Here is the formal definition of function.

and papers fill 70 volumes. His introductory

algebra text, written originally in German

(Euler was Swiss), is still read in English

Definition
translation.

A function from a set D to a set R is a rule that assigns a unique element

f (x) in R to each element x in D.

In this definition, D = D (f ) (read "D off") is the domain of the function f and R

is a set containing the range off See Fig. 2 3 .

Think of a function f a s a kind of machine that produces an output value f(x)

in its range whenever we feed it an input value x from its domain (Fig. 24 ).

D = domain set
In this book we will usually define functions in one of two ways:
R = set containing

the range
2
l. by giving a formula such as y = x that uses a dependent variable y to denote

23 A function from a set D to a set R the value of the function, or

assigns a u n i q u e element of R to each 2

2. by giving a formula such as f (x) = x that defines a function symbol f to
e l e m e n t i n D.
name the function.

Strictly speaking, we should call the function f and not f (x ) , as the latter denotes

the value of the function at the point x. However, as is common usage, we will often

refer to the function as f (x) in order to name the variable on which f depends.

lt is sometimes convenient to use a single letter to denote both a function and

--1-n:-u-t......[jf:!)j�/'.:l'.J�iÍt'.��j:','.�-
, -:-u�-;u-t...,.
its dependent variable. For instance, we might say that the area A of a circle of
(Domain) (Range)
2.
radius r is given by the function A (r) = nr

24 A " m a c h i n e " d i a g r a m for a f u n c t i o n .

Evaluation

As we said earlier, most of the functions in this book will be real-valued functions

of a real variable, functions whose domains and ranges are sets of real numbers.

We evaluate such functions by substituting particular values from the domain into

the function's defining rule to calculate the corresponding values in the range.

EXAMPLE 1 The volume V of a ball (solid sphere) of radius r is given by the

function

4
V(r) = n r 3.
3

The volume of a ball of radius 3 m is

4
3 3•
V(3) = n(3) = 36n m
3 o
3 Functions 19

EXAMPLE 2 Suppose that the function F is defined for all real numbers t by

the formula

F(t) = 2(t - 1) + 3.

Evaluate F at the input values O, 2, x + 2, and F ( 2 ) .

Solution In each case we substitute the given input value for t into the formula

for F:

F (O) = 2(0 - 1 ) + 3 = - 2 + 3 = 1

F(2) = 2(2 - 1 ) + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5

F(x + 2) = 2(x + 2 - 1) + 3 = 2x + 5

F(F(2)) = F(5) = 2(5 - 1 ) + 3 = 1 1. o

The D o m a i n Convention

When we define a function y = f (x) with a formula and the domain is not stated

explicitly, the domain is assumed to be the largest set of x-values for which the

formula gives real y-values. This is the function's so-called natural domain. If we

want the domain to be restricted in sorne way, we must say so.

2
The domain of the function y = x is understood to be the entire set of real

numbers. The formula gives a real y-value for every real number x. If we want

to restrict the domain to values of x greater than or equal to 2, we must write

2,
"y= x X ::'.: 2."

Changing the domain to which we apply a formula usually changes the range
2 2,
as well. The range of y = x is [O, oc ) . The range of y = x x ::: 2, is the set of

all numbers obtained by squaring numbers greater than or equal to 2. In symbols,

2
the range is { x 1 x ::::: 2} or { y l y ::: 4} or [4, oo ) .

EXAMPLE 3
Most of the functions we encounter will have

domains that are either intervals or unions of

Function Domain (x) Range (y)
intervals.

y = � [-1, 1] [O, 1 ]

1
y = - ( - oo , 0) U (0, oo) ( - oo , 0) U (O, oc)
X

y = Jx [O, oo) [O, oo)

y = � ( - 00 , 4] [O, oc)

The formula y = -Jf=x2 gives a real y-value for every x in the closed interval
2
from - 1 to 1 . Beyond this domain, 1 - x is negative and its square root is not a
2
real number. The values of 1 - x vary from O to 1 on the given domain, and the

square roots of these values do the same. The range of -Jf="? is [O, 1 ].

The formula y = 1 / x gives a real y-value for every x except x = O. We cannot

divide any number by zero. The range of y = 1 /x , the set of reciprocals of all

nonzero real numbers, is precisely the set of all nonzero real numbers.

The formula y = ,Ji gives a real y-value only if x :::: O. The range of y = ,Ji
is [O, oo) because every nonnegative number is sorne number's square root (namely,

it is the square root of its own square).

20 Preliminaries

y
In y = J4 - x, the quantity 4 - x cannot be negative. That is, 4 - x � O, or

x _:::: 4. The formula gives real y-values for all x _:::: 4. The range of J4 - x is [O, oo),

the set of all square roots of nonnegative numbers. O

G r a p h s of Functions

The graph of a functionf is the graph of the equation y = f (x). It consists of the

points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates (x, y) are input-output pairs for f.

Not every curve you draw is the graph of a function. A function f can have

only one value f (x) for each x in its domain, so no vertical line can intersect the

graph of a function more than once. Thus, a circle cannot be the graph of a function
25 T h i s circle is not the g r a p h of a
since sorne vertical lines intersect the circle twice (Fig. 25). If a is in the domain of
function y = f(x); it fa i l s the vertical li n e
a function f, then the vertical line x = a will intersect the graph off in the single
test.
point (a, f (a)).

2
EXAMPLE4 Graph the function y = x over the interval [ - 2 , 2 ] .

Solution

Step 1: Make a table of .xy-pairs that satisfy the function rule, in this case the
X y =x2 2•
equation y = x

Step 2: Plot the points (x, y) whose Step 3: Draw a smooth curve through
-2 4

-1 1 coordinates appear in the table. the plotted points. Label the curve

o o with its equation.

y
2 4 y

4
• •
(-2, 4) (2, 4)

(-1, l ) • • (1 , 1 )

-2 -1 o 2 -2 -1 O 2
o

2
How do we know that the graph of y = x doesn't look like one of these curves?
Computers and graphing calculators graph

functions in much this way-by stringing y

y

together plotted points-and the same

question arises.
3 Functions 21

To find out, we could plot more points. But how would we then connect them? The

basic question still remains: How do we know for sure what the graph looks like

between the points we plot? The answer líes in calculus, as we will see in Chapter

3. There we will use a marvelous mathematical tool called the derivative to find a

curve's shape between plotted points. Meanwhile we will have to settle for plotting

points and connecting them as best we can.

Figure 26 shows the graphs of several functions frequently encountered in

calculus. It is a good idea to learn the shapes of these graphs so that you can

26 Useful g r a p h s . recognize them or sketch them when the need arises.

y y

X X X

o o

Domain: (-oo, oo) Domain: (-oo, oo) Domain: (-oo, oo)

Range: [O, oo) Range: (-oo, oo) Range: [O, oo)

y y

�
y = s: X

Domain: (-oo, O) u (O, oo]

\
X X Range: (-oo, Ü) U (0, oo)
o

Domain: [O, oo) Domain: (-oo, oo)

Range: [O, oo) Range: (-oo, oo )

y y y

-1

1
-3

X X X

o o

Domain: (-oo, O) u (O, oo) Domain: [O, oo)

Range: (O, oo) Range: [O, oo)

y = mx for selected

values of m

Domain: (-oo, oo)

Range: (-oo, oo)

22 Preliminaries

S u m s , Differences, Products, a n d Quotients

Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided ( except

where the denominator is zero) to produce new functions. If f and g are functions,

then for every x that belongs to the domains of both f and g, we define functions

f + g, f - g , and fg by the formulas

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

(f - g)(x) = f (x) - g ( x)

(fg)(x) = f(x)g(x).

At any point of D ( f) n D ( g ) at which g ( x ) -=J= O, we can also define the function

f/ g by the formula

(x) = f(x) (where g(x) -=J= 0).

(!_)
g g(x)

Functions can also be multiplied by constants: If e is a real number, then the

function cf is defined for all x in the domain off by

(cf)(x) = cf ( x ) .

EXAMPLE 5

Function Formula Domain

f J(x) = Jx [O, oo)

g g ( x ) = -JI=x ( - oo , 1 ]

3g 3g(x) = 3,JT"=x ( - oo , l ]

J + g (f + g)(x) = Jx + ,JI=x [O, l ] = D (f ) n D(g)

J - g (f - g ) ( x ) = Jx - ,JI=x [O, 1]

g - f (g - f) ( x ) = ,JI=x - Jx [O, 1 ]

f • g (f • g ) ( x ) = f (x)g(x) = ✓x(l - x) [O, 1 ]

J/g
f__ ( x ) = f(x) = ✓ x
[O, 1 ) (x = 1 excluded)
g g(x) 1 - X

g/f
f(x) = g(x) = ✓1 - x
(O, 1 ] (x = O excluded) O
f f(x) X

Composite F u n c t i o n s

Composition is another method for combining functions.

Definition

Iff and g are functions, the composite function f o g (''f circle g") is defined

by

(f o g ) ( x ) = f (g(x)).

The domain of f o g consists of the numbers x in the domain of g for which

g( x) lies in the domain off

3 Functions 23

I= s The definition says that two functions can be composed when the range of the first

lies in the domain of the second (Fig. 27). To find (f o g ) ( x ) , we first find g ( x )

and second find f ( g ( x ) ) .

To evaluate the composite function g o f (when defined), we reverse the order,

finding f (x) first and then g (f ( x ) ) . The domain of g o f is the set of numbers x

in the domain off such that f (x) lies in the domain of g.

The functions f o g and g o f are usually quite different.

EXAMPLE 6 If f (x) = ,Ji and g ( x ) = x + l , find

a) (f o g ) ( x ) b) (g o f) ( x ) e) (f o f) ( x ) d) (g o g )( x ) .

27 The r e l a t i o n of f o g to g a n d f.

Solution

Composite Domain

a) (j o g ) ( x ) = J ( g ( x ) ) = jgV) = -Jx+T [ - 1 , oo )

b) (g o f) ( x ) = g (f ( x ) ) = f(x) + 1 =✓X,+ 1 [O, oo)

1 4
e) (j o f) ( x ) = f (f ( x ) ) = /Ri) = /Jx = x 1 [O, oc)

d) (g o g ) ( x ) = g(g(x)) = g(x) + 1 = (x + 1) + 1 = x + 2 IR or ( - oo , oc)

To see why the domain of f o g is [ - 1 , oc ) , notice that g (x) = x + l is defined

for all real x but belongs to the domain o f f only if x + l � O, that is to say, if

X � - l. 0

Even F u n c t i o n s a n d Odd Functions-Symmetry

A function y = f (x) is even if f ( - x ) = f (x) for every number x in the domain

off Notice that this implies that both x and -x must be in the domain off The
2 2 2
function f(x) = x is even because f ( - x ) = ( - x ) =x = f(x).

The graph of an even function y = f (x) is symmetric about the y-axis. Since

f(-x) = f ( x ) , the point (x, y) lies on the graph if and only if the point ( - x , y)

lies on the graph (Fig. 28a). Once we know the graph on one side of the y-axis,

we automatically know it on the other side.

A function y = f (x) is odd if f ( - x ) = - f (x) for every number x in the

domain of f Again, both x and -x must lie in the domain of f The function
3 3 3
f (x) = x is odd because f ( - x ) = ( - x ) = -x = - f (x).

The graph of an odd function y = f (x) is symmetric about the origin. Since

f (-x) = - f (x), the point ( x , y) lies on the graph if and only if the point ( - x , - y )

lies on the graph (Fig. 28b). Here again, once we know the graph off on one side

of the y-axis, we know it on both sides.

28 {a) Symmetry about the y-axis. lf {x, y)

is on the g r a p h , so is {-x, y). {b) Sym­

metry about the o r i g i n . lf {x, y) is on the

graph, so is {-x, -y). (b)

24 P r e li m i n a r i e s

y
Piecewise Defined Functions
Y = lxl

Sometimes a function uses different formulas on different parts of its domain. One

example is the absolute value function

x :::: O
[ x ] = 1 x,
-x, X < O,

whose graph is given in Fig. 29. Here are sorne examples.

-3 -2 -1 O 2 3

29 The absolute v a l u e f u n c t i o n . EXAMPLE 7 The function

is defined on the entire real line but has values given by different formulas depending

on the position of x (Fig. 30). O

y
EXAMPLE 8 The greatest integer function

y = J(x)

The function whose value at any number x is the greatest integer less than or equal

y = l to x is called the greatest integer function or the integer floor function. It is

denoted L x J , or, in sorne books, [x] or [ [ x ] ]. Figure 3 1 shows the graph. Observe

that
-2 -1 O 2

L2.4J = 2, L l. 9 J = 1, LOJ = O, L - l. 2 J = -2,

30 To g r a p h the function y = f(x) shown L2J = 2, L0.2J = O, L-0.3J = -1 L-2J = -2.

o
here, we a p p l y different fo r m u l a s to

different parts of its d o m a i n ( E x a m p l e 7).

EXAMPLE 9 The /east integer function

The function whose value at any number x is the smallest integer greater than or

equal to x is called the least integer function or the integer ceiling function. It

is denoted íx l Figure 32 shows the graph. Por positive values of x, this function

might represent, for example, the cost of parking x hours in a parking lot which

charges $ 1 for each hour or part of an hour.

y

y
3

2
3

-2
31 The g r a p h of the greatest i n t e g e r

f u n c t i o n y = LxJ l i e s on or below the l i n e

y = x, so it provides a n i n t e g e r floor for x. 32 The g r a p h of the least i n t e g e r f u n c t i o n y = 1x7 l i e s on or above the

l i n e y = x, so it provides a n integer c e i l i n g for x. o

Exercises 3 25

Exercises 3

Functions Functions a n d Graphs

In Exercises 1-6, find the domain and range of each function. Graph the functions in Exercises 13-24. What symmetries, if any, do

the graphs have? Use the graphs in Fig. 26 for guidance, as needed.
l. f(x) = 1 + x2 2. f (x) = 1 - Jx
1
3
1 1 13. y = -x 14. y = --
x2
3. F(t) = ./i 4. F(t) = l + ./i
1 1
15. y = -­ 16. y = -
1
2 X
5. g(z) = J4 - z 6. g (z) = � l x l

2
v4-z
17. y = /ixf 18. y = �

In Exercises 7 and 8, which of the graphs are graphs of functions of 3

19. y = x /8 20. y = -4Jx
x, and which are not? Give reasons for your answers.
3 2 3 2
21. y = -x 1 22. y = (-x) 1
7. a) b)
2 3 3
23. y = (-x) 1 24. y = -x2 1
y y

25. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not

graphs of functions of x.

a) I Y I = x b) y2 = x2

26. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not

graphs of functions of x.

a) l x l + l y l = l b) lx + Y I = 1
---------x --------x
o o

Even a n d Odd Functions

8. a) b)

In Exercises 27-38, say whether the function is even, odd, or neither.

y y

5
27. f(x) = 3 28. f(x) = x-

2
29. f (x) = x + 1 30. f(x) = x2 + x

3 4
= +
C) 31. g(x) x x 32. g(x) = x +3x2 - 1

1 X

33. g(x) = x2 - 1 34. g(x) = x2 - 1

1
-t--------x -t--------x 3
o o 35. h(t) = - 36. h(t) = l t 1

t - I

37. h(t) = 2t + I 38. h(t) = 2 1 t l + 1

F i n d i n g Formulas for Functions

9. Express the area and perimeter of an equilateral triangle as a

Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients
function of the triangle's side length x.

In Exercises 39 and 40, find the domains and ranges of f, g , f + g,

10. Express the side length of a square as a function of the length d
and f • g.
of the square's diagonal. Then express the area as a function of

the diagonal length. 39. f(x) = x, g(x) = Jx=1

11. Express the edge length of a cube as a function of the cube's 40. f (x) = Jx+T, g(x) = ✓
x=1

diagonal length d. Then express the surface area and volume of

In Exercises 4 1 and 42, find the domains and ranges of f, g , f/ g ,
the cube as a function of the diagonal length.
and g/f.

12. A point P in the first quadrant lies on the graph of the function
41. f (x) = 2, g(x) = x2 + 1
f (x) = Jx. Express the coordinates of P as functions of the

slope of the line joining P to the origin. 42. f (x) = 1 , g(x) = 1 + Jx

26 Preliminaries

You can see what is going on if you let x be your original

Composites of Functions
number and follow the steps to make a formula f (x) for the
43. lf f(x) = x + 5 and g ( x ) = x2 - 3, find the following.
number you end up with.

a) f(g(O)) b) g (f (0))

e) f(g(x)) d) g (f ( x ) ) Piecewise Defined Functions

e) f (f ( - 5 ) ) f) g(g(2))
Graph the functions in Exercises 51-54.
g) J (f ( x ) ) h) g(g(x))
O ::: x ::: l
44. lf f(x) = x - 1 and g ( x ) = 1/(x + 1 ) , find the following. 51. J (x) = { x
x,
2'_ l < x ::: 2

a) f ( g (l / 2 ) ) b) g (f (1 / 2 ) )

e) J(g(x)) d) g (f (x)) 52. g(x) = g =�: Ü :'.:: X :'.:: 1

1 < X :'.:: 2
e) f (!(2)) f) g(g(2))

g) J (f ( x ) ) h) g(g(x)) 3 X :'.:: 1
53. F (x) = { - x'
2x, X > 1
45. If u ( x ) = 4x - 5, v ( x ) = x 2 , and f ( x ) = 1 / x , find formulas for

the following. x < O

54. G(x) = { l/x,
x, O ::: x
a) u ( v (f ( x ) ) ) b) u (f ( v ( x ) ) )

e) v ( u (f ( x ) ) ) d) v (f ( u ( x ) ) ) 55. Find a formula for each function graphed.

e) f(u(v(x))) f) J (v(u(x)))
a) b)

46. If J ( x ) = Jx, g ( x ) = x/4, and h ( x ) = 4x - 8, find formulas

y y

for the following.

(1 , 1 )
a) h ( g (f ( x ) ) ) b) h (f ( g ( x ) ) )
2

n
e) g ( h (f ( x ) ) ) d) g (f ( h ( x ) ) )

e) f(g(h(x))) f) f ( h ( g ( x )))

O 1 2 3 4
Let f(x) = x - 3, g(x) = Jx, h(x) = x3, and j(x) = 2x. Ex­

press each of the functions in Exercises 47 and 48 as a composite

involving one or more of f, g , h , and j . 56. Find a formula for each function graphed.

47. a) y = Jx - 3 b) y = 2.,/x a) b)

e) y = Xl/4 d) y = 4x
y y
e) y = J(x - 3)3 f) y = (2x - 6)3

(T, 1 )
48. a) y = 2 x - 3 b) y = x3/2

e) y =X9 d) y = x - 6 A

e) y = 2 .Jx=3 f) y = Jx3 - 3 n
49. Copy and complete the following table. o T T sr 2.T

i ¡ T :
-A � ........
g(x) f(x) (fo g)(x) T T

a) X - 7 ✓X

The Greatest a n d Least lnteger Functions

)
b x + 2 3x

57. For what values of x is (a) LxJ = O? (b) [x] = O?

e) �

X X
58. What real numbers x satisfy the equation Lx J = íx l ?
d)
x - 1 x - 1 59. Does í - x l = - Lx J for all real x? Give reasons for your answer.

1 60. Graph the function

e) 1 + - X

X
x 2:_ 0
f(x) = { LxJ,
íxl, x < O
f) - X

X
Why is f (x) called the integer part of x ?

50. A magic trick. You may have heard of a magic trick that goes
Even a n d Odd F u n ct i o n s
like this: Take any number. Add 5. Double the result. Subtract 6.

Divide by 2. Subtract 2. Now tell me your answer, and I' ll tell 61. Assume that f is an even function, g is an odd function, and

you what you started with. both f and g are defined on the entire real line IR. Which of the

Pick a number and try it. following (where defined) are even? odd?
4 S h i fti n g G r a p h s 27

a) Jg b) f/g e) g/f 11 Grapher

d) J2 = ff e) g2 = gg f) f o g
63. (Continuation of Example 5.) Graph the functions f(x) = .Jx
g) g o f h) f o f i) g o g
and g(x) = JI"""=x together with their (a) sum, (b) product,

62. Can a function be both even and odd? Give reasons for your (e) two differences, (d) two quotients.

answer. 2.
64. Let f (x) = x - 7 and g ( x ) = x Graph f and g together with

J o g and g o J.

I """"���;;;;:;�';:;��• 1 1 11 11 11 u 1 1 1 1 1 11 111 111l 11 1 1 1 11 111 11 , 11 , , 11 ,_ , .., , . ,,, 1111111111111,,,_

This section shows how to change an equation to shift its graph up or down or

to the right or left. Knowing about this can help us spot familiar graphs in new

locations. It can also help us graph unfamiliar equations more quickly. We practice

mostly with circles and parabolas (because they make useful examples in calculus),

but the methods apply to other curves as well. We will revisit parabolas and circles
2
y = x + 2

in Chapter 9.

2
y = x + 1

How to Shift a G r a p h
y = x2

To shift the graph of a function y = f (x) straight up, we add a positive constant

to the right-hand side of the formula y = f (x).

2
EXAMPLE 1 Adding 1 to the right-hand side of the formula y = x to get
2
y = x + 1 shifts the graph up 1 unit (Fig. 3 3 ) . O

To shift the graph of a function y = f (x) straight down, we add a negative

constant to the right-hand side of the formula y = f (x).

2
EXAMPLE 2 Adding -2 to the right-hand side of the formula y = x to get
2
y = x - 2 shifts the graph down 2 units (Fig. 3 3 ) . O

To shift the graph of y = f (x) to the left, we add a positive constant to x.

2
33 To s h i ft the g r a p h of f(x) = x u p (or
2 2
down), we add positive (or negative) EXAMPLE 3 Adding 3 to x in y = x to get y = (x + 3) shifts the graph 3

constants to the fo r m u l a for f. units to the left (Fig. 34 ) . O

Add a positive Add a negative

constant to x. constant to x.
y

2
34 To s h i ft the graph of y = x to the left, we add a positive constant to x. To shift

the g r a p h to the right, we add a negative constant to x.

28 Preliminaries

y
To shift the graph of y = f (x) to the right, we add a negative constant to x.
3
y = (x + 1) + 3

2 2
EXAMPLE 4 Adding -2 to x in y = x to get y = (x - 2) shifts the graph 2

units to the right (Fig. 34). O

3
y = (x - 2)

Shift Formulas

VERTICAL SHIFfS

y - k = f(x) or Shifts the graph up k units if k > O

y = f(x) + k Shifts it down l k l units if k < O

HORIZONTAL SHIFfS

y = f(x - h) Shifts the graph right h units if h > O

Shifts it left lh I units if h < O

3
y = (x - 2) - 2

3 3
EXAMPLE 5 The graph of y = (x - 2) - 2 is the graph of y = x shifted 2
3
units to the right and 2 units down. The graph of y = (x + 1) + 3 is the graph of
3
y = x shifted 1 unit to the left and 3 units up (Fig. 35). O
3
35 The g r a p h of y = x shifted to three

new positions i n the xy-plane.

E q u a t i o n s for Circles

A circle is the set of points in a plane whose distance from a given fixed point

in the plane is constant (Fig. 36). The fixed point is the center of the circle; the

y constant distance is the radios. We saw in Section 2, Example 4, that the circle of
2 2 2•
radius a centered at the origin has equation x + y = a If we shift the circle to
2.
place its center at the point (h, k), its equation becomes (x - h ) 2 + (y - k ) 2 = a

The Standard Equation for the Circle of Radios a Centered at the Point

(h, k)

(x - h ) 2 + (y - k ) 2 = ª2 (1)

(x - h)2 + ( y - k)2 = a2

-1-------------x
o

2 2
EXAMPLE 6 If the circle x + y = 25 is shifted 2 units to the left and 3 units
36 A ci r c l e o f r a d i u s a in the xy-plane,
2 2
up, its new equation is (x + 2) + (y - 3 ) = 25. As Eq. (1 ) says it should be, this
with center at (h, k).

is the equation of the circle of radius 5 centered at ( h , k) = (-2, 3). O

EXAMPLE 7 The standard equation for the circle of radius 2 centered at

(3, 4) is

2 2 2
(x - 3) + (y - 4) = (2)

or

(x - 3 )2 + (y - 4 )2 = 4.
4 Shifting Graphs 29

There is no need to square out the x- and y-terms in this equation. In fact, it is

better not to do so. The present form reveals the circle's center and radius. O

EXAMPLE 8 Find the center and radius of the circle

(x - 1 )2 + ( y + 5)2 = 3.

Solution Comparing

(x - h ) 2 + (y - k ) 2 = a2

with

2
(x - 1 )2 + ( y + 5) = 3

shows that h = I , k = - 5 , anda= ,J3. The center is the point ( h , k) = (1 , - 5 ) ;

the radius is a = ,J3. □

Technology Square Windows We use the term "square window" when the

units or scalings on both axes are the same. In a square window graphs are

true in shape. They are distorted in a nonsquare window.

The term square window does not refer to the shape of the graphic dis­

play. Graphing calculators usually have rectangular displays. The displays of

Computer Algebra Systems are usually square. When a graph is displayed,

the x-unit may differ from the y-unit in order to fit the graph in the display,

resulting in a distorted picture. The graphing window can be made square by

shrinking or stretching the units on one axis to match the scale on the other,

giving the true graph. Many systems have built-in functions to make the win­

dow "square." If yours does not, you will have to do sorne calculations and set

the window size manually to get a square window, or bring to your viewing

sorne foreknowledge of the true picture.

On your graphing utility, compare the perpendicular lines y1 = x and

y2 = - x + 4 in a square window and a nonsquare one such as [ - 1 O, 1 O]

2
by [ 10 , 10]. Graph the semicircle y = Js - x in the same windows.

Two p e r p e n d i c u l a r l i n e s a n d a

s e m i ci r cl e g r a p h e d distorted by a

rectangular window.

If an equation for a circle is not in standard form, we can find the circle' s

center and radius by first converting the equation to standard form. The algebraic

technique for doing so is completing the square (see inside front cover).

EXAMPLE 9 Find the center and radius of the circle

2
x + y2 + 4x - 6y - 3 = O.
30 Preliminaries

y
Solution We convert the equation to standard form by completing the squares in
2 2
Exterior: (x - h) + (y - k) > a2
x and y:

x2 + y2 + 4x - 6y - 3 = O Start with the given equation.

Gather terms. Move the

(x2 + 4x ) + (y2 - 6y ) = 3 constant to the right-hand

side.

k
6)') Add the square of half the

(x' +4x + G)') + ( y' - 6 y + ( � = coefficient of x to each

side of the equation. Do

the same for y. The

parenthetical expressions

3+ G )' +(�6)' on the left-hand side are

2 2 2
Interior: (x - h) + (y - k) < a now perfect squares.

(x2 + 4x + 4) + (y2 - 6y + 9) = 3 + 4 + 9

2
Write each quadratic as a
(x + 2)2 + (y - 3 ) = 16
o h squared linear expression.

With the equation now in standard form, we read off the center' s coordinates and
37 The i n t e r i o r a n d exterior of the ci r cl e
the radius: ( h , k) = ( - 2 , 3) a n d a = 4. O
2 2•
(x - h)2 + (y - k) = a

Interior and Exterior

The points that lie inside the circle (x - h ) 2 + (y - k ) 2 = a2 are the points less

than a units from ( h , k ) . They satisfy the inequality

(x - h ) 2 + (y - k ) 2 < a2.

They make up the region we call the interior of the circle (Fig. 37).

The circle's exterior consists of the points that lie more than a units from

( h , k ) . These points satisfy the inequality

(x - h ) 2 + (y - k)2 > a2.

EXAMPLE 10

Inequality Region

x2 + y2 < I Interior of the unit circle

x2 + y2 :S 1 Unit circle plus its interior

x2 + y2 > I Exterior of the unit circle

x2 + y2 ::: 1 Unit circle plus its exterior o

P a r a b o l ic Graphs

2 2
The graph of an equation like y = 3x or y = - 5 x that has the form

2
y = ax

is a parabola whose axis (axis of symmetry) is the y-axis. The parabola's vertex

(point where the parabola and axis cross) lies at the origin. The parabola opens

38 Besides d e t e r m i n i n g the d i r e c t i o n in upward if a > O and downward if a < O. The larger the value of l a l , the narrower
2
w h i c h the p a r a b o l a y = ax o p e n s , the the parabola (Fig. 3 8 ) .
2,
n u m b e r a is a s c a l i n g factor. The p a r a b o l a If we interchange x and y in the formula y = ax we obtain the equation
w i d e n s as a a p p ro a c h e s zero a n d narrows
2.
as ! a l becomes l a r g e . X = ay
4 S h i fti n g G r a p h s 31

y With x and y now reversed, the graph is a parabola whose axis is the x-axis and
y2
x = - whose vertex líes at the origin (Fig. 39 ) .
2
2

2
EXAMPLE 1 1 The formula x = y gives x as a function of y but does not give

y as a function of x. If we solve for y, we find that y = ±,Jx. For each positive

value of x we get two values of y instead of the required single value.

When taken separately, the formulas y = ,Jx and y = - ,Jx do define functions

of x. Each formula gives exactly one value of y for each possible value of x. The
2.
graph of y = ,Jx is the upper half of the parabola x = y The graph of y = -,Jx
is the lower half (Fig. 40). O

2
The Q u a d r a t ic E q u a t i o n y = ax + bx + e, a � O

2
To shift the parabola y = ax horizontally, we rewrite the equation as

2 .
2 y = a ( x - h )
39 The parabola x = ay is symmetric

about the x-axis. lt opens to the r i g h t if

To shift it vertically as well, we change the equation to
a > O a n d to the left if a < O.
2 •
y y - k = a(x - h ) (2)

The combined shifts place the vertex at the point ( h , k ) and the axis along the line

x = h (Fig. 4 1 ) .

Normally there would be no point in multiplying out the right-hand side of

Eq. (2). In this case, however, we can leam something from doing so because the
o
resulting equation, when rearranged, takes the form

y = ax: + bx + e. (3)

2
This tells us that the graph of every equation of the form y = ax + bx + e, a =/. O,
2
is the graph of y = ax shifted somewhere else. Why? Because the steps that take
40 The g r a p h s of the f u n c t i o n s y = ,Jx
us from Eq. (2) to Eq. (3) can be reversed to take us from ( 3 ) back to (2). The
a n d y = -,Jx j o i n at t h e o r i g i n to m a k e
2 2•
the g r a p h of the e q u a t i o n x = y
2
curve y = ax + bx + e has the same shape and orientation as the curve y = a x
2
( E x a m p l e 1 1 ). T h e axis of the parabola y = ax + bx + e tums out to be the line x = -b / ( 2 a ) .

y The y-intercept, y = e, is obtained by setting x = O.

2
y = a(x - h) + k

2
The Graph of y = ax + bx + e, a i O

2
The graph of the equation y = ax + bx + e, a =/. O, is a parabola. The

parabola opens upward if a > O and downward if a < O. The axis is the

line

b
X = - - . (4)
2a

The vertex of the parabola is the point where the axis and parabola intersect.

Its x-coordinate is x = -b/2a; its y-coordinate is found by substituting

x = -b/2a in the parabola's equation.

1
New vertex
1

1 is (h, k)
1

o h EXAMPLE 12 Graphing a paraba/a

2, . 1 2
41 The p a r a b o l a y = ax a > O, shifted h
Graph the equauon y = - - x - x + 4.
units to the right a n d k u n i t s u p . -2
32 Preliminaries

y Solution We take the following steps.

Vertex is (-1, �) I
2
Step 1: Compare the equation with y = ax + bx + e to identify a, b, and c.

Pomt
. symmetnc
.

with y-intercept
\1 I
I
Intercept at y = 4
a = --
1
b = -l, c = 4
2'

(-2� 1
<0,4) Step 2: Find the direction of opening. Down, because a < O.
-1
1
Step 3: Find the axis and vertex. The axis is the line
i1

i-: 1
b (-1)
cñ l Eq. (4)
X = - - = ---=-1
�I 2a 2(-1/2) '
1

---��----�-------x
3 -2 -J O 1
so the x-coordinate of the vertex is - 1 . The y-coordinate is

1 2 9
1
1 y = - 2 ( - 1) - ( - l ) + 4 = 2 ·

Intercepts at The vertex is ( - 1 , 9 / 2 ) .

x = -4 a n d x = 2

Step 4: Find the x-intercepts (if any).

42 The p a r a b o l a i n E x a m p l e 1 2 .
1 2 Set y = O in thc
--x - x + 4 = 0
parabola's e q u a t i o n .
2

2
x + 2x - 8 = O Solve a:- u s u a l.

(x - 2) (x + 4) = O

X =2, X = -4

Step 5: Sketch the graph. We plot points, sketch the axis (lightly), and use what

we know about symmetry and the direction of opening to complete the graph

(Fig. 42). 0

Exercises 4

Shifting Graphs

2 2
l. Figure 43 shows the graph of y = - x shifted to two new posi­ 2. Figure 44 shows the graph of y = x shifted to two new positions.

tions. Write equations for the new graphs. Write equations for the new graphs.

Position (a)

43 The p a r a b o l a s in Exercise 1 .

44 The p a r a b o l a s i n Exercise 2 .
Exercises 4 33

3. Match the equations listed in (a)-(d) to the graphs in Fig. 45. labeling each graph with its equation. Use the graphs in Fig. 26 for

2 2 reference as needed.
a) y = (x - 1 ) - 4 b) y = (x - 2) + 2

2 2 2
e) y = (x + 2) + 2 d) y = (x + 3)2 - 2 5. x + y = 49 Down 3, left 2

2 2
y
6. x + y = 25 Up 3, left 4

3
7. y = x Left 1 , down 1

2 3
8. y = x 1 Right 1 , down 1

9. y = Jx Left 0 . 8 1

10. y = -Jx Right 3

11. y = 2x - 7 Up 7

1
12. y = (x + 1) + 5 Down 5, right 1
2
2 2
13. x = y Left 1 14. x = -3y Up 2, right 3

2
15. y = 1/x Up 1 , right 1 16. y = I/x Left 2, down 1

Graph the functions in Exercises 17-36. Use the graphs in Fig. 26

for reference as needed.

1 7 . y = ✓ x + 4 18. y = v'9=x

19. y = lx -21 20. y = 1 1 - X 1 - 1

21. y = 1 + ,Jx--=-1 22. y = 1 - Jx

(1 , -4)

213 213
23. y = (x + 1) 24. y = (x - 8)

2 3 213
45 The parabolas i n Exercise 3.
25. y = 1 - x 1 26. y + 4 = x

3 2
27. y = �X - 1 - 1 28. y = (x + 2) 1 + 1

2
4. Figure 46 shows the graph of y = -x shifted to four new posi­ 1 1
29. y = -- 30. y = - - 2
tions. Write an equation for each new graph.
X - 2 X

y 1 1
31. y = - + 2 32. y = -­
X x + 2

1 1
33. y = 2 34. y = - - 1
(x - 1 ) x2

1 1
35. y = + 1
2
X
36. y = (x + 1)2

37. The accompanying figure shows the graph of a function f (x)

with domain [O, 2] and range [O, l ] . Find the domains and ranges

of the following functions, and sketch their graphs.

46 The p a r a b o l a s i n Exercise 4.

a) f(x) + 2 b) f(x) - 1

Exercises 5-16 tell how many units and in what directions the graphs e) 2f (x) d) - f(x)

of the given equations are to be shifted. Give an equation for the e) f(x+2) f) f (x - 1)

shifted graph. Toen sketch the original and shifted graphs together, g) f(-x) h) - f (x + 1) + 1
34 Preliminaries

38. The accompanying figure shows the graph of a function g ( t ) with

lnequalities
domain (-4, O] and range [ - 3 , O]. Find the domains and ranges
Describe the regions defined by the inequalities and pairs of inequal­
of the following functions, and sketch their graphs.
ities in Exercises 61-68.

2 2
y 61. x + y > 7

2 2
62. x + y < 5

2
63. (x - 1 )2 + y :S 4

2 2
64. x + (y - 2) ::: 4

2 2 2 2
65. x + y > 1, x + y < 4

2 2 2 2
66. x + y :S 4, (x + 2) + y :S 4

2 2
67. x + y + 6y < O, y > -3

a) g(-t) b) - g (t ) 2 2
68. x + y - 4x + 2y > 4, x > 2
e) g (t ) + 3 d) 1 - g(t)

69. Write an inequality that describes the points that lie inside the
e) g(-t + 2) f) g (t - 2)

g) g ( l - t) h) - g (t - 4) circle with center ( - 2 , 1 ) and radius ✓6.

70. Write an inequality that describes the points that lie outside the

circle with center ( - 4, 2) and radius 4.

Circles
71. Write a pair of inequalities that describe the points that lie inside
In Exercises 39-44, find an equation for the circle with the given
or on the circle with center (O, 0) and radius v/2, and on or to
center C t h , k) and radius a. Then sketch the circle in the xy-plane.
the right of the vertical line through (1 , O).
Include the circle's center in your sketch. Also, label the circle's x­

and y-intercepts, if any, with their coordinate pairs. 72. Write a pair of inequalities that describe the points that lie outside

the circle with center (O, O) and radius 2, and inside the circle
39. C ( O , 2), a = 2 40. C(-3,0), a = 3
that has center (1 , 3) and passes through the origin.

41. C ( - 1 , 5), a = ,Jio 42. C (l , 1 ) , a = vÍ2

Shifting Lines
43. C ( - -J3 , - 2 ) , a = 2 44. C(3, 1/2), a = 5

73. The line y = mx, which passes through the origin, is shifted
Graph the circles whose equations are given in Exercises 45-50. Label
vertically and horizontally to pass through the point (x 0, y 0).
each circle's center and intercepts (if any) with their coordinate pairs.
Find an equation for the new line. (This equation is called the
2 2
45. x + y + 4x - 4y + 4 = O line's point-slope equation.)

2 2
46. x + y - 8x + 4y + 16 = O 74. The line y = mx is shifted vertically to pass through the point

2 2 (O, b ) . What is the new Iine's equation?

47. x + y - 3y - 4 = O

2 2
48. x +y -4x-(9/4)=0
lntersecting Lines, Circles, a n d Parabolas
2 2
49. x + y - 4x + 4y = O
In Exercises 75-82, graph the two equations and find the points in
2 2
SO. x + y + 2x = 3 which the graphs intersect.

2 2
75. y=2x, x + y = 1

2 2
Para bolas 16. X + y = 1, (X - 1) + y = 1

2
Graph the parabolas in Exercises 5 1 - 5 8 . Label the vertex, axis, and 77. y - X = 1, y = x

intercepts in each case.

2
78. x + y = O, y = -(x - 1 )
2 2
51. y = x - 2x - 3 52. y = x + 4x + 3 2, 2
19. y = -x y = 2x - 1
2 2
53. y = -x +4x 54. y = -x + 4x - 5
1
2

2 2
80. y = x 2, y = (x - 1 )
SS. y = -x - 6x - 5 56. y = 2x - X + 3 4
1 1 2 2 2
2 2 81. x + y = 1, (x - 1 )2 + y = 1
57. y = x + X + 4 58. y = - x + 2x + 4
2 4 2 2 2
82. x + y = 1, x + y = 1
2•
59. Graph the parabola y = x - x Then find the domain and range

2•
of f ( x ) = ✓x - x O C A S Explorations a n d Projects

2.
60. Graph the parabola y = 3 - 2x - x Then find the domain and In Exercises 83-86, you will explore graphically what happens to the

2.
range of g ( x ) = J3 - 2x - x graph of y = f(ax) as you change the value of the constant a . Use
5 T r i g o n o m e t r ic F u n c t i o n s 35

a CAS or computer grapher to perform the following steps. 5x

83. f(x) = - , [ - 10 , 10]
2-
a) Plot the function y = f (x) together with the function y = f (ax) X + 4

for a = 2, 3 , and 10 over the specified interval. Describe what 2x(x - 1 )

84. f(x)= x + l , [-3,2]

2
happens to the graph as a increases through positive values.

b) Plot the function y = f (x) and y = f (ax) for the negative values x + l

a = - 2 , - 3 . What happens to the graph in this situation?

85. f(x) = x
2
+ [ - 2 , 2]
2 1 ,
e) Plot the function y = j(x) and y = j(ax) for the fractional 4 3
x -4x + 10
values a = 1/2, 1 / 3 , 1/4. Describe what happens to the graph 86. j(x) = x + , [ - 1 , 4]
2
4
when l a l < l.

--■ !1!011�;'�=¡: ·;:;::--------

This section reviews radian measure, trigonometric functions, periodicity, and basic

trigonometric identities.

Radian Measure

In navigation and astronomy, angles are measured in degrees, but in calculus it is

best to use units called radians because of the way they simplify later calculations

(Section 2.4).

Let ACB be a central angle in a unit circle (circle of radius 1 ) , as in Fig. 47.

Degrees Radians
47 The r a d i a n m e a s u r e of a n g l e ACB is

Unit circ\e the l e n g t h of the are AB.

The radian measure 0 of angle ACB is defined to be the length of the circular are
1 1
AB. Since the circumference of the circle is 2n and one complete revolution of a

n 1
o

1
1T
-
2
circle is 360º, the relation between radians and degrees is given by the following

equation.

n radians = 180º

EXAMPLE 1 Conversions (Fig. 48)

J( J(

Convert 45º to radians: 45. - = - rad

180 4

J(

48 The a n g l e s of two co m m o n t r i a n g l e s ,
Convert rad to degrees:
� . 180 = 30º

in degrees a n d r a d i a n s . 6 6 J( o
36 Preliminaries

y y

--------.1---�-----x

______..__ X

49 Angles i n standard position in the xy-plane.

An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at

Conversion formulas
the origin and its initial ray lies along the positive x-axis (Fig. 49). Angles measured
Jr •
1 degree = (� 0.02) radians counterclockwise from the positive x-axis are assigned positive measures; angles
180
measured clockwise are assigned negative measures.
n
When angles are used to describe counterclockwise rotations, our measurements
Degrees to radians: multiply by
180
can go arbitrarily far beyond Zn radians or 360º. Similarly, angles describing

180 clockwise rotations can have negative measures of ali sizes (Fig. 50).
1 radian = - (� 57) degrees
n

180
Radians to degrees: multiply by - y y
tt

3 7T

91T

y y

------.-----x

50 Nonzero r a d i a n measures can be positive or negative.

CircJe of radius r
There is a useful relationship between the length s of an are AB on a circle

of radius r and the radian measure 0 of the angle the are subtends at the circle's
51 The r a d i a n measure of a n g l e ACB is
center C (Fig. 5 1 ). If we draw a unit circle with the same center C, the are A' B'
the length 0 of are A' B' on the u n i t circle

centered at C. The v a l u e of 0 can be

cut by the angle will have length 0 , by the definition of radian measure. From the

fo u n d from any other circle as sir. similarity of the circular sectors ACB and A'CB', we then have s / r = 0 / 1.
5 T r i g o n o m e t r ic F u n c t i o n s 37

Radian Measure and Are Length

hypotenuse s
- = 0, or s = r0
opposite
r

Notice that these equalities hold precisely because we are measuring the angle in
adjaeent
radians.

sin 0 = opp ese 0 = hyp

hyp opp
Angle Convention: Use Radians
d'
eos0= -Jª
h see 0 = hy�
yp adj From now on in this book it is assumed that all angles are measured in

radians unless degrees or sorne other unit is stated explicitly. When we talk
tan 0 = op� eot 0 = adj
adj opp about the angle n: / 3 , we mean n: /3 radians (which is 60º), not n: /3 degrees.

When you do calculus, keep your calculator in radian mode.

52 Trigonometric ratios of an acute

angle.

y
EXAMPLE 2 Considera circle of radius 8 . (a) Find the central angle subtended

by an are of length 2n: on the circle. (b) Find the length of an are subtending a

central angle of 3n: / 4.

Solution

s 2n n
a) 0 = � =
8
=
4
b) s = r0 = 8 (3;) = Sn
o

The S i x B a s ic Trigonometric F u n c t i o n s

You are probably familiar with defining the trigonometric functions of an acute

angle in terms of the sides of a right triangle (Fig. 52). We extend this definition to

obtuse and negative angles by first placing the angle in standard position in a circle
53 The t r i g o n o m e t r i c f u n c t i o n s of a

g e n e r a l a n g l e 0 are defined i n terms of x, of radius r. We then define the trigonometric functions in terms of the coordinates

y, a n d r. of the point P(x, y) where the angle's terminal ray intersects the circle (Fig. 5 3 ) .

r
. 0 y
Sine: sm = - Cosecant: csc0 = -
r y

X r
Cosine: cos0 = - Secant: sec0 = -
r X

y X

Tangent: tan0 = - Cotangent: cot 0 = -

X y

These extended definitions agree with the right-triangle definitions when the angle

54 The new a n d o l d d e fi n i t i o n s agree for

is acute (Fig. 54).

acute a n g l e s . As you can see, tan 0 and sec 0 are not defined if x = O. This means they are
38 Preliminaries

y
not defined if 0 is ± n /2, ± 3n /2, . . . . Similarly, cot 0 and ese 0 are not defined

for values of 0 for which y = O, namely 0 = O, ± n, ± 2n, . . . .

P(x, y) = (r cos 0, r sin 0)
Notice also the following definitions, whenever the quotients are defined.
/,,,,,.,,.-- ---,,,

'\\
\
1

----------�'----x sin0 1
o I
I tan0 = -­ cot0 = -­
/ cos0 tan0
/
/
/
__ .,,. //
1 1
sec0 = -­ csc0 = -­
cos0 sin0

55 The Cartesian coordinates of a point

in the p l a n e expressed in terms of r a n d 0 . The coordinates of any point P(x, y) in the plane can now be expressed in

terms of the point's distance from the origin and the angle that ray OP makes with

the positive x-axis (Fig. 5 5 ) . Since x / r = cos 0 and y/ r = sin 0 , we have

x = r cos0, y = r sin 0 . (1)

Values of Trigonometric F u n ct i o n s

If the circle in Fig. 53 has radius r = 1, the equations defining sin 0 and cos 0

y become

Unit circle
cos0 = x, sin0 = y.

We can then calculate the values of the cosine and sine directly from the coordinates

of P, if we happen to know them, or indirectly from the acute reference triangle made

by dropping a perpendicular from P to the x-axis (Fig. 5 6 ) . We read the magnitudes

mi---'-----+-➔ x of x and y from the triangle's sides. The signs of x and y are determined by the

quadrant in which the triangle líes.

EXAMPLE 3 Find the sine and cosine of 2n /3 radians.

Solution

56 The acute reference t r i a n g l e for an Step 1: Draw the angle in standard position in the unit circle and write in the

a n g l e 0. lengths of the sides of the reference triangle (Fig. 57).

(cos
27T .
,sm
21r)
=
(
-
1 -J3 )
3 3 2, 2

\ y

57 The t r i a n g l e for c a l c u l a t i n g the s i n e a n d cosine of

2n/3 r a d i a n s ( E x a m p l e 3 ) .
5 Trigonometric Functions 39

y Step 2: Find the coordinates of the point P where the angle's terminal ray cuts the

circle:

2rr 1
s A
cos - = x-coordinate of P = - -
sin pos all pos 3 2

. 2rr . ,J3
-----+------x sm = y-coordmate of P =
3 2. o
T e A useful rule for remembering when the basic trigonometric functions are
tan pos cos pos
positive and negative is the CAST rule (Fig. 5 8 ) .

EXAMPLE4 Find the sine and cosine of -rr / 4 radians.

58 The CAST rule.

Solution

Step 1: Draw the angle in standard position in the unit circle and write in the

lengths of the sides of the reference triangle (Fig. 59).

-l f- - X

p\

59 The t r i a n g l e for c a lc u l a t i n g the s i n e a n d cosine of

-n/4 r a d i a n s ( E x a m p l e 4).
( 1, -1) = (cos (- ¡ ). sin ( - ¡ ))

Step 2: Find the coordinates of the point P where the angle's terminal ray cuts the

circle:

cos (-¡) = x-coordinate of P = ,;¡ ,

. ( rr ) . �
sm - = y-coordmate of P = -
4 2. o
Calculations similar to those in Examples 3 and 4 allow us to fill in Table 2.

Table 2 Values of s i n e, cos e, a n d tan e for selected v a l u e s of e

1··

I>egl'ees . . -180 -135 -90 -45 o 30 45 60 90 135 180

1.c:.

, . .

. n' &a<lial)s) -JT -3JT/4 -JT/2 -JT/4 o n/6 JT/4 n/3 n/2 3n/4 JT

;< $in·9· o -v'2/2 -1 -v'2/2 o 1/2 v'212 �/2 1 ./212 o

, , CO S ' i 8 ,;
-1 -v'l/2 o v'l/2 1 �/2 y'2/2 1/2 o -v'l/2 -1

E tatt:ti· o -1 o �/3 � -1 o
}H-. ..
40 Preliminaries

y y

-+--t--➔X

Domain: (-oo, oo) Domain: (-oo, oo)

Range: [-1, l] Range: [-1, 1 ] Domain: Ali real numbers except odd

integer multiples of 1r/2

Range: (-oo, oo)

y y y

y = secx

Domain: x * ± i' ± 3{, . . .

Domain: x * O, ±1r, ±21r, . . . Domain: x * O, ±1r, ±21r, . . .

Range: (-oo, - 1 ] u [l, oo) Range: (-oo, - 1 ] u [l, oo) Range: (-oo, oo)

60 The g r a p h s of the six basic

Graphs
trigonometric functions as f u n c t i o n s of

r a d i a n m e a s u r e . Each function's When we graph trigonometric functions in the coordinate plane, we usually denote

periodicity shows cl e a r l y i n its g r a p h . the independent variable by x instead of 0 . See Fig. 60.

Periodicity

When an angle of measure x and an angle of measure x + 2n are in standard posi­

tion, their terminal rays coincide. The two angles therefore have the same trigono­

metric values. For example, cos (x + 2rr) = cos x . Functions like the trigonometric

functions whose values repeat at regular intervals are called periodic.

Definition

A function f (x) is períodic if there is a positive number p such that

f (x + p) = f (x) for all x. · The smallest such value of p is the period off.

Periods of trigonometric functions

Period 1r: tan (x + rr) = tanx As we can see in Fig. 60, the tangent and cotangent functions have period p = n.

eot (x + zr ) = eotx The other four functions have period Z n :

Period 21r: sin (x + Zzr ) = sinx

Figure 6 1 shows graphs of y = cos 2x and y = cos(x /2) plotted against the

eos (x + 2rr) = eosx

graph of y = cos x . Multiplying x by a number greater than 1 speeds up a trigono­

see (x + 2rr) = seex metric function (increases the frequency) and shortens its period. Multiplying x by

ese (x + 2rr) = esex a positive number less than 1 slows a trigonometric function down and lengthens

its period.
5 Trigonometric Functions 41

y y

(a) (b)

61 (a) Shorter period: cos 2x. (b) Longer The importance of periodic functions stems from the fact that much of the
period: cos (x/2)
behavior we study in science is periodic. Brain waves and heartbeats are periodic,

as are household voltage and electric current. The electromagnetic field that heats

food in a microwave oven is periodic, as are cash flows in seasonal businesses and

the behavior of rotational machinery. The seasons are periodic-so is the weather.

The phases of the moon are periodic, as are the motions of the planets. There is

strong evidence that the ice ages are periodic, with a period of 90,000-100,000

years.

If so many things are periodic, why limit our discussion to trigonometric func­

tions? The answer lies in a surprising and beautiful theorem from advanced calculus

that says that every periodic function we want to use in mathematical modeling can

be written as an algebraic combination of sines and cosines. Thus, once we leam

the calculus of sines and cosines, we will know everything we need to know to

model the mathematical behavior of periodic phenomena.

Even vs. Odd

The symmetries in the graphs in Fig. 60 reveal that the cosine and secant functions

are even and the other four functions are odd:

Even Odd

y cos (-x) = cosx sin (-x) = -sinx

sec ( - x) = sec x tan (-x) = -tanx

ese ( - x ) = -cscx

cot (-x) = -cotx

ldentities

Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the reference right triangle we obtain by

dropping a perpendicular from the point P (cos 0 , sin 0) on the unit circle to the
leos OI x-axis (Fig. 62) gives

2 2
cos 0 + sin 0 = 1. (2)

This equation, true for all values of 0 , is probably the most frequently used identity
62 The reference t r i a n g l e for a general

angle 0. in trigonometry.
42 Preliminaries

2 2
Dividing Eq. (2) in tum by cos 0 and sin 0 gives the identities

2
1 + tarr' 0 = sec 0,

2
1 + cor' 0 = csc 0.

You may recall the following identities from an earlier course.

Ali the trigonometric identities you will need

Angle Sum Formulas
in this book derive from Eqs. (2) and (3).

cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B

(3)

s i n ( A + B) = sinAcosB +cosAsinB

These formulas hold for all angles A and B. There are similar formulas for

cos (A - B) and sin (A - B ) (Exercises 35 and 36).

Substituting 0 for both A and B in the angle sum formulas gives two more

useful identities:

Instead of memorizing Eqs. (3) you might

Double-angle Formulas
find it helpful to remember Eqs. ( 4 ), and then

recall where they carne from. 2 2

cos 20 = cos 0 - sin 0
(4)

sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cos 0

Additional formulas come from combining the equations

2 2 2 2
cos 0 + sin 0 = 1, cos 0 - sin 0 = cos 2 0 .

2
We add the two equations to get 2 cos 0 = 1 + cos 20 and subtract the second
2
from the first to get 2 sin 0 = 1 - cos 20 .

Additional Double-angle Formulas

1 + cos 20
2
cos 0 = ---- (5)
2

1 - cos 20
2
sin 0 = ---- (6)
2

When 0 is replaced by 0 /2 in Eqs. (5) and (6), the resulting formulas are called

half-angle formulas. Sorne books refer to Eqs. (5) and (6) by this name as well.
Exercises 5 43

B(a cos 0, a sin 0)

63 The s q u a r e of the distance between A

and B gives the law of c o s i n e s .

The Law of Cos ines

If a, b, and e are sides of a triangle ABC and if 0 is the angle opposite e, then

2 2 2
c = a + b - 2ab c o s 0 . (7)

This equation is called the law of cosines.

We can see why the law holds if we introduce coordinate axes with the origin

at C and the positive x-axis along one side of the triangle, as in Fig. 63. The

coordinates of A are (b, O ) ; the coordinates of B are (a cos 0 , a sin 0 ) . The square

of the distance between A and B is therefore

2 2
c = (a cos 0 - b ) + (a sin 0)2

2 2 2 2
= a (cos 0 + sin 0) + b - 2ab cos 0
--,-,

2 2
= a + b - 2ab cos 0 .

Combining these equalities gives the law of cosines.

The law of cosines generalizes the Pythagorean theorem. If 0 = n /2, then

2 2 2•
cos 0 = O and c = a + b

Exercises 5

R a d i a n s , Degrees, a n d C i r c u l a r Ares i 4. CALCULATOR If you roll a 1-m-diameter wheel forward 30

cm over level ground, through what angle will the wheel tum?
l. On a circle of radius 1 O m, how long is an are that subtends a
Answer in radians (to the nearest tenth) and degrees (to the nearest
central angle of (a) 4:rr /5 radians? (b) 1 10 º ?
degree).
2. A central angle in a circle of radius 8 is subtended by an are of

length l Ozr. Find the angle's radian and degree measures.

E v a l u a t i n g Trigonometric F u n ct i o n s
i 3. CALCULATOR You want to make an 80º angle by marking an

are on the perimeter of a 12-in.-diameter disk and drawing lines 5. Copy and complete the table of function values shown on the

from the ends of the are to the disk's center. To the nearest tenth following page. If the function is undefined at a given angle,

of an inch, how long should the are be? enter "UNO." Do not use a calculator or tables.
44 Preliminaries

0 -7r -27r/3 o 7r/2 37r/4 22. COS (X + ¡) - 1

sin 0 Graph the functions in Exercises 23-26 in the ts-plane (t-axis hor­

cos 0 izontal, s-axis vertical). What is the period of each function? What

tan 0 symmetries do the graphs have?

cot 0
23. s = cot 2t 24. s = - tan nt
sec 0

ese 0
25. s = sec ( �t ) 26. s = ese (D

11 27. GRAPHER
6. Copy and complete the following table of function values. lf the

function is undefined at a given angle, enter "UND." Do not use a) Graph y = cos x and y = sec x together for -3n /2 ::S x :S

a calculator or tables. 3n /2. Comment on the behavior of sec x in relation to the

signs and values of cos x .

b) Graph y = sin x and y = ese x together for - n :S x :S 2n.

0 -37r/2 -7r/3 -7r/6 7r/4 57r/6 Comment on the behavior of ese x in relation to the signs

and values of sin x .

sin 0
11 28. G RAPH ER Graph y = tan x and y = cot x together for - 7 ::S
cos 0
x :S 7. Comment on the behavior of cot x in relation to the signs
tan 0
and values of tan x .
cot 0

sec 0 29. Graph y = sin x and y = L sin x J together. What are the domain

ese 0 and range of [sin x ] ?

30. Graph y = sin X and y = r sin X1 together. What are the domain

and range of r sin x 1 ?

In Exercises 7-12, one of sin x, cos x, and tan x is given. Find the

other two if x líes in the specified interval.

3
A d d i t i o n a l Trigonometric ldentities
7. sinx = - ,
5
X
in [ i, n] Use the angle sum formulas to derive the identities in Exercises 31-36.

8. tanx = 2, x in [o. i] 31. cos (x - i) = sinx 32. cos (x + Í) = - sin x

1
9. cosx = 3' X in [-i, Ü] 33. sin (x + Í) = cos x 34. sin (x - Í) = - cos x

5 35. cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

10 . cosx = - 13 , X Ín [i, 7r]
36. sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B

3;
37. What happens if you take B = A in the identity cos (A - B) =
11. tan x = 1, x in [n , ]
cos A cos B + sin A sin B? Does the result agree with something

you already know?

3;
12. sin x = - �, x in [n , ]
38. What happens if you take B = 2n in the angle sum formulas?

Do the results agree with something you already know?

G r a p h i n g Trigonometric F u n c t i o n s

Graph the functions in Exercises 13-22. What is the period of each

U s i n g the A n g l e S u m F o r m u l a s
function?
In Exercises 39-42, express the given quantity in terms of sin x and
13. sin 2x 14. sin (x /2) COS X.

7rX

15. COS 7r X 16. cos 2 39. cos (n + x) 40. sin (2n - x)

17. - sin nx 18. -cos2nx 41. sin (3; -x) 42. cos (3; +x)
3

19. cos (x - i) 20.

sin (x + �) 43.
7n
Evaluate sin - as sin
(n
- + n
-) .
12 4 3
Exercises 5 45

2 A A

44. Evaluate cos .!2.::_ ascos (� + n )·

12 4 3

45. Evaluate cos !!_ .

12
h

. 5n
46 • Evaluate sm - .
12

U s i n g the D o u b l e - a n g l e F o r m u l a s

F i n d the function values in Exercises 47-50.

Use the accompanying figures and the identity sin (n - 0) =
2 2
47. cos � 48. cos !!_ sin 0 , if required, to derive the law.
8 12

i 58. CALCULATOR A triangle has sides a = 2 and b = 3 and angle

2 2
49. sin !!_ 50. sin �
C = 60º (as in Exercise 55). Find the sine of angle B using the
12 8
law of sines.

Theory a n d E x a m p l e s i 59. CALCULATOR A triangle has side e = 2 and angles A = n /4

and B = n /3. Find the length a of the side opposite A.

5 1. The tangent sum formula. The standard formula for the tangent

of the sum of two angles is :1 60. The approximation sin x � x. It is often useful to know that,

tan A + tan B when x is measured in radians, sin x � x for numerically small

tan ( A + B ) = _ tan A tan B values of x. In Section 3 . 7 , we will see why the approximation
1
holds. The approximation error is less than 1 in 5000 if [x 1 < 0.1.

Derive the formula.

a) With your grapher in radian mode, graph y = sin x and

52. (Continuation of Exercise 5 1 . ) Derive a formula for y = x together in a viewing window about the origin. What

tan (A - B ) . do you see happening as x nears the origin?

b) With your grapher in degree mode, graph y = sin x and

53. Apply the law of cosines to the triangle in the accompanying
y = x together about the origin again. How is the picture
figure to derive the formula for cos (A - B ) .
different from the one obtained with radian mode?

y e) A quick radian mode check. Is your calculator in radian

mode? Evaluate sin x at a value of x near the origin, say

x = O. l. If sin x � x, the calculator is in radian mode; if

not, it isn 't. Try it.

G e n e r a l S i n e Curves

Figure 64 on the following page shows the graph of a general sine

function of the form

f(x) = A sin (2; (x - C)) + D,

where IAI is the amplitude, IBI is the period, C is the horizontal

shift, and D is the vertical shift. Identify A, B, C, and D for the sine

functions in Exercises 6 1 -6 4 and sketch their graphs.

54. When applied to a figure similar to the one in Exercise 5 3 , the law
61. y = 2 sin (x + n ) - 1
of cosines leads directly to the formula for cos (A + B ) . What is

that figure and how does the derivation go? 1 1

62. y = - sin (nx - n ) + -
2 2
i 55. CALCULATOR A triangle has sides a = 2 and b = 3 and angle

C = 60º. Find the length of side c.

63. y = -� sin (!!_t) + _!_
JT -2 JT
i 56. CALCULATOR A triangle has sides a = 2 and b = 3 and angle

C = 40º. Find the length of side c. L . 2nt

6 4 . y = - s m - L > 0
2n L '
57. The law of sines. The law of sines says that if a, b, and e are

the sides opposite the angles A, B, and C in a triangle, then

sin A sinB sin e

a b e
46 Preliminaries

D + A

Horizontal Amplitude (A)

This axis is the

shift (C) 1 1 _
_____ line y = D. _

64 The g e n e r a l s i n e curve � This distance is

the period (B).

y = A s i n [(2n/8)(x - C)] + D,
--0-r-----'----------------------------+ X

shown for A, B, C, a n d D positive.

66. Temperature in Fairbanks, Alaska. Use the equation in Exer­

The Trans-Alaska P i p e l i n e
cise 65 to approximate the answers to the following questions
The builders of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline used insulated pads to keep
about the temperature in Fairbanks, Alaska, shown in Fig. 65.
the heat from the hot oíl in the pipeline from melting the permanently
Assume that the year has 365 days.
frozen soil beneath. To design the pads, it was necessary to take into
a) What are the highest and lowest mean daily temperatures
account the variation in air temperature throughout the year. Figure
shown?
65 shows how we can use a general sine function, defined in the
b) What is the average of the highest and lowest mean daily
introduction to Exercises 61-64, to represent temperature data. The
temperatures shown? Why is this average the vertical shift
data points in the figure are plots of the mean air temperature for
of the function?
Fairbanks, Alaska, based on records of the N ational Weather Service

from 1 9 4 1 to 1970. The sine function used to fit the data is

2
O CAS Explorations a n d Projects
f (x) = 37 sin ( :,r (x - 10 1 ) ) + 25,
365 In Exercises 67-70, you will explore graphically the general sine

function
where f is temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and x is the number of

the day counting from the beginning of the year. The fit is remarkably
f(x) = A sm
. ( 2 :,r
( x - C)
)
+ D
good. 8

65. Temperature in Fairbanks, Alaska. Find the (a) amplitude, (b) as you change the values of the constants A, B, C, and D. Use a

period, ( c) horizontal shift, and ( d) vertical shift of the general CAS or computer grapher to perform the steps in the exercises.

sine function 67. The period B. Set the constants A = 3 , C = D = O.

a) Plot f (x) for the values B = 1 , 3, 2n, 5n over the interval

f(x) = 37 sin ( � ( x - 10 1 ) ) + 25.
365

65 N o r m a l mean a i r t e m p e r a t u r e at

F a i r b a n k s , Alaska, plotted as data points.

The a p p r o x i m a t i n g s i n e function is

f(x) = 3 7 s i n (::5(x- 101)) +25.

(Source: " I s the Curve of Temperature

Variation a Sine Curve?" by B. M . L a n d o

a n d C. A. Lando, The Mathematics

Teacher, 7 : 6 , F i g . 2, p. 5 3 5 [September

1 9 77 ] . ) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Ju! Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
Questions to G u i d e Your Review 47

-4n :S x :S 4n. Describe what happens to the graph of the 69. The vertical shift D. Set the constants A = 3, B = 6, C = O.

general sine function as the period increases.

a) Plot f (x) for the values D = O, 1 , and 3 over the interval
b) What happens to the graph for negative values of B ? Try it
-4n :S x :S 4 n . Describe what happens to the graph of the
with B = -3 and B = -2n.
general sine function as D increases through positive values.

68. The horizontal shift C. Set the constants A = 3, B = 6, D = O. b) What happens to the graph for negative values of D?

a) Plot f (x) for the values C = O, 1 , and 2 over the interval 70. The amplitude A. Set the constants B = 6, C = D = O.

-4n :S x :S 4 n . Describe what happens to the graph of the

a) Describe what happens to the graph of the general sine
general sine function as C increases through positive values.
function as A increases through positive values. Con­
b) What happens to the graph for negative values of C ?
firm your answer by plotting f (x) for the values A = I,
e) What smallest positive value should be assigned to C so
5, and 9.
the graph exhibits no horizontal shift? Confirm your answer
b) What happens to the graph for negative values of A ?
with a plot.

PRELIMINARIES QUESTIONS TO GUIDE Y OUR REVIEW

l. What are the order properties of the real numbers? How are they 13. When is it possible to compose one function with another? Give

used in solving inequalities? examples of composites and their values at various points. Does

the order in which functions are composed ever matter?

2. What is a number's absolute value? Give examples. How are

1 - a l , l a b l , l a / b l , and l a + b l related to l a l and l b l ? 14. How do you change the equation y = f (x) to shift its graph up

or down? to the left or right? Give examples.

3. How are absolute values used to describe intervals or unions of
2 2
intervals? Give examples. 15. Describe the steps you would take to graph the circle x + y +

4x - 6y + 12 = O.
4. How do you find the distance between two points in the coordinate

plane? 16. lf a, b, and e are constants and a =/= O, what can you say about
2
the graph of the equation y = ax + bx + e? In particular, how
5. How can you write an equation for a line if you know the coordi­
2
would you go about sketching the curve y = 2x + 4x?
nates of two points on the line? the line's slope and the coordinates

of one point on the line? the line's slope and y-intercept? Give 17. What inequality describes the points in the coordinate plane that

examples. líe inside the circle of radius a centered at the point ( h , k ) ? that

líe inside or on the circle? that líe outside the circle? that líe
6. What are the standard equations for lines perpendicular to the
outside or on the circle?
coordinate axes?

18. What is radian measure? How do you convert from radians to

7. How are the slopes of mutually perpendicular lines related? What
degrees? degrees to radians?
about parallel lines? Give examples.

19. Graph the six basic trigonometric functions. What symmetries do

8. When a line is not vertical, what is the relation between its slope
the graphs have?
and its angle of inclination?

20. How can you sometimes find the values of trigonometric func­
9. What is a function? Give examples. How do you graph a real­
tions from triangles? Give examples.
valued function of a real variable?

21. What is a periodic function? Give examples. What are the periods
10. Name sorne typical algebraic and trigonometric functions and
of the six basic trigonometric functions?
draw their graphs.
2 2
22. Starting with the identity cos 0 + sin 0 = I and the formulas
11. What is an even function? an odd function? What geometric prop­
for cos ( A + B) and sin ( A + B ) , show how a variety of other
erties do the graphs of such functions have? What advantage can
trigonometric identities may be derived.
we take of this? Give an example of a function that is neither even

nor odd. What, if anything, can you say about sums, products,

quotients, and composites involving even and odd functions?

12. lf f and g are real-valued functions, how are the domains of

J + g , J - g , fg, and f/g related to the domains o f f and g ?

Give examples.
48 Preliminaries

PRELIMINARIES PRACTICE EXERCISES

Geometry Composition with abso/ute values. In Exercises 15-20, graph g 1

and g2 together. Then describe how taking absolute values after ap­
l. A particle in the plane moved from A ( - 2, 5) to the y-axis in
plying g 1 affects the graph.
such a way that �y equaled 3 �x. What were the part icle's new

coordinates?
g1(X) g2(x) = lg1(x)I

2. a) Plot the points A ( 8 , 1 ) , B ( 2 , 10), C ( - 4 , 6 ) , D ( 2, - 3 ) , and

3 3
E ( l 4 / 3 , 6). 15. x lx 1

b) Find the slopes of the lines AB, BC, CD, DA, CE, and BD.
16. Jx I Jx l
e) Do any four of the five points A, B, C, D, and E form a
1
parallelogram? 17. -
X
d) Are any three of the five points collinear? How do you l � I

know?
18. 4 - x2 l4-x21
e) Which of the lines determined by the five points pass through
19. x2 + x 1x2 + x i
the origin?

20. sinx 1 sin x i

3. Do the points A(6, 4 ) , B(4, - 3 ) , and C ( - 2 , 3 ) forman isosceles

triangle? a right triangle? How do you know?

4. Find the coordinates of the point on the line y = 3x + 1 that is

Trigonometry
equidistant from (O, 0) and ( - 3 , 4 ) .

In Exercises 21-24, sketch the graph of the given function. What is

the period of the function?

Functions a n d G r a p h s
. X

5. Express the area and circumference of a circle as functions of 21. y = cos2x 22. y = sm
2
the circle's radius. Then express the area as a function of the
T(X
circumferen ce.
23. y = sin rrx 24. y = cos
2
6. Express the radius of a sphere as a function of the sphere's surface

area. Then express the surface area as a function of the volume. 25. Sketch the graph y = 2 cos (x - i).
7. A point P i n the first quadrant líes on the parabola y = x 2 . Express

the coordinates of P as functions of the angle of inclination of 26. Sketch the graph y = 1 + sin (x + ¡ )·
the line joining P to the origin.

In Exercises 27-30, ABC is a right triangle with the right angle at C.

8. A hot-air balloon rising straight up from a level field is tracked
The sides opposite angles A, B, and C are a, b, and e, respectively.
by a range finder located 500 ft from the point of lift-off. Express

the balloon's height as a function of the angle the line from the 27. a) Find a and b if e = 2, B = n /3.

range finder to the balloon makes with the ground. b) Find a a n d e if b = 2, B = n /3.

Composition with absolute values. In Exercises 9-14, graph f1 and 28. a) Express a in terms of A and c.

h together. Then describe how applying the absolute value function b) Express a in terms of A and b.

before applying f1 affects the graph.

29. a) Express a in terms of B and b.

b) Express e in terms of A and a.

/i(x) füx) = fü l x l )

30. a) Express sin A in terms of a and c.

9. X lxl b) Express sin A in terms of b and c.

3 3
10. x lxl i 31. CALCULATOR Two guy wires stretch from the top T of a vertical

11. x2 pole to points B and C on the ground, where C is 1 O m closer to

lxl2

the base of the pole than is B. If wire BT makes an angle of 35º

1
12. _!_ - with the horizontal, and wire CT makes an angle of 50º with the
X [ x ]

horizontal, how high is the pole?

13. Jx M i 32. CALCULATOR Observers at positions A and B 2 km apart simul­

14. sinx sin [ x ] taneously measure the angle of elevation of a weather balloon to
Additional Exercises-Theory, E x a m p l e s , A p p l ic a t i o n s 49

be 40º and 70º, respectively. lf the balloon is directly above a

== 35.
a) G R A P H ER Graph the function f(x) = sinx + cos ( x / 2 ) .

point on the line segment between A and B, find the height of b) What appears to be the period of this function?

the balloon. e) Confirm your finding in (b) algebraically.

33. Express sin 3x in terms of sin x and cos x .

== 36.
a) GRAPHER Graph f (x) = s i n (l / x ) .

b) What are the domain and range o f f ?

34. Express cos 3x in terms of sin x and cos x .
e) Is f periodic? Give reasons for your answer.

PRELIMINARIES ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS

Geometry F u n ct i o n s a n d G r a p h s

l. An object's center of mass moves at a constant velocity v along 3. Are there two functions f and g such that f o g = g o f ? Give

a straight line past the origin. The accompanying figure shows reasons for your answer.

the coordinare system and the line of motion. The dots show
4. Are there two functions f and g with the following property? The
positions that are 1 sec apart. Why are the areas A 1 , A 2 , • • • , A5
graphs off and g are not straight lines but the graph of f o g is
in the figure ali equal? As in Kepler's equal area law (see Section
a straight line. Give reasons for your answer.
1 1 . 5 ) , the line that joins the object's center of mass to the origin
5. lf f(x) is odd, can anything be said of g(x) = f ( x ) - 2? What
sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
if f is even instead? Give reasons for your answer.

y
6. lf g (x) is an odd function defined for ali values of x, can anything

be said about g(0)? Give reasons for your answer.

10
7. Graph the equation [ x ] + I Y I = 1 + x.

(/J
t = 5
t 8. Graph the equation y + I Y I = x + [x].
tí
E:
..9
g 5 Trigonometry

In Exercises 9-14, ABC is an arbitrary triangle with sides a, b, a n d e

t = 1 opposite angles A, B, and C, respectively.

9. Find b if a = J3, A = n /3, B = n /4.

o 5 10 15 10. Find sin B if a = 4, b = 3 , A = n /4.

Kilometers 11. Find cos A if a = 2, b = 2, e = 3.

2. a) Find the slope of the line from the origin to the midpoint 12. Find e if a = 2, b = 3, C = n /4.

P of side AB in the triangle in the accompanying figure

13. Find sin B if a = 2, b = 3, e = 4.
(a, b > O).
14. Find sin C if a = 2, b = 4, e = 5.

Derivations a n d Proofs

15. Prove the following identities.

B(O, b)

1 - cosx sinx
a)
sinx 1 + cosx

1 - cosx
2
b) = tan �

1 + cosx 2

-�------------x
o A(a, O)

b) When is OP perpendicular to AB?

50 Preliminaries

16. Explain the following "proof without words" of the law of cosines. 20. Properties of absolute values. Prove the following properties

(Source: "Proof without Words: The Law of Cosines," Sidney H. of absolute values of real numbers.

Kung, Mathematics Magazine, Vol. 63, No. 5, Dec. 1990, p. 342.)

a) 1 - a l = lal

b) l � I = : : :

21. Prove that the following inequalities hold for any real numbers

a and b.

a) lal < ibl if and only if a2 < b2

b) la - b l ::: ll a l - i b ll

22. Generalizing the triangle inequality. Prove by mathematical

induction that the following inequalities hold for any n real num­

bers a 1 , a2, . . . , a.: (Mathematical induction is reviewed in Ap­

pendix l.)

a) la1 + a 2 + · · · + a n l :S l a 1 I + l a 2 I + · · · + l a n l

b) la1 + a 2 + · · · + a n l :=: l a il - l a 2 I - · · · - l a n l

23. Show that if f is both even and odd, then f (x) = O for every x

in the domain off

17. Show that the area of triangle ABC is given by ( l / 2 ) a b sin C =
24. a) Even-odd decompositions. Letf be a function whose do­
( l / 2 ) b e sin A = ( l / 2 ) e a sin B .
main is symmetric about the origin, that is, - x belongs to

e the domain whenever x does. Show that f is the sum of an

even function and an odd function:

f(x) = E(x) + O(x),

b
where E is an even function and O is an odd function. iHint:

Let E ( x ) = (f ( x ) + f ( - x ) ) / 2 . Show that E ( - x ) = E ( x ) ,

so that E is even. Then show that O (x) = f (x) - E (x) is

A .,__ e ____. B

odd.)

b) Uniqueness. Show that there is only one way to write f a s

* 18. Show that the area of triangle ABC is given by the sum of an even and an odd function. (Hint: One way is

,Js(s - a ) ( s - b)(s - e) where s = ( a + b + e)/2 is the semi­ given in part (a). If also f ( x ) = E 1 ( x ) + 0 1 ( x ) where E1

perimeter of the triangle. * is even and 01 is odd, show that E - E 1 = 01 - O . Then

use Exercise 23 to show that E = E 1 and O = 0 1 .)

19. Properties of inequalities. If a and b are real numbers, we say

that a is less than b and write a < b if (and only if) b - a is

positive. Use this definition to prove the following properties of 11 G r a p h e r Explorations-Effects of Parameters
2
inequalities. 25. What happens to the graph of y = ax + bx + e as
If a, b, and e are real numbers, then:
a) a changes while b and e remain fixed?
l. a e b ==} a + e < b + e
b) b changes (a and e fixed, a =I= O)?
2. a =c b ==} a - e < b - e
e) e changes (a and b fixed, a =I= O)?

3. a < b and e > O ==} ae < be

3
26. What happens to the graph of y = a (x + b ) + e as
4. a < b and e < O ==} be < ae

(Special case: a < b ==} -b < -a) a) a changes while b a n d e remain fixed?

1 b) b changes (a and e fixed, a =I= O)?

5. a > O ==} - > 0
e) e changes (a and b fixed, a =I= O)?
a

27. Find all values of the slope of the line y = mx + 2 for which the
6. O < a < b ==} - < -
b a x-intercept exceeds 1/2.

1
7. a < b < O ==} - < ­
b a

* Asterisk denotes more challenging problem.

CHAPTER

Limits a n d Continuity

ÜVERVIEW The concept of limit of a function is one of the fundamental ideas

that distinguishes calculus from algebra and trigonometry.

In this chapter we develop the limit, first intuitively and then formally. We use

limits to describe the way a function f varies. Sorne functions vary continuously;

small changes in x produce only small changes in f ( x ) . Other functions can have

values that jump or vary erratically. We also use limits to define tangent lines

to graphs of functions. This geometric application leads at once to the important

concept of derivative of a function. The derivative, which we investigate thoroughly

in Chapter 2, quantifies the way a function's values change.

3llill& l
-� IIB- U Ub 1 -15 1 bl • - -

Ratas of C h a n g e a n d Li m i t s

In this section we introduce two rates of change, speed and population growth. This

leads to the main idea of the section, the idea of limit.

Speed

A moving body's average speed over any particular time interval is the amount of
Free fall
distance covered during the interval divided by the length of the interval.

Near the surface of the earth, all bodies fall

with the same constant acceleration. The

EXAMPLE 1 A rock falls from the top of a 150-ft cliff. What is its average
distance a body falls after it is released from
speed (a) during the first 2 sec of fall? (b) during the l - s e c interval between second
rest is a constant multiple of the square of

the time elapsed. At least, that is what 1 and second 2?

happens when the body falls in a vacuum,

Solution Physical experiments show that a solid object dropped from rest to fall
where there is no air to slow it down. The
freely near the surface of the earth will fall
square-of-time rule also holds for dense,

heavy objects like rocks, ball bearings, and 2

y = l6t ft
steel tools during the first few seconds of

their fall through air, before their velocities during the first t sec. The average speed of the rock during a given time interval is

build up to where air resistance begins to the change in distan ce, Ll y , divided by the length of the time interval, M .

matter. When air resistance is absent or 2 2

Ay _1
6_(
2_)
__-_1
_ 6
(
_ 0
_ ) =
insignificant and the only force acting on a a) Por the first 2 sec: 32_ft
2 - 0 sec
falling body is the force of gravity, we call

the way the body falls free fall. 2 2

Lly = 16(2) - 1 6 (1 ) = __!!_
b) From second 1 to second 2: 48
Llt 2 - 1 sec o

51
52 Chapter 1 : Limits and Continuity

Table 1 . 1 Average speeds over short t i m e intervals

2
.6.y 16(t 0 + h) - 16tl
Average speed: - = ------
.6.t h

Length of Average speed over Average speed over

time interval interval of length h interval of length h

h starting at t0 = 1 starting at t0 = 2

48 80

0.1 33.6 65.6

0.01 32.16 64.16

0.001 32.016 64.016

0.0001 32.0016 64 . 0 0 1 6

EXAMPLE 2 Find the speed of the rock at f = 1 and t = 2 sec.

Solution We can calculate the average speed of the rock over a time interval

[to, t o + h ] , having length b..t = h , as

2
b..y 16(to + h) - 16f 0 2

M h

We cannot use this formula to calculate the "instantaneous" speed at t0 by sub­

stituting h = O, because we cannot divide by zero. But we can use it to calculate

average speeds over increasingly short time intervals starting at fo = 1 and fo = 2.

When we do so, we see a pattem (Table 1 . 1 ).

The average speed on intervals starting at fo = 1 seems to approach a lim­

iting value of 32 as the length of the interval decreases. This suggests that the

rock is falling at a speed of 32 ft/sec at t0 = 1 sec. Similarly, the rock's speed at

t0 = 2 sec would appear to be 64 ft/sec. O

Average Rates of C h a n g e a n d Secant U n e s

Given an arbitrary function y = f ( x ) , we calculate the average rate of change of

y with respect to x over the interval [ x 1 , x2] by dividing the change in value of

y , b..y = f(x 2) - f ( x ¡) , by the length of the interval b..x = x2 - x1 = h over which

the change occurred.

Definition

The average rate of change of y = f (x) with respect to x over the interval

[ x i , x2] is

=-----
b..x X2 - X¡

Notice that the average rate of change o f f over [ x 1 , x2] is the slope of the line
Geometrically, a n average rate of c h a n g e
through the points P ( x 1 , f ( x ¡) ) and Q(x 2 , f ( x 2 ) ) (Fig. 1.1 ) . In geometry, a line
i s a secant slope.
joining two points of a curve is called a secant to the curve. Thus, the average rate

of change off from x 1 to x2 is identical with the slope of secant PQ.

1.1 Rates of C h a n g e a n d Li m i t s 53

�y

1.1 A secant to the g r a p h y = f(x). lts s l o p e is

lJ.y//1x, the average rate of c h a n g e of f over the -+----�-------�--x

o
interval [x,, x2].

Experimental biologists often want to know the rates at which populations grow

under controlled laboratory conditions.

EXAMPLE 3 The average growth rate of a laboratory population

Figure 1.2 shows how a population of fruit flies (Drosophila) grew in a 50-day

experiment. The number of flies was counted at regular intervals, the counted

values plotted with respect to time, and the points joined by a smooth curve. Find

the average growth rate from day 23 to day 45.

Solution There were 1 5 0 flies on day 23 and 340 flies on day 45. Thus the num­

ber of flies increased by 340 - 1 5 0 = 190 in 45 - 23 = 22 days. The average

rate of change of the population from day 23 to day 45 was

fl.p 340 - 1 5 0 190

Average rate of change: - = ---- = - � 8 . 6 flies/day.
fl.t 45 - 23 22

This average is the slope of the secant through the points P and Q on the graph in

Fig. 1.2. 0

The average rate of change from day 23 to day 45 calculated in Example 3

<loes not tell us how fast the population was changing on day 23 itself. For that we

need to examine time intervals closer to the day in question.

350

300
"'
(1)

i:E 250
'-+--<
o
.... 200
(1)

.D

E 1 5 0 ..
;:l

z
100

50

1.2 Growth of a fruit fly p o p u l a t i o n i n a c o n t r o l l e d

e x p e r i m e n t . (Source: Elements of Mathematica/ o 10 20 30 40 50

Biology by A. J. Lotka, 1 9 5 6 , Dover, New York, p. 69.) Time (days)

54 Chapter 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

Slope of PQ = � p i � t

Q (flies/day) 350

300
340 - 1 5 0 "'
11)

(45,340) 6
45 - 23 � S. i:2 250
4-,

o
.... 200
330 - 1 5 0 O 11)

(40,330) - - - � l .6 �
40-23 E
;::¡ 150

3 10 - 1 5 0 z
- - - � 13 . 3 - .
( 3 5 , 3 10 ) 100
35 - 2 3
50
265 - 1 5 0
(30, 265) 16
30 - 23 � .4
o /1 \ 20 30 40 50

A(l4, O) Time (days)

1.3 The positions a n d s l o p e s of fo u r

secants t h ro u g h the point P o n the fruit

fly g r a p h . EXAMPLE 4 How fast was the number of flies in the population of Example

3 growing on day 23 itself?

Solution To answer this question, we examine the average rates of change over

increasingly short time intervals starting at day 23. In geometric terms, we find

these rates by calculating the slopes of secants from P to Q, for a sequence of

points Q approaching P along the curve (Fig. 1.3).

The values in the table show that the secant slopes rise from 8 . 6 to 1 6 .4 as

the t-coordinate of Q decreases from 45 to 30, and we would expect the slopes to

rise slightly higher as t continued on toward 23. Geometrically, the secants rotate

about P and seem to approach the red line in the figure, a line that goes through

P in the same direction that the curve goes through P. We will see that this line

is called the tangent to the curve at P. Since the line appears to pass through the

points (1 4 , 0) and ( 3 5 , 350), it has slope

350-0
-3
5-_--
14 = 1 6 . 7 flies/day (approximately).

On day 23 the population was increasing at a rate of about 1 6 . 7 flies/day. O

The rates at which the rock in Example 2 was falling at the instants t = l

and t = 2 and the rate at which the population in Example 4 was changing on

day t = 23 are called instantaneous rates of change. As the examples suggest, we

find instantaneous rates as limiting values of average rates. In Example 4, we also

pictured the tangent line to the population curve on day 23 as a limiting position

of secant lines. Instantaneous rates and tangent lines, intimately connected, appear

in many other contexts. To talk about the two constructively, and to understand

the connection further, we need to investigate the process by which we determine

limiting values, or limits, as we will soon call them.

Li m i t s of F u n c t i o n Values

Before we give a definition of limit, let us look at another example.

2
x - l
EXAMPLE 5 How does the function f (x) = -- behave near x = l?
x - l
1.1 Rates of C h a n g e a n d Li m i t s 55

y Solution The given formula defines f for all real numbers x except x = l (we

cannot divide by zero ). For any x =f. 1 we can simplify the formula by factoring

the numerator and canceling common factors:

2
(x - l)(x + 1)
2
f (x ) = ----- = x + 1 for X =/- l.
x - 1
y=f(x) = -­ x - l
x - 1

The graph off is thus the line y = x + l with one point removed, namely the

point ( 1 , 2). This removed point is shown as a "hole" in Fig. 1 .4 . Even though f ( 1 )

is not defined, it is clear that we can make the value of f (x) as close as we want
o
to 2 by choosing x close enough to 1 (Table 1.2).

We say that f (x) approaches arbitrarily close to 2 as x approaches 1 , or, more

y simply, f (x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1 . We write this as

2
x - 1
lim f(x) = 2, or lim -- = 2 .
X-+ 1 x ---+ I X - l o

2
Table 1 . 2 The cl o s e r x gets to 1 , t h e cl o s e r f(x) = (x - 1)/(x - 1 ) seems

to get to 2 .

Values of x
2
x - 1
below and' /(x) = -- = X + 1, x ; il
x - 1
above 1

1.4 The g r a p h o f f is i d e n t i c a l with t h e

line y = x + 1 except at x = 1 , where f is 0.9 1.9

not d e fi n e d . 1.1 2.1

0.99 1.99

1. 0 1 2.01

0.999 1.999

1.001 2.001

0.999999 1.999999

1.000001 2.000001

Definition

Informal Definition of Li m i t

Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x 0, except possibly at x0

itself. If f (x) gets arbitrarily close to L for all x sufficiently el ose to x0, we

say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches x0, and we write

lim f(x) = L.
X---+Xo

This definition is "informal" because phrases like arbitrarily close and sufficiently

close are imprecise; their meaning depends on the context. To a machinist man­

ufacturing a piston, close may mean within a few thousandths of an inch. To an

astronomer studying distant galaxies, close may mean within a few thousand light­

years. The definition is clear enough, however, to enable us to recognize and evaluate

limits of specific functions. We will need the more precise definition of Section

1 . 3 , however, when we set out to prove theorems about limits.

56 Chapter 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

y y y

------+-----'--+X ------+-----'--+X

(a) f(x) = x2 - 1 1 (b) g(x) = { x; � i1 ' x i= 1

(e) h(x) = x + 1
x -
1.5 lim f(x) = lim g(x) = lim h(x) = 2.
1, X = 1
x-1 x-1 x-1

EXAMPLE 6 The existence of a limit as x -+ x0 <loes not depend on how the

function may be defined at x 0• The function f in Fig 1.5 has limit 2 as x -+ 1

even though f is not defined at x = 1 . The function g has limit 2 as x -+ 1 even

though 2 =/- g (l ) . The function h is the only one whose limit as x -+ 1 equals its

value at x = l. For h we have l i m . ,; 1

h (x) = h ( 1 ) . This kind of equality of limit

and function value is special, and we will retum to it in Section 1.5. O

Sometimes limx ➔ xo f (x) can be evaluated by calculating f (x 0). This holds, for

example, whenever f (x) is an algebraic combination of polynomials and trigono­

metric functions for which f (x0) is defined. (We will say more about this in Sections

y 1.2 and 1. 5 . )

EXAMPLE 7

a) lim (4) = 4
x➔2

b) lim (4) = 4
x➔-13

e) lim x = 3
X x➔3

d) lim (5x - 3) = 10 - 3 = 7
x➔2

3x + 4 -6+4 2
(a) ldentity function
e) lim ---
= =
X➔ -2 X + 5 -2+5 3 o
y

EXAMPLE 8

a) If f is the identity function f (x) = x , then for any value of x0 (Fig. 1.6a),
y = k
k

lim f (x) = lim x = x 0•

x ➔ xo x ➔ xo

b) If f is the constant function f (x) = k (function with the constant value k),
_____________._ ➔ X
then for any value of x0 (Fig. 1 . 6 b ),
o

lim f (x) = lim k = k o

X ➔ Xo X ➔ Xo

(b) Constant function

Sorne ways that limits can fail to exist are illustrated in Fig. 1.7 and described

1.6 The functions in Example 8. in the next example.

Exercises 1.1 57

y y y

y = { O, X< o
1, X � 0

---------EB-------�x ----------------x ----..-.-+t-+-+---+-----➔ X

o o
Ü, X :5 Ü

y = 1

Sin X' X > Ü

l

-1

(a) Unit step function U(x) (b) g(x) (c)f(x)

1.7 The functions in E x a m p l e 9. EXAMPLE9 A function may fail to have a limit a t a point in its domain.

Discuss the behavior of the following functions as x ➔ O.

X < Ü
a) U(x) = { O,
1, X 2: Ü

x # O
b) g(x) = { 1/x,
o, x = O

X :S Ü

e) f(x) =
{°' .
1
sm-, X > Ü
X

Solution

a) It jumps: The unit step function U (x) has no limit as x ➔ O because its values

jump at x = O. For negative values of x arbitrarily el ose to zero, U (x) = O.

For positive values of x arbitrarily close to zero, U (x) = 1 . There is no single

value L approached by U (x) as x ➔ O (Fig. 1.7a).

b) It grows too large: g ( x ) has no limits as x ➔ O because the values of g grow

arbitrarily large in absolute value as x ➔ O and do not stay close to any real

number (Fig. 1.7b).

e) It oscillates too much: f (x) has no limit as x ➔ O because the function's

values oscillate between +1 and - 1 in every open interval containing O. The

values do not stay close to any one number as x ➔ O (Fig. 1.7c). O

Exercises 1 . 1

y
Limits from G r a p h s

l. For the function g(x) graphed here, find the following limits or
y = g(x)

explain why they do not exist.

a) lim g(x) b) lim g(x) e) lim g(x)

x -> I x -> 2 x -> 3
58 C h a p t e r 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

2. For the function f (t) graphed here, find the following limits or Existence of Li m its
explain why they do not exist.
In Exercises 5 and 6, explain why the limits do not exist.

a) lim f (t) b) lim f (t) e) lim f (t) X 1

t➔-2 t ➔ -1 t➔O
5. lim - 6. lim --
x➔ o lx I x➔ 1 x - 1

7. Suppose that a function f (x) is defined for all real values of

x except x = x 0. Can anything be said about the existence of

s = f(t) limx➔xo f ( x ) ? Give reasons for your answer.

8. Suppose that a functíon f(x) is defined for ali x in [ - 1 , l].

Can anything be said about the existence of limx ➔ O f ( x ) ? Give

reasons for your answer.

9. If l i mx ➔ 1 f (x) = 5, must f be defined at x = 1? If it is, must

f (l ) = 5? Can we conclude anything about the values o f f at

x = 1 ? Expl ai n.

3. Which of the following statements about the function y = f (x)

10. If f (l ) = 5 , must l i m x ➔ l f ( x ) exist? If it does, then must
graphed here are true, and which are false ?
limy., 1
f (x) = 5? Can we conclude anything about limx➔ 1
f (x)?

Explain .
y

y =f(x)

C a lc u l a t o r / G r a p h e r Exercises-Estimating Li m i t s

2
11. Let f (x) = (x - 9)/(x + 3).

i a) CALCULATOR Make a table of the values off at the points

x = - 3 . 1 , - 3 . 0 1 , - 3 . 0 0 1 , and so on as far as your calcula­

tor c a n g o . Then estímate limx ➔ - 3 f ( x ) . What estímate do

you arrive at if you evaluatefat x = - 2 . 9 , - 2 . 9 9 , -2.999,

. . . instead?

11 b) G R A P H ER Support your conclusions in (a) by graphing f

a) lim f (x) e xists b) lim f(x) = O

near x0 = -3 and using ZOOM and TRACE to estímate
x➔O x➔O

y-values on the graph as x ➔ -3.

e) lim f (x) = 1 d) l im f(x) = 1
x➔O x➔I
e) Find limx ➔ - 3 f (x) algebraically.

e) lim f(x) = O 2
x➔I 12. Let g ( x ) = (x - 2)/(x - ,v'2 ) .

f) lim f(x) exists at every point x0 in ( - 1 , 1 )

X ➔ Xo
i a) CALCULATOR Make a table of the values of g at the points

x = 1.4, 1. 4 1 , 1. 4 1 4 , and so on through successive decimal

4. Which of the following statements about the function y = f (x)

approximations of ,v'2. Estímate limX ➔ "-"2 g(x).

graphed here are true, and which are false?

11 b) GRAPHER Support your conclusion in (a) by graphing g

near x0 = v'2 and using ZOOM and TRACE to estímate

y y-values on the graph as x ➔ ,J2.

y =f(x)
e) Find limx ➔ "-"2 g ( x ) algebraically.

2
13. Let G ( x ) = (x + 6)/(x + 4x - 1 2 ) .

i a) CALCULATOR Make a table of the values of G at x =

-5.9, -5.99, - 5 . 9 9 9 . . . . Then estímate limx ➔ - 6 G(x).

What estímate do you arrive at if you evaluate G at x =

- 6 . 1 , - 6 . 0 1 , - 6 . 0 0 1 , . . . instead?

11 b) GRAPHER Support your conclusions in (a) by graphing G

and using ZOOM and TRACE to estímate y-values on the

graph as x ➔ -6.
a) lim f (x) does not exist
x➔2 e) Find l i mx ➔ - 6 G ( x ) algebraically.

b) lim f(x) = 2 2 2

x➔2
14. Let h ( x ) = (x - 2x - 3 ) / ( x - 4x + 3).

e) lim f (x) does not exist i a) CALCULATOR Make a table of the values of h at x =
x➔I

2 . 9 , 2.99, 2.999, and so on. Then estímate limX ➔ 3 h(x).

d) lim f (x) exists at every point x0 in ( - 1 , 1 )
X ➔ Xo What estímate do you arrive at if you evaluate h at x =
e) lim f (x) exists at every point x0 in (1 , 3) 3 . 1 , 3 . 0 1 , 3.001, . . . instead?
x➔x0
Exercises 1.1 59

:1 b) GRAPHER Support your conclusions in (a) by graphing -1

23. lim (3x - 1 ) 24. lim
h near x0 = 3 and using ZOOM and TRACE to estimate x ---> 1 / 3 x ---> I (3x - 1 )

y-values on the graph as x ➔ 3. 2

3x
e) Find limx__, 3 h(x) algebraically. 25. lim 3x(2x - 1 ) 26. lim -­
X -+ - ) x ---+ - 1 2x - 1
2
15. Let f ( x ) = (x - 1) / ( l x l - 1 ) . cosx
27. lim x sinx 28. lim
i a) CALCULATOR Make tables of the values of f at values x ---> rr / 2 x ---> rr 1 - JT

of x that approach x0 = -1 from above and below. Then

estimate limx-+-1 f (x). Average Rates of C h a n g e

:1 b) GRAPHER Support your conclusion in (a) by graphing f

In Exercises 29-34, find the average rate of change of the function
near x0 = -1 and using ZOOM and TRACE to estimate
over the given interval or intervals.
y-values on the graph as x ➔ -1.
3
29. f(x) = x + l;
e) Find limx-+-I f (x) algebraically.
(a) [2,3], (b) [ - 1 , l]
2
16. Let F(x) = (x + 3x + 2)/(2 - [ x l ) .
2;
30. g(x) = x
i a) CALCULATOR Make tables of values of F at values of x
(a) [ - 1 , l ] , (b) [-2,0]
that approach x0 = -2 from above and below. Then estimate
31. h (t ) = cott;
l i mx - - 2 F(x).
(a) [JT /4, 3JT /4], (b) [JT /6, JT /2]
GRAPHER Support your conclusion in (a) by graphing F
== b)
near x0 = -2 and using ZOOM and TRACE to estímate 32. g(t) = 2 + cos t ;

y-values on the graph as x ➔ -2. (a) [ 0 , JT ], (b) [ - JT , JT ]

e) Find limx__,_ 2 F(x) algebraically.

33. R(0) = J40 + l; [O, 2]

17. Let g ( 0 ) = (sin0)/0.

3 2
34. P(0) = 0 - 40 + 50; [ 1 , 2]

i a) CALCULATOR Make tables of values of g at values of 0

35. Figure 1. 8 shows the time-to-distance graph for a 1994 Ford
that approach 00 = O from above and below. Then estimate
Mustang Cobra accelerating from a standstill.
lim0---,o g(0).

:1 b) GRAPHER Support your conclusion in (a) by graphing g a) Estimate the slopes of secants P Q 1 , P Q 2 , P Q 3 , and P Q 4 ,

near 0o = O. arranging them in order in a table. What are the appropriate

units for these slopes?

2•
18. Let G ( t ) = (1 - cost)/t
b) Then estimate the Cobra's speed at time t = 20 sec.

i a) CALCULATOR Make tables of values of G at values of t

that approach t0 = O from above and below. Then estimate s

lim1--->o G (t ) .
650
:1 b) G R A P H ER Support your conclusion in (a) by graphing G
600
near t o = O.

19. Let f(x) = x

1
f (l - x ) _

500
i a) CALCULATOR Make tables of values offat values of x that

approach x0 = 1 from above and below. Does f appear to

§ 400
have a limit as x ➔ 1 ? lf so, what is it? lf not, why not? <1)

u
:1 b) GRAPHER Support your conclusions in (a) by graphing f
e

� 300
near xo = l.
o
20. Let f(x) = W - 1)/x.
200
i a) CALCULATOR Make tables of values o f f at values of x

that approach x0 = O from above and below. Does f appear

100
to have a limit as x ➔ O? If so, what is it? lf not, why not?

== b) GRAPHER Support your conclusions in (a) by graphing f

near xo = O. o 5 10 15 20

Elapsed time (sec)

Li m i t s by Substitution

1.8 The time-to-distance g r a p h for Exercise 3 5 .

In Exercises 2 1 - 2 8 , find the limits by substitution. Support your an­

swers with a grapher or calculator if available.

21. lim 2x 22. lim 2x

x ---> 2 x ---> 0
60 C h a p t e r 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

36. Figure 1 . 9 shows the plot of distance fallen (m) vs. time for a e) Use your graph to estímate the rate at which the profits were

wrench that fell from the top platform of a communications mast changing in 1992.

on the moon to the station roof 80 m below.

li 38. CALCULATOR Make a table of values for the function F(x) =
a) Es ti mate the slopes of the secants P Q 1
, P Q2 , P Q 3 , and (x + 2 ) / ( x - 2) at the points x = 2, x = 1 1 / 10 , x = 10 1 / 10 0 ,

P Q 4, arranging them in a table like the one in Fig. 1.3. x = 10 0 1 / 10 0 0 , x = 10001/10000, and x = l.

b) About how fast was the wrench going when it hit the roof?
a) Find the average rate of change of F (x) over the intervals

[ 1 , x] for each x =I= 1 in your table.

b) Extending the table if necessary, try to determine the rate

of change of F ( x ) at x = l.

ÍI 39. CALCULATOR Let g ( x ) = ,Ji for x :::: O.

a) Find the average rate of change of g ( x ) with respect to x

over the intervals [ 1 , 2], [ 1 , 1. 5 ], and [ 1 , 1 + h].

b) Make a table of values of the average rate of change of g with

respect to x over the interval [ 1 , 1 + h] for sorne values of h

approachingzero, say h = 0 . 1 , 0 . 0 1 , 0 . 0 0 1 , 0 . 0 0 0 1 , 0.00001,

and 0.000001.

e) What <loes your table indicate is the rate of change of g ( x )

,,ffitiJ,..- with respect to x at x = 1?

• d) Calculate

rate of change of g ( x )
the limit as h approaches zero

with respect to x over the interval

of the average

[1, 1 +h].

ÍI 40. CALCULATOR Let f (t) = 1 / t for t =/= O.

a) Find the average rate of change off with respect to t over

y
the intervals (i) from t = 2 to t = 3, and (ii) from t = 2 to

80 t = T.

b) Make a table of values of the average rate of change off

§ 60 with respect to t over the interval [2, T] , for sorne values of
e
� Tapproaching 2, say T = 2 . 1 , 2 . 0 1 , 2 . 0 0 1 , 2 . 0 0 0 1 , 2.00001,
;§ 40 --···
and 2.000001.
<I)

(.)

e e) What <loes your table indicate is the rate of change of fwith

20
�
respect to t at t = 2?
o
d) Calculate the limit as T approaches 2 of the average rate of

o 5 10 change off with respect to t over the interval from 2 to T.

Elapsed time (sec) You will have to do sorne algebra before you can substitute

T = 2 .
1.9 The time-to-distance g r a p h for Exercise 36.

O CAS E x p l o r a t i o n s a n d Projects
i 37. CALCULATOR The profits of a small company for each of the . .

first five years of its operation are given in the following table: In Exercises 41-46, use a CAS to perform the followmg steps:

a) Plot the function near the point x0 being approached.

Year Profit in $1000s b) From your plot guess the value of the limit.

e) Evaluate the limit symbolically. How close was your guess?

4
1990 6 x - 16
41. lim ---
1991 27 x➔2 X - 2

1992 62 3 2
x - x - 5x - 3
1993 11 1 42. lim
X ➔ - 1 (x + 1)
2

1994 174
2
�1 +x - 1 x - 9
a) Plot points representing the profit as a function of year, and 43. lim 44. lim
x➔O X x➔3 Jx 2
+ 7 - 4
join them by as smooth a curve as you can.
2
b) What is the average rate of increase of the profits between 1 - cosx 2x
45. lim 46. lim
1992 and 1994? x➔O X S Í il X X➔O 3 - 3cosx
1.2 R u l e s for F i n d i n g Li m i t s 61

••-•■ .., •R�;;�-;�����;:'=¡;;-•-•-11-,_ •-

This section presents theorems for calculating limits. The first three let us build

on the results of Example 8 in the preceding section to find limits of polynomials,

rational functions, and powers. The fourth prepares for calculations later in the text.

Li m i t s of Powers a n d A l g e b r a ic C o m b i n a t i o n s

Theorem 1

Properties of Limits

The following rules hold if Ilru..,; f (x) = L and limx➔c g (x) = M (L and

M real numbers).

l. Sum Rule: lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M

2. Difference Rule: lim [f (x) - g(x)] = L - M

x➔c

3. Product Rule: lim f (x) • g(x) = L • M

X➔C

4. Constant Multiple Rule: lim kf (x) = kL (any number k)

X➔C

lim f(x) L
5. Quotient Rule: M # O
x➔c g(x) = M'

6. Power Rule: If m and n are integers, then

lim [f (x)r/n = L =.
x➔c

provided ir» is a real number.

In words, the formulas in Theorem 1 say:

l. The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.

2. The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits.

3. The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their limits.

4. The limit of a constant times a function is that constant times the limit of the

function.

5. The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, provided

the limit of the denominator is not zero.

6. The limit of any rational power of a function is that power of the limit of the

function, provided the latter is a real number.

We will prove the Sum Rule in Section 1. 3 . Rules 2-5 are proved in Appendix 2.

Rule 6 is proved in more advanced texts.

3 2
x +4x - 3
EXAMPLE 1
Find !� x2 +
5

Solution Starting with the limits limx ➔ c x = e and limv ,; k = k from Section

1 . 1 , Example 8, and combining them using various parts of Theorem 1 , we obtain:

62 C h a p t e r 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

2 2
a) lim x = ( lim x) ( lim x) = e • e = c Product or Power
x -+ c X -+ C X -+ C

2 2 2
b) lim (x + 5) = lim x + lim 5 = c + 5
Sum and (a)

X -+ C X -+ C X -+ C

2 2 2
e) Constant Multiple and (a)
lim 4x = 4 lim x = 4c
x -+ c X -+ C

2 2 2
d) lim (4x - 3) = lim 4x - lim 3 = 4c - 3 Difference and (e)

X -+ C X -+ C X -+ C

3 2) 2 3
e) lim Product and (a), or Power
x = ( lim x ( lim x) = c • e = c
x -+ c x -+ c x -+ c

3 3 2
f) lim (x + 4x - 3) = lim x + lim (4x - 3) Sum
x -+ c x -+ c x -+ c

3 2
(d) and (e)
= c + 4c - 3

3 2
3 2 lim (x + 4x - 3)
x + 4x - 3 X -+ C

g) lim Quotient
2 2
X -+ C
x + 5 lim (x + 5)
X -+ C

3 2
c + 4c - 3
(f) and (b)

c
2
+ 5 o

EXAMPLE 2 Find lim ✓4x2 - 3.

x -+ - 2

Solution

Example l ( d ) and
2 2
lim J4x - 3 = J4(-2) - 3
Power Rule with n = 1 /2
x -+ - 2

= vl6-3

= ✓13 o

Two consequences of Theorem 1 further simplify the task of calculating limits of

polynomials and rational functions. To evaluate the limit of a polynomial function

as x approaches e, merely substitute e for x in the formula for the function. To

evaluate the limit of a rational function as x approaches a point e at whicn the

denominator is not zero, substitute e for x in the formula for the function.

Theorem 2

Limits of Polynomials Can Be Found by Substitution

If P ( x ) = anxn + ªn-IXn-l + · · · + ªº' then

lim P ( x ) = P ( c ) = a.e" + ªn-tCn-I + · · · + ªº·

X -+ C

Theorem 3

Limits of Rational Functions Can Be Found by Substitution

lf the Li m i t of the Denominator Is Not Zero

lf P ( x ) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(c) =f. O, then

P(x) P(c)
lim =
x -+ c Q(x) Q(c)
1.2 R u l e s for F i n d i n g Li m i t s 63

EXAMPLE 3

3 2 3 2
. x + 4 x - 3 (-1) +4(-1) -3 O
lim ----- = ------- = - = O.
2
x ---+ - 1 x + 5 ( - 1 )2 + 5 6

This is the limit in Example 1 with e = - 1 , now done in one step. o

ldentifying common factors E l i m i n a t i n g Zero D e n o m i n a t o r s A l g e b r a ic a ll y

It can be shown that if Q ( x ) is a polynomial Theorem 3 applies only when the denominator of the rational function is not zero

and Q(c) = O, then (x - e) is a factor of at the limit point c. If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the
Q ( x ) . Thus, if the numerator and
numerator and denominator will sometimes reduce the fraction to one whose de­
denominator of a rational function of x are
nominator is no longer zero at c. When this happens, we can find the limit by
both zero at x = e, then (x - e) is a common
substitution in the simplified fraction.
factor.

EXAMPLE4 Canceling a co m m o n factor

2
x + x - 2
Evaluate lim
2
x ---+ I X - X

Solution We cannot just substitute x = l , because it makes the denominator zero.

However, we can factor the numerator and denominator and cancel the common

factor to obtain

2
y
2
x + x - 2 (x - l )( x + 2 ) x + 2

x + X - 2 ----= if X f:. l.
y =
2
x - x X2 - X x(x - 1 ) X

Thus
3
2
x + X - 2 X + 2 1 + 2
lim ---- = lim -- = -- = 3.
2
x---+ 1 x X - X-+ 1 X l

See Fig. 1.10. o

EXAMPLE 5 Creating a n d canceling a co m m o n factor

(a)

� - vl2
Find lim
y h ---+ 0 h
y = X + 2
X

Solution We cannot find the limit by substituting h = O, and the numerator and

denominator do not have obvious factors. However, we can create a common factor
3
in the numerator by multiplying it (and the denominator) by the so-called conjugate

expression � + vÍl, obtained by changing the sign between the square roots:

� - vl2 � - vl2 � + vl2

h h J2 + h + v12
2 + h - 2

(b)
h(J2 + h + v12)

2 h
1.10 The g r a p h of f(x) = (x + x - 2)/
=------ We have created a common
2
(x - x) i n (a) is the s a m e as the g r a p h of h ( ✓ 2 + h + vl2) factor of h . . .
g(x) = (x + 2)/x in (b) except at x = 1,
1
where f is u n d e fi n e d . The f u n c t i o n s have =-----
. . . which we cancel.
the s a m e l i m i t a s x ➔ 1. ✓ 2 + h + v12
64 C h a p t e r 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

Y Therefore,

J2 + h - h . 1
lim ----- = hm
h➔O h h➔O ✓2 + h + v12,

1
The denominator is no
=-----
longer O at h = O,
J2+o+h
so we can substitute.
1
=
2 v12 ·
o 2 2 + h
Notice that the fraction ( J2 + h - h)/h is the slope of the secant through the

point P(2, h) and the point Q(2 + h, J2 + h ) nearby on the curve y = ,Jx.
1.11 The l i m i t of the slope of secant PQ
Figure 1.11 shows the secant for h > O. Our calculation shows that the limiting
as Q ----+ P a l o n g the curve is 1/(2./2)

{ E x a m p l e 5). value of this slope as Q ➔ P along the curve from either side is 1 / (2 h ) . O

The S a n d w ic h Theorem

The following theorem will enable us to calculate a variety of limits in subsequent

chapters. It is called the Sandwich Theorem because it refers to a function f whose

values are sandwiched between the values of two other functions g and h that have
y
the same limit L at a point c. Being trapped between the values of two functions

that approach L, the values off must also approach L (Fig. 1.1 2 ) . You will find a

proof in Appendix 2.

Theorem 4

The Sandwich Theorem

Suppose that g(x) ::: f (x) s h(x) for all x in sorne open intervalcontaining

e, except possibly at x = e itself. Suppose also that

lim g(�) = lim h(x) = L.

1.12 The g r a p h o f f is sandwiched
x➔c x➔c

between the g r a p h s of g a n d h.

Then lim f (x) = L

. ,x ➔c

EXAMPLE 6 Given that

x2 x2
y
1 - - < u(x) < 1 + - for ali x ..J.. O
4 - - 2 r '

find lim u(x).

x➔O

Solution Since

2 2
limx➔O ( 1 - (x /4)) = 1 and limx ➔ O (1 + (x /2)) = 1,

the Sandwich Theorem implies that limx ➔ o u(x) = 1 (Fig. 1. 13 ) . O

-1 O

EXAMPLE 7 Show that if limx ➔ c I f (x) I = O, then limx ➔ c f (x) = O.

1 . 13 Any function u(x) whose g r a p h lies

2
in the r e g i o n between y = 1 + (x /2) a n d Solution Since - l f ( x ) I :S f (x) ::: l f ( x ) I , and - l f ( x ) I and l f ( x ) I both have limit
2
y = 1 - (x /4) has l i m i t 1 as x ----+ O. O as x approaches e, limx ➔ c f (x) = O by the Sandwich Theorem. O
Exercises 1.2 65

Exercises 1 . 2

Limit Calculations 2 lim f (x) - lim g(x)

x -+ 0 x -+ 0
(e)
213
F i n d the limits in Exercises 1-16.
( lim f (x) + lim 1)
X -+ Ü X-+Ü
l. lim (2x + 5) 2. lim (10 - 3x)
x -+ - 1 x -+ 1 2
( 2 ) (1 ) - ( - 5 ) 7
-
2 3 2
3. lim (-x + 5x - 2) 4. lim (x - 2x + 4x + 8) (1 + 7)2/3 4
X-+2 X -+ - 2

32. Let limx-+I h(x) = 5 , limx-+I p(x) = 1, and limHI r(x) = 2.

5. lim 8(t - 5 ) (t - 7) 6. lim 3s(2s - 1 )
t -+6 s-+2/3 Name the rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps

X + 3 4 (a), (b), and (e) of the following calculation.

7• l.1m -­ 8. lim
x-+2 X + 6 x -+ 5 X - 7 lim J5h(x)
x -+ 1
lim (a)
y2 2
x -+ I p(x)(4 - r(x)) lim (p(x)(4 - r ( x ) ) )
9. lim -­ 10. lim y+
x -+ I
2
y-+-5 5 - y y -+ 2 y + 5y + 6

11. lim 3(2x - 1)

2
12. lim (x + 3)
1984
✓!� 5h(x)
X -+ - 1 X -+ - 4
(b)

13. lim (5 - y)
413
14. lim (2z - 8)
113
(!� p(x)) (!� ( 4 - r ( x )) )
y -+ - 3 z -+0

15. lim
3
16. lim
5
J5 !� h(x)

h -+0 ✓3h + 1 + 1 h -+0 ✓5h + 4 + 2 = (e)

( lim p ( x ) ) ( lim 4 - lim r(x))

X-+ 1 X -+ ) X-+ [
Find the limits in Exercises 17-30.

✓(5)(5) 5
3
17. lim � 18. lim x +
2 2
( 1 )( 4 - 2) 2
X-+5 X - 25 x -+ - 3 x + 4x + 3

. x
2
+ 3x - 10 . x
2
-7x + 10 33. Suppose limHc f (x) = 5 and limx-+c g (x) = -2. Find
19. hm 20. hm
X -+ - 5 X + 5 x -+ 2 X - 2 a) lim f (x)g(x) b) lim 2f(x)g(x)
X -+ C X -+ C
2
t + t - 2
22. lim t2 + 3t + 2 f(x)
21. lim -
t -+ I t 2-
--1 t -+ - 1 t
2
- t - 2 e) lim (f (x) + 3g(x)) d) lim
X-+C X -+ C f (x) - g ( x )
-2x-4 5y3 + 8y2
23. lim 24. lim 34. Suppose limH 4 f (x) = O and limx-+ 4 g(x) = - 3 . Find
3 2 4
x -+ - 2 x + 2x y -+0 3y - 16y 2
a) lim (g(x) + 3) b) lim xf (x)
4 3
u - 1 v - 8 X-+4 X -+ 4

25. lim 26. lim

3 4
u -+ I u - 1 v-+2 v - 16
e) lim ( g ( x )) 2 d) lim g(x)
2 x-+4 X-+4 f (x) - 1
Jx - 3 4x - x
27. lim 28. lim
X-+9 X - 9 H4 2 - ✓X 35. Suppose limHb f (x) = 7 and limx-+b g ( x ) = - 3 . Find

x - 1 . Jx
2
+ 8- 3 a) lim (f (x) + g(x)) b) lim f (x) • g ( x )
x-+b x -+ b
29. lim 30 . hm
Hl ✓ x + 3 - 2 X -+ - 1 X + 1
e) lim 4g(x) d) lim f (x)/ g ( x )
x-+b x -+ b

36. Suppose that limX-+_ 2 p(x) = 4, limH_ 2 r(x) = O, and

limX-+_ 2 s(x) = - 3 . Find

Using Limit Rules
a) lim (p(x) + r(x) + s(x))
31. Suppose limH0 f (x) = 1 and limx-+O g(x) = -5. Name the X -+ - 2

rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps (a), (b), b) lim p(x) • r(x) • s(x)
X -+ - 2
and (e) of the following calculation.
e) lim (-4p(x) + 5r(x))/s(x)
2f (x) - g ( x ) !� (2f (x) - g ( x ) ) X -+ - 2 ·

l.1m ---- ------ (a)

2 3 2 3
x -+O (f (x) + 7) 1 lim (f (x) + 7) 1
x -+O

lim 2f (x) - lim g(x)

x -+0 x -+O
(b)

(
lim (f (x) + 7)
)2/3
x-+0
66 C h a p t e r 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

hold for values of x close to zero. (They do, as you will see
Limits of Average Rates of C h a n g e
in Section 8 . 10 . ) What, if anything, does this tell you about
Because of their connection with secant lines, tangents, and instanta­

neous rates, limits of the form lim 1 - cosx?

x --> 0 x2
. f(x + h) - f (x)
hm
n--» h Give reasons for your answer,

2
occur frequently in calculus. In Exercises 37-42, evaluate this limit 11 b) GRAPHER Graph the equations y = (1 / 2 ) - (x /24), y =
2,
for the given value of x and function f (1 - c o s x ) / x and y = 1/2 together for -2 _:s x ::S 2.

Comment on the behavior of the graphs as x ➔ O.

2 ,
37. f(x) = x x = 1

2,
38. f(x) = x x = -2 Theory a n d Examples

4 2 2 4
39. f(x) = 3x - 4, x = 2 47. lf x :S f ( x ) :S x for x in [ - 1 , 1 ] and x :S f ( x ) :S x for x <

-1 and x > 1, at what points e do you automatically know

40. f(x) = 1/x, x = -2
limX----+c f ( x) ? What can you say about the value of the limit
41. f (X) = ✓X, X = 7
at these points?

42. f(x) = ,J3x+T, X = Ü

48. Suppose that g (x) :S f (x) :S h (x) for all x =f. 2 and suppose that

lim g(x) = lim h(x) = -5.

U s i n g the Sandwich Theorem X ----+ 2 X ----+ 2

2 2
43. lf J5 - 2x :S f(x) :S J5 - x for - 1 :S x ::S 1 , find
Can we conclude anything about the values of f g, and h at

limX----+o J(x).
x = 2? Could f(2) = O? Could limX----+ 2 f(x) = O? Give reasons

2
44. lf 2 - x ::: g ( x ) :S 2 c o s x for ali x, find limX----+ 0 g(x). for your answers.

. f(x) - 5 .
45. a) It can be shown that the inequalities 49. lf hm --- = 1 , find lim f(x).
x --> 4 X - 2 X----+4
2
x x sinx
1 - - < - - - - < 1 . f (x) . f (x)

6 2 - 2cosx 50. lf hm - = 1 , find (a) hm f(x) and (b) lim -.

2
-
x ----+ - 2 X x --> - 2 x --> - 2 X

hold for ali values of x close to zero. What, if anything,

f(x) - 5 .
does this tell you about 51. a) lf lim --- = 3, find hm f ( x) .
x ----+ 2 X - 2 x----+2

xsinx
lim ----? f(x) - 5
x --> O 2 - 2cosx b) lf lim --- = 4, find lim f(x).
x ----+ 2 X - 2 x --> 2

Give reasons for your answer.

52. lf lim f(;) = 1 , find (a) lim f (x) and (b) lim f(x)
11 b) GRAPHER Graph x ----+ O X x----+0 x _. 0 X

2
y = 1 - (x / 6 ) , y = (x s i n x ) / ( 2 - 2 c o s x ) , and y = 1 1153. a) GRAPHER Graph g(x) = x sin ( 1 / x ) to estímate

limx_.o g ( x ) , zooming in on the origin as necessary.

together for -2 :S x ::S 2. Comment on the behavior of the
b) Confirm your estímate in (a) with a proof.
graphs as x ➔ O.
2 3)
1154. a) GRAPHER Graph h ( x ) = x cos ( l / x to estímate
46. a) Suppose that the inequalities
limx_.o h ( x ) , zooming in on the origin as necessary.
2
1 x 1 - cosx
< - b) Confirm your estímate in (a) with a proof.
2 - 24 < x2 2

Target V a l u e s a n d F o r m a l D e fi n i t i o n s of Li m i t s

In this section we give a formal definition of the limit introduced in the previous

two sections. We replace vague phrases like "gets arbitrarily close" in the informal

definition with specific conditions that can be applied to any particular example.

To do this we first examine how to control the input of a function to ensure that

the output is kept within preset bounds.

K e e p i n g Outputs n e a r Target V a l u e s

We sometimes need to know what input values x will result in output values of the

function y = f (x) near a particular target value. How near depends on the context.
1.3 Target V a l u e s a n d F o r m a l D e fi n i t i o n s of Li m i t s 67

A gas station attendant, asked for $5.00 worth of gas, will try to pump a volume of

gas worth $5.00 to the nearest cent. An automobile mechanic grinding a 3 . 3 8 5 - i n .

cylinder will not let the bore exceed this value by more than 0.002 in. A pharmacist

making ointments will measure ingredients to the nearest milligram.

EXAMPLE 1 Controlling a linear function

How close to x0 = 4 must we hold the input x to be sure that the output y = 2x - 1

lies within 2 units of y0 = 7?

Solution We are asked: For what values of x is I Y - 71 < 2? To find the answer

we first express I Y - 71 in terms of x:

1y - 71 = 1 (2x - 1 ) - 7 1 = 12x - 8 1 .

The question then becomes: What values of x satisfy the inequality 12x - 8 1 < 2?

To find out, we solve the inequality:

12x - 8 1 < 2

-2 < 2x - 8 < 2

6 < 2x < 10

3 < x < 5

-1 < X - 4 < 1.

Keeping x within 1 unit of x0 = 4 will keep y within 2 units of y0 = 7 (Fig. 1.1 4 ) .

Upper bound: y = 9

T� control { :
this

5
Lower bound: y = 5

'-y------'

1.14 Keeping x within 1 u n i t of x0 = 4 w i ll keep y Restrict

w i t h i n 2 units of Y o = 7. this o

---- Technology Target Values You can experiment with target values on a

graphing utility. Graph the function together with a target interval defined by

horizontal lines above and below the proposed limit. Adjust the range or use

zoom until the function's behavior inside the target interval is clear. Then

observe what happens when you try to find an interval of x-values that will

keep the function values within the target interval. (See also Exercises 7- 1 4

and CAS Exercises 6 1 - 64 . )

[O, 3] by [O, 3]
For example, try this for f (x) = J3x - 2 and the target interval ( 1. 8 , 2.2)

Keeping x between 1 . 7 5 a n d 2.28 w i l l on the y-axis. That is, graph y 1 = f (x) and the lines y2 = 1 . 8 , y3 = 2 . 2 . Then

keep y between 1 . 8 and 2.2. try the target intervals ( l. 9 8 , 2.02) and ( l. 9 9 9 8 , 2.0002).
68 Chapter 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

EXAMPLE 2 Why the stripes on a t-liter kitchen measuring cup are

a b o u t a millimeter wide

The interior of a typical 1 - L measuring cup is a right circular cylinder of radius 6

cm (Fig. 1. 1 5 ) . The volume of water we put in the cup is therefore a function of

Stripes � the level h to which the cup is filled, the formula being

about
2
1mm V = n6 h = 36nh.
wide

How closely must we measure h to measure out 1 L of water (1000 crrr') with an

(a) error of no more than 1 % ( 1 O cm")?

Solution We want to know in what interval to hold values of h to make V satisfy

the inequality

IV - 10001 = 1 3 6 n h - 10001 :s 1 0 .

To find out, we solve the inequality:

T Liquid volume

/ V = 367Th
1 3 6 n h - 10001 :S 10
h

1 - 10 .:S 36nh - 1000 :S 10

990 :S 36n h :S 10 10

(b)

990 < h < 10 10

1.15 A 1 - L m e a s u r i n g c u p (a), mod e le d as 36n - - 36n

a r i g h t ci r c u l a r c y l i n d e r (b) of r a d i u s

r = 6 cm ( E x a m p l e 2). 8.8 :S h :S 8 . 9

/ \
rounded up, rounded down,

to be safe to be safe

The interval in which we should hold h is about 8 . 9 - 8 . 8 = 0.1 cm wide (1 mm).

With stripes 1 mm wide, we can expect to measure a liter of water with an accuracy

of 1 %, which is more than enough accuracy for cooking. O

The Precise D e fi n i t i o n of Li m i t
y
In a target-value problem, we determine how close to hold a variable x to a particular

value x0 to ensure that the outputs f (x) of sorne function lie within a prescribed

interval about a target value L. To show that the limit of f (x) as x ---+ x0 actually

equals L, we must be able to show that the gap between f (x) and L can be made

J(x) less than any prescribed error, no matter how small, by holding x close enough to

Xo,

l
Suppose we are watching the values of a function f (x) as x approaches x0

(without taking on the value of x0 itself). Certainly we want to be able to say that

l - _!__ f (x) stays within one-tenth of a unit of L as soon as x stays within sorne distance
10
8 of x0 (Fig. 1 . 1 6 ) . But that in itself is not enough, because as x continues on its

course toward x0, what is to prevent f (x) from jittering about within the interval

from L - 1 / 1 O to L + 1 / 1 O without tending toward L?

o o We can be told that the error can be no more than 1 /1 0 0 or 1/1000 or 1/100,000.

Each time, we find a new 8-interval about x0 so that keeping x within that interval

satisfies the new error tolerance. And each time the possibility exists that f (x)

jitters away from L at the last minute.

1.16 A p r e l i m i n a r y stage i n the The following figures illustrate the problem. You can think of this as a quarrel

development of the d e fi n i t i o n of l i m i t . between a skeptic and a scholar. The skeptic presents s-challenges to prove that
1.3 Target V a l u e s a n d F o r m a l D e f i n i t i o n s of Li m i t s 69

the limit <loes not exist or, more precisely, that there is room for doubt, and the

scholar answers every challenge with a é-inrerval around x 0•

y
y y

----+-----'---➔X
------�----x
o o

New challenge:
The challenge: Response:

Make IJ(x) - LI < E = /o lx - x 0 1 < 8 (a number) Make IJ(x) - LI < E = ibo

1 1 10

y y y

______.__.
I___.__..___ X
-------�---x
0 / XO \ o
Xo -
81/100 xo +
8 1/100

New challenge: Response:

Response:
1
8 1/ 1 00
lx - xo 1 < º 1/ 1 000
lx - xol < E = 1000

y y y

1
l + 100 000
, �

l . .

/
1
l - 10 0 , 0 0 0

----+------'---X --+-----''------➔X

o o o

New challenge: Response: New challenge:

E = . ..
1 lx - xol < 8 1/100,000

E = 100,000

How do we stop this seemingly endless series of challenges and responses?

By proving that for every error tolerance E that the challenger can produce, we can

find, calculate, or conjure a matching distance 8 that keeps x "close enough" to x0

to keep f (x) within that tolerance of L (Fig. 1.1 7 on the following page ) .
70 Chapter 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

L + E

L
f(x)

L - E

1.17 The relation of 8 a n d E i n the d e f i n i t i o n of l i m i t . O x

0
- o x
0
x
0
+ o

Here, at last, is a mathematical way to say that the closer x gets to x 0, the

closer y = f (x) gets to L.

Definition

A Formal Definition of Limit

Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x 0, except possibly at x0

itself. We say that f (x) approaches the limit L as x approaches x 0 , and

write

lim f (x) = L,
x ➔ xo

if, for every number E > O, there exists a corresponding number 8 > O such

that for ali x

The Weierstrass definition

Ü < l x - x o l < 8 ===} lf(x)-LI < E .
The concepts of limit and continuity (and,

indeed, real number and function) did not

enter mathematics ovemight with the great

discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton ( 1642-1727) To return to the idea of target values, suppose you are machining a generator

and Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz shaft to a close tolerance. You may try for diameter L, but since nothing is perfect,
(1 6 4 6 - 1 7 1 6 ) . Mathematicians h a d a n
you must be satisfied with a diameter f (x) somewhere between L - E and L + E.

imperfect understanding of these fundamental

The 8 is the measure of how accurate your control setting for x must be to guarantee
ideas even as late as the last century.
this degree of accuracy in the diameter of the shaft. Notice that as the tolerance for
Definitions of the limit given by French
error becomes stricter, you may have to adjust 8 . That is, the value of 8, how tight
mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy
your control setting must be, depends on the value of E, the error tolerance.
(1 7 8 9 - 1 8 5 7 ) and others referred to variables

"approaching indefinitely" a fixed value and

frequently made use of "infinitesimals," E x a m p l e s : Testing the D e fi n i t i o n

quantities that become infinitely small but
The formal definition of limit <loes not tell how to find the limit of a function, but it
not zero. The now accepted E -8 definition of
enables us to verify that a suspected limit is correct. The following examples show
limit was formulated by German

mathematician Karl Weierstrass ( 1 8 1 5 - 1 8 9 7 )

how the definition can be used to verify limit statements for specific functions.

in the middle of the nineteenth century as (The first two examples correspond to parts of Examples 7 and 8 in Section l. l.)

part of his attempt to put mathematical However, the real purpose of the definition is not to do calculations like this, but

analysis on a sound logical foundation. rather to prove general theorems so that the calculation of specific limits can be

simplified.
1.3 Target V a l u e s a n d F o r m a l D e fi n i t i o n s of Li m i t s 71

y y = 5x - 3 EXAMPLE 3 Show that Iim,..; 1 (5x - 3) = 2.

Solution Set x0 = 1 , f (x) = 5x - 3 , and L = 2 in the definition of limit. For any

2 + E
given E > O we have to find a suitable 8 > O so that if x -¡. 1 and x is within distance

8 of x0 = 1 , that is, if

O < l x - 1 1 < 8 ,

2 - E
then f (x) is within distance E of L = 2, that is

l f (x) - 2 1 < E.
o
1 + �
5
We find 8 by working backwards from the E-inequality:

1 (5x - 3) - 2 1 = 15x - 5 1 < E

51x - 1 1 < E

l x - l l < E / 5

Thus we can take 8 = E/5 (Fig. 1.1 8 ) . If O < lx - 1 1 < 8 = E / 5 , then

1.18 lf f(x) = 5x - 3, then O < jx - 1 1 < E/5 1(5x-3)-21 = 1 5 x - 5 1 = 5 1 x - 1 1 <5(E/5)=E.

g u a r a n t e e s that if(x) - 2¡ < E (Example 3).

This proves that l i rn v ., 1
(5x - 3) = 2.

The value of 8 = E /5 is not the only value that will make O < [x - 11 < 8

y imply 15x - 5 1 < E . Any smaller positive 8 will do as well. The definition does not

ask for a "best" positive 8 , just one that will work. O

x + E
0

EXAMPLE4 Two important limits

Verify: (a) lim x = x0 (b) lim k = k (k constant).

x---+x 0 x---+x 0

x - E
0 Solution

a) Let E > O be given. We must find 8 > O such that for all x

--------'-------x
x 8 x x + 8 O < [x - xol < 8 implies [x - xol < E.
0- 0 0

The implication will hold if 8 equals E or any smaller positive number (Fig.
1.19 For the function f(x) = x, we fi n d
1. 1 9 ) . This proves that limx---+xo x = Xo.
that O < jx - Xol < 8 w i l l g u a r a n t e e

lf(x) - Xol < E whenever 8 � E

b) Let E > O be given. We must find 8 > O such that for all x
( E x a m p l e 4a).

O < lx - xol < 8 implies l k - k l < E .

Since k - k = O, we can use any positive number for 8 and the implication will
y

hold (Fig. 1 . 2 0 ) . This proves that limx---+xo k = k. O

k + E - y = k
F i n d i n g Deltas A l g e b r a i c a ll y for G i v e n E p s i l o n s
k .------,--------

k - E ._
In Examples 3 and 4, the interval of values about x0 for which I f (x) - L I was less

than E was symmetric about x0 and we could take 8 to be half the length of the

interval. When such symmetry is absent, as it usually is, we can take 8 to be the

_______.__ X
distance from x0 to the interval's nearer endpoint.

o x 8 x x + 8
0- 0 0

EXAMPLE 5 For the limit limx---+S ,Jx=-r = 2, find a 8 > O that works for

1.20 For the function f(x) = k, we f i n d E = 1 . That is, find a 8 > O such that for all x
that if(x) - k i < E for a n y positive 8

( E x a m p l e 4b). o < lx - 5 1 < o ===> 1 Jx=-I - 2 1 < l.

72 Chapter 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

Solution We organize the search into two steps. First we solve the inequality

I -Jx=1 - 2 1 < 1 to find an interval (a, b) about x0 = 5 on which the inequality

holds for all x =/. x 0• Then we find a value of 8 > O that places the interval 5 - 8 <

x < 5 + 8 (centered at x0 = 5) inside the interval ( a , b ) .

Step 1: Solve the inequality I -Jx=1 - 2 1 < 1 to find an interval about x0 = 5 on

which the inequality holds for ali x =/. Xo.

1 -Jx=1 - 2 1 < 1

- 1 < -Jx=1 - 2 < 1

1 < -Jx=1 < 3

l < x - 1 < 9

2 < X < 10

The inequality holds for all x in the open interval (2, 10 ) , so it holds for all x =/. 5

in this interval as well.

Step 2: Find a value of 8 > O that places the centered interval 5 - 8 < x < 5 + 8

inside the interval (2, 1 0 ) . The distance from 5 to the nearer endpoint of (2, 10) is 3

(Fig. 1. 2 1 ). If we take 8 = 3 or any smaller positive number, then the inequality O <

1.21 An open interval of r a d i u s 3 about [x - 5 1 < 8 will automatically place x between 2 and 10 to make I -Jx=1 - 2 1 < 1

x0 = 5 w i ll l i e i n s i d e the open interval (Fig. 1.22):

(2, 10).

o < lx - 5 1 < 3 1 -Jx=1 - 2 1 < l. o

y
How to F i n d a 8 for a G i v e n / , L , x0, and E > O Algebraically

The process of finding a 8 > O such that for all x

y = �

O < lx - x o l < 8 lf(x) - L I < E

can be accomplished in two steps.

Step 1 Solve the inequality I f (x) - L 1 < E to find an open interval (a, b)

about x0 on which the inequality holds for all x =/. x0•

Step 2 Find a value of 8 > O that places the open interval (x0 - 8 , x0 + 8)

centered at x0 inside the interval ( a , b). The inequality l f (x) - L I < E will

hold for all x =/. x0 in this 8-interval.

O 1 2 5 8 10

NOTTOSCALE

1.22 The function a n d intervals i n EXAMPLE 6 Prove that limH 2 f (x) = 4 if

E x a m p l e 5.

f(x) = {x2, x =/. 2

1, X = 2.

Solution Our task is to show that given E > O there exists a 8 > O such that for

all x

o < lx - 2 1 < 8 lf(x) - 41 < E.

Step 1: Solve the inequality l f (x) - 4 1 < E to find an open interval about x0 = 2

on which the inequality holds for ali x =/. x0•

1.3 Target V a l u e s a n d F o r m a l D e fi n i t i o n s of Li m i t s 73

y 2, 2
For x =/. x0 = 2, we have f (x) = x and the inequality to solve is l x - 41 < E:
y = x2
2
lx - 41 < E

2
4 + E - E < x - 4 < E

2
4 - E < x < 4 + E

4 2, 4)
� < l x l < ✓ 4 + E Assumes E < 4; see below.

An open i n t e r v a l about x0 = 2
� < x < ✓ 4 + E .
that solves the i n e q u a l i t y

The inequality l f (x) - 4 1 < E holds for all x =/. 2 in the open interval (�,

' 1)
J4 + E ) (Fig. 1. 2 3 ) .

X
Step 2: Find a value of 8 > O that places the centered interval (2 - 8 , 2 + 8 ) inside
/
o 2 "" the interval (�, J4 + E ) .
� �

Take 8 to be the distance from x0 = 2 to the nearer endpoint of ( �.

1.23 The function i n E x a m p l e 6.

J4 + E ) . In other words, take 8 = min {2 - �' J4 + E - 2 } , the minimum

(the smaller) of the two numbers 2 - � and J4 + E - 2. If 8 has this or any

smaller positive value, the inequality O < [x - 21 < 8 will automatically place x

between � and ,J4+E to make lf(x) - 4 1 < E. For all x,

o < lx - 21 < 8 lf(x) - 41 < E.

This completes the proof.

Why was it all right to assume E < 4? Because, in finding a 8 such that for all

x, O < l x - 2 1 < 8 implied l f (x) - 4 1 < E < 4, we found a 8 that would work for

any larger E as well.

Finally, notice the freedom we gained in letting 8 = min {2 - �.

J4 + E - 2}. We did not have to spend time deciding which, if either, number

was the smaller of the two. We just let 8 represent the smaller and went on to finish

���� o

U s i n g the D e fi n i t i o n to Prove Theorems

We do not usually rely on the formal definition of limit to verify specific limits such

as those in the preceding examples. Rather we appeal to general theorems about

limits, in particular the theorems of Section 1 . 2 . The definition is used to prove

these theorems. As an example, we prove part 1 of Theorem 1 , the Sum Rule.

EXAMPLE 7 Proving the rule for the limit o f a sum

Given that limx-+c f (x) = L and limx-+c g ( x ) = M, prove that

lim (f (x) + g(x)) = L + M.

x -+ c

Solution Let E > O be given. We want to find a positive number 8 such that for

all x

O < lx - e l < 8 lf(x) + g ( x ) - (L + M)I < E.

Regrouping terms, we get

l f (x) + g ( x ) - (L + M ) I = l (f (x) - L) + ( g ( x ) - M ) I

Triangle J n e q u a l i t y :
� l f (x) - L I + lg(x) - M I .
l o + h l :=: l a l + l h l
74 Chapter 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

Since limx_c f (x) = L , there exists a number 8 1 > O such that for all x

o < lx - c ] « 81 l f (x) - L I < E/2.

Similarly, since limx_c g(x) = M, there exists a number 82 > O such that for all x

O < lx - e l < 82 l g ( x ) - MI < E/2.

Let 8 = m i n l é } , 8 2}, the smaller of 8 1 and 8i. If O < lx - e l < 8 then [x - e l < 81,

so l f ( x ) - LI < E / 2 , and lx - e l < 82, so l g ( x ) - MI < E / 2 . Therefore

E E
l f ( x ) + g ( x ) - (L + M)I < + = E.
2 2

This shows that limx_c (f (x) + g(x)) = L + M. o

Exercises 1 . 3

C e n t e r i n g lntervals About a P o i n t 9. 10.

f(x) = {;- y
In Exercises 1-6, sketch the interval (a, b) on the x-axis with the f(x) = 2 "-lx+l
x0 = 1
x0 = 3
point x0 inside. Then find a value of 8 > O such that for all x, O < y
L = l
L = 4
lx - xol < 8 ===} a < x < b.
y = {;- E = 0.2
E = !
5
4
------------
1. a = 1, b = 7, x0 = 5 4
1

2. a = 1, b = 7, x0 = 2 3

4
3. a = - 7/ 2 , b = -1/2, x0 = -3

4. a = -7/2, b = -1/2, x0 = -3/2

X

5. a = 4/9, b = 4/7, x0 = 1/2 o 9 25

16 16

6. a = 2.7591, b = 3.2391, x0 = 3 X

-1 o 2.61 3 3 .4 1

F i n d i n g Deltas G r a p h i c a ll y
NOTTOSCALE

In Exercises 7-14, use the graphs to find a 8 > O such that for all x

O < [x - xol < 8 lf(x) - L I < E.

11. 12.
7. 8.
y y
2
f(x) = 4 - x
y f(x) = x2
3 y
f(x) = - x + 3
x = -1
x = 2 0
2 0
L = 3
x = -3 L = 4
0 E = 0.25 1

E = 1
6.2 L = 7.5 1

f(x) = 2x - 4 E = 0 .1 5 1
6
x = 5 - - -l - - - 3
0 1 1
5.8
1 1
L = 6
1 1
E = 0.2 1 1
-7--7--- 2.75
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
o 1 1
1 1
1 1

0 / 2 "'- X 1 1
NOTTOSCALE
1 1
../3 E 1 1

1 1

1 1
NOTTOSCALE
1 1
1 1

�--���-----x
E-1 ../3 o

NOTTOSCALE
2 2
Exercises 1.3 75

13. 14. y such that for all x

y
O < [x - x o l < 8 l f ( x ) - LI < E.

2.01 1
31. = 3 - = 3, E = 0.02
y = _2
_ J(x) = x f (x) 2x, x
0

� 1

1
1
X - -
32. f(x) = -3x - 2, x
0
= -1, E = 0.03
1 0 - 2
f(x) = . 1:.-
1

x - 4
2
L = 2
-v-x
2 ---+ 33. f ( x ) = - -, xo = 2, E = 0.05
1 1
E = 0.01
x = -1 x - 2

0 1 1

L = 2 2.5 1 1
2
1.99 --7-t- 1
x + 6x + 5
E = 0.5 1

1
34. f ( x ) = ----, x
0
= -5, E = 0.05
1 1 1

1 --�--- 2 1 1 1
X +5
1 1 1

1 1
1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1
35. f (x) = JT"=sx, xo = -3, E = 0.5
- - - - - -1- - - L - - - 1.5 1 1 1

I 1
1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1
36. f(x) = 4/x, Xo = 2, E = 0.4
1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 Prove the limit statements in Exercises 37-50.

1 1
1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1
1 1 1 37. lim (9 - x ) = 5 38. lim (3x - 7) = 2
1 1 1 1 1 x -> 4 x -> 3
1 1

o 1/ 1 "" 1
39. lim ✓x=s = 2 40. lim J4 - X = 2
16 -1 16 O x -> 9 X -> Ü
2
9 25 2.01 l.99

NOTTOSCAtE
41. lim f (x) = 1 if f (x) = ¡ x22,' x # 1
X -> ] X = 1

F i n d i n g Deltas A l g e b r a ic a ll y 42. lim f ( x ) = 4 if f (x) = ¡ xl2,' x # -2

X -> - 2 X = -2

Each of Exercises 15-30 gives a function f (x) and numbers L , x0,

1
and E > O. In each case, find an open interval about x0 on which the
43. lim - = 1
X-> l X
inequality I f (x) - L 1 < E holds. Then give a value for 8 > O such that

1 1
for ali x satisfying O < lx - x
01 < ó the inequality l f ( x ) - LI < E

44. lim - = -
2
holds. x -> J3 x 3

2
15. f(x) = x + 1, L = 5, x
0 = 4, E = 0.01 x - 9
45. lim -- = -6
X -> - 3 X + 3
16. f(x) = 2x - 2, L = -6, xo = -2, E = 0.02
2
x - 1
17. f ( x ) = Jx+f, L = 1, xo = O, E = 0.1 46. lim -- = 2
X -> 1 X - 1

18. f ( x ) = ,Jx, L = 1/2, x

0 = 1/4, E = 0.1
2x, 1
47. lim f ( x ) = 2 if f(x) = \ 4 - x <
19. f ( x ) = Jl9 - x , L = 3, x
0
= 10, E = 1 x -> 1 6x - 4 , X 2: 1

20. f ( x ) = �' L = 4, xo = 2 3, E = 1
- ! X < 0
=
2x,

48. lim f(x) O if f (X)

21. f(x) = 1/x, L = 1/4, x
0 = 4, E = 0.05 x -> 0 x / 2 , X 2: O

2,
22. f(x) = x L = 3, xo = J3, E = 0.1 1
49. lim x sin - = O
2, X -> 0 X
23. f(x) = x L = 4, xo = -2, E = 0.5

y
24. f(x) = 1/x, L = -1, x
0 = -1, E = 0.1

2
25. f(x) = x - 5, L = 11, x
0 = 4, E = 1

26. f(x) = 120/x, L = 5, x

0 = 24, E = 1

27. f ( x ) = m x , m > O, L = 2m, x

0
= 2, E = 0.03

28. f (x) = m x , m > O, L = 3 m , xo = 3, E = e > O

----l--JHN-�t+--+--�x
29. f(x) = mx + b, m > O, L = (m/2) + b, x
0 = 1/2,

€ = C > 0

30. f(x) = mx + b, m > O, L = m + b , x

0 = 1, E = 0.05

More on F o r m a l Li m i t s

Each of Exercises 31-36 gives a function f ( x ) , a point x

0,
and a
(Generated by Mathematica)
positive number E. Find L = lim f ( x ) . Then find a number 8 > O
X->Xo
76 Chapter 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

1 / is to be 5 ± 0.1 amp. In what interval <loes R have to lie for /

2
50. lim x sin - = O
x➔O X to be within 0 . 1 amp of the target val u e /0 = 5?

1.24 The ci r c u i t i n Exercise 56.

W h e n Is a N u m b e r l Not the Li m i t of f(x) as X➔ xo?

We can prove that limx ➔ xo f (x) =j:. L by providing an E > O such

that no possible 8 > O satisfies the condition

For all x, O < lx - xol < 8 l f (x) - L I < E.

We accomplish this for our candidate E by showing that for each

8 > O there exists a value of x such that

Theory a n d E x a m p l e s
O < lx - x o l < 8 and I J (x) - L I :.:: E.

51. Define what it means to say that lim f (x) = 5.

x➔2
y

52. Define what it means to say that lim g(x) = k. y = f(x)

X➔Ü

53. A wrong statement about limits. Show by example that the

L + E
following statement is_ wrong.
-i----�
1 1

t 1

1 1
The number L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0
L 1 1

1 1
if f (x) gets closer to L a s x approaches x0•
1 1

1 1
_L . L _
Explain why the function in your example <loes not have the L - E
1 1

1 1

given value of L a s a l i m it a s x ➔ x 0• 1

54. Another wrong statement about limits. Show by example 1

----+--_.._---,_.._____._ X
that the following statement is wrong.
o x
0
- 8 \ x
0
x
0
+ 8
The number L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches
a value of x for which
x0 if, given any E > O, there exists a value of x for
O < l x - x 1 < 8 and IJ(x) - LI ;;;: E
0
which I J (x) - L I < E .

X < 1
Explain why the function in your example <loes not have the
57. Let j ( x ) = 1 x,
x + 1
' X > l.
given value of L as a limit as x ➔ x 0•

i 55. Grinding engine cylinders. Before contracting to grind engine y

2,
cylinders to a cross-section area of 9 in you need to know how

much deviation from the ideal cylinder diameter of x0 = 3.385

2
in. you can allow and still have the area come within 0 . 0 1 in of

2• 2
the required 9 in To find out, you let A = n (x /2) and look for 2

the interval in which you must hold x to make I A - 9 1 :S 0 . 0 1. y =f(x)

What interval do yo u find?

56. Manufacturing e/ectrica/ resistors. Ohm's law for electrical

circuits like the one shown in Fig. 1 .2 4 states that V = R I . In -----------x

this equation, V is a constant voltage, / is the current in amperes,

and R is the resistance in ohms. Your firm has been asked to

supply the resistors for a circuit in which V will be 120 volts and
Exercises 1.3 77

a) Let E = 1 /2. Show that no possible 8 > O satisfies the fol­ 60. a) For the function graphed here, show that l i m x-> - t g (x) =/. 2.

lowing condition: b) Does li m x ➔ - l g ( x ) appear to exist? If so, what is the value

of the limit? If not, why not?

For all x , O < [x - 11 < 8 l f (x) - 2 1 < 1;2.

y
That is, for each 8 > O show that there is a value of x such

that

• 2
o < lx - 1 1 < 8 and l f (x) - 2 1 � 1 / 2 .

This will show that lim .. ➔ 1 f (x) =/. 2.

b) Show that lim .. ➔ 1 f (x) =/. l.

e) Show that lim.. ➔ 1 f(x) =/. 1. 5 .

x2 X < 2

58. Let h ( x ) = 3, x = 2
{
2, X > 2.

O CAS E x p l o r a t i o n s a n d Projects

In Exercises 61-66, you will further explore finding deltas graphically.

Use a CAS to perform the following steps:

a) Plot the function y = f (x) near the point x0 being approached.

b) Guess the value of the limit L and then evaluate the limit sym­

bolically to see if you guessed correctly.

e) Using the value E = 0.2, graph the banding lines y 1 = L - E and

y2 = L + E together with the function f near x 0•

d) From your graph in part (c ), estimate a 8 > O such that for all x
o 2

Show that O < [x - xol < 8 l f (x) - LI < E.

a) lim h(x) =/. 4 Test your estímate by plotting f, y 1 , and y2 over the interval
x➔2

O < [x - xol < 8 . For your viewing window use x0 - 28 .:S x .:S
b) lim h(x) =/. 3
x➔2
x0 + 28 and L - 2E .:S y .:S L + 2E. lf any function values lie
e) lim h(x) =/. 2
x➔2 outside the interval [L - E , L + E ], your choice of 8 was too

large. Try again with a smaller estimate.

59. For the function graphed here, show that
e) Repeat parts (c) and (d) successively for E = 0 . 1 , 0.05, and 0.001.

a) lim f (x) =/. 4

4
x➔3 x - 81

b) lim f (x) =/. 4.8

61. f(x) = --, xo = 3
x➔3
X - 3

e) lim f (x) =/. 3 3 2

x➔3
5x + 9x

62. f (x) = 2x5 + 3x2' Xo = O

y
sin2x
63. f(x) = --, xo = O
3x

x ( l - cosx)
4.8
64. f (x) = . , xo = O
x - s m x
4 •
ffe - 1
y = f(x)
65. f(x) = --, xo = 1
3
x - 1

2
3x - (7x + l)Jx + 5
� 66. f (x) = -------, Xo = 1
x - 1

______..____--+ X

o 3
78 Chapter 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

¡u��a:.· ����mi

� Extensions of the Li m i t Concept

In this section we extend the concept of limit to

1. one-sided limits, which are limits as x approaches a from the left-hand side or

y the right-hand side only,

2. infinite limits, which are not really limits at all, but provide useful symbols

and language for describing the behavior of functions whose values become

arbitrarily large, positive or negative.

O n e - S i d e d Li m i t s
--------+---------+X

o
To have a limit L as x approaches a, a function f must be defined on both sides of

a, and its values f (x) must approach L as x approaches a from either side. Because

of this, ordinary limits are sometimes called two-síded limits.

It is possible for a function to approach a limiting value as x approaches a from

only one side, either from the right or from the left. In this case we say that f has

a one-sided (either right-hand or left-hand) limit a t a . The function f (x) = x/lxl

1.25 Different r i g h t - h a n d a n d l e ft - h a n d
graphed in Fig. 1 . 2 5 has limit 1 as x approaches zero from the right, and limit - 1

l i m i t s at the o r i g i n . as x approaches zero from the left.

Definition

I n fo r m a l D e fi n i t i o n of Right-hand and Left-hand Li m i t s

Let f (x) be defined on an interval (a, b) where a < b. If f (x) approaches

arbitrarily close to L as x approaches a from within that interval, then we

The "+" and " - "
say that f has right-hand limit L at a, and we write

The significance of the signs in the notation

for one-sided limits is this:

lim f (x) = L.
x ➔ a+

x --+ a - means x approaches a from the

Let f (x) be defined on an interval (e, a) where e < a . If f (x) approaches
negative side of a, through values less than a.

arbitrarily close to M a s x approaches a from within the interval (e, a ) , then

x --+ a+ means x approaches a from the
we say that f has left-hand limit M at a, and we write
positive side of a, through values greater

than a.
lim_ f (x) = M.
x➔a

Negative side of a

x➔a-
1

1
For the function f (x) = x/ lx I in Fig. 1 . 2 5 , we have
1

1 lim f(x) = 1 and lim f(x) = - 1.

1
x ➔ o+ x➔ o-
1

1
1

•
a

A function cannot have an ordinary limit at an endpoint of its domain, but it

l Positive side of a
can have a one-sided limit.
: x ➔ a +

2
1

1
EXAMPLE 1 The domain o f f (x) = J4 - x is [ - 2 , 2 ] ; its graph is the semi-
1

1 circle in Fig. 1 . 2 6 . We have

• ♦::� •
a X
2 2
lim J4-x = O and lim J4 - x = O.
X➔ -2+ x➔2-
1.4 E x t e n s i o n s of the Li m i t Concept 79

2
y = ✓4 - x

1.26 li m ✓4-x2 = O, lim ✓4-x2 = O.

----------------x
-2 o
X->2- X-> -2+

The function does not have a left-hand limit at x = -2 or a right-hand limit

at x = 2. It does not have ordinary two-sided limits at either -2 or 2. O

One-sided limits have all the limit properties listed in Theorem 1 , Section 1 . 2 .

The right-hand limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their right-hand

limits, and so on. The theorems for limits of polynomials and rational functions

hold with one-sided limits, as does the Sandwich Theorem.

The connection between one-sided and two-sided limits is stated in the follow­

ing theorem (proved at the end of this section).

Theorem 5

One-sided vs. Two-sided Limits

A function f (x) has a l i m it a s x approaches e if and only if it has left-hand

and right-hand limits there, and these one-sided limits are equal:

lim f (x) = L lim_ f(x) = L and lim f(x) = L.

x➔c X➔C x➔c+

y
EXAMPLE 2 All of the following statements about the function graphed in

Figure 1 . 2 7 are true.

2
At X = O: limX-4 0 + f (x) = 1,

limx ➔ o- f (x) and limx ➔ O f (x) do not exist. (The function is

not defined to the left of x = O.)

At x = 1: l i m X-4 1 - f (x) = O even though f (1 ) = 1,

limx➔I+ f (x) = 1,

limx ➔ I f (x) does not exist. (The right- and left-hand limits

1.27 G r a p h of the function i n E x a m p l e 2 . are not equal.)

At x = 2: limx ➔ r f (x) = 1,

limx ➔ 2+ f (x) = 1,

Iimx ➔ 2 f (x) = 1 even though f (2) = 2.

At x = 3: limHr f (x) = limX-43 + f (x) = limX-43 f (x) = f (3) = 2

At x = 4: limX-4 4- f (x) = 1 even though f (4) =/. 1,

limx ➔ 4 + f (x) and limx ➔ 4 f (x) do not exist. (The function is

not defined to the right of x = 4.)

At every other point a in [O, 4 ] , f (x) has limit f (a). o

80 Chapter 1 : Li m i t s a n d C o n t i n u i t y

In the examples so far in this section, the functions that failed to have a limit

at sorne point at least had one existing one-sided limit there. The function in the

following example has neither a left-hand limit n o r a right-hand limit at x = O even

though it is defined everywhere except at x = O.

EXAMPLE 3 Show that y = sin ( 1 /x ) has no limit as x approaches zero from

either side (Fig. 1.28).

1.28 The function y = s i n (1/x) has neither a

r i g h t - h a n d n o r a l e ft - h a n d l i m i t a s x a p p ro a c h e s zero

(Example 3).

Solution As x approaches zero, its reciprocal, 1 / x , grows without bound and the

values of sin (1 /x ) cycle repeatedly from -1 to l. There is no single number L

that the function's values stay increasingly close to as x approaches zero. This is

true even if we restrict x to positive values or to negative values. The function has

neither a right-hand limit nor a left-hand limit at x = O. O

l n fi n i t e Li m i t s

Let us look closely at the function f (x) = 1 / x that drives the sine in Example 3 . As

x ---+ o+, the values off grow without bound, eventually reaching and surpassing

every positive real number. That is, given any positive real number B, however large,

the values off become larger still (Fig. 1 . 2 9 ) . Thus, f has no limit as x ---+ o+. It is
y

You can get as high nevertheless convenient to describe the behavior off by saying that f (x) approaches

as you want by CX) as X ---+ o+. We write

taking x clase enough

to O. No matter how 1
lim f (x) = lim - = oo .
high B is, the graph
x ➔ O+ x ➔ o+ X
goes higher.
B

In writing this, we are not saying that the limit exists. Nor are we saying that

there is a real number oo , for there is no such number. Rather, we are saying that

limx ➔ o+ ( 1 /x ) does not exist because I / x becomes arbitrarily large and positive

--------------+X as X ---+ o+.

No matter how
As x ---+ o-, the values o f f (x) = I/x become arbitrarily large and negative.

low - B is, the Given any negative real number - B , the values off eventually lie below - B . (See
graph goes lower.
Fig. 1.29.) We write
You can get as low as -B

you want by taking

lim f(x) = lim � = - oo .
x clase enough to O.
x -e-O" x➔ o- X

1.29 One-sided i n fi n i t e l i m i t s : Again, we are not saying that the limit exists and equals the number - oo . There is

1 1
no real number - oo . We are describing the behavior of a function whose l i m i t a s
l .1 m - = oo and l .1 m - = -oo.
x----,o+ X x----,o- X x ---+ o- does not exist because its values become arbitrarily large and negative.
1 .4 Extensions of the Li m i t Concept 81

y
EXAMPLE 4 One-sided infinite limits

Find lim -1- and lim _l_.

x ➔ l + x - 1 x ➔ l - x - 1

Geometric Solution The graph of y = 1 / ( x - 1 ) is the graph of y = 1/x shifted

1 unit to the right (Fig. 1.30). Therefore, y = 1 / ( x - 1 ) behaves near 1 exactly the

way y = 1/x behaves near O:

1 . 1

lim -- = oo and hm -- = - oo .
X➔ I+ x - 1 x➔I- X - 1

Analytic Solution Think about the number x - 1 and its reciprocal. As x ➔ 1 +,

we have (x - 1 ) ➔ o+ and 1 / ( x - 1 ) ➔ oo . As x ➔ 1 - , we have (x - 1 ) ➔ o­

1.30 Near x = 1 , the function and 1 / ( x - 1 ) ➔ - oo . O

y = 1/(x - 1 ) behaves the way the

function y = 1/x behaves n e a r x = O. lts

g r a p h is the g r a p h of y = 1/x shifted 1 EXAMPLE 5 Two-sided infinite limits

unit to the right.

Discuss the behavior of

1
a) f(x) = near x = O,
2
X
y

1
b) g(x) = (x + 2
near x = - 3 .
No matter how 3)
B high B is, the graph

goes higher.
Solution

2
a) As x approaches zero from either side, the values of 1 /x are positive and

become arbitrarily large (Fig. 1. 3 1 a ) :

1
lim f (x) = lim - = oo.
2
x-+0 x➔O X
X

2 2
b) The graph of g(x) = 1 / ( x + 3) is the graph o f f (x) = 1/x shifted 3 units to
(a)

the left (Fig. 1. 3 1 b ) . Therefore, g behaves near - 3 exactly the way f behaves

near O.

1
lim g(x) = lim = oo.
x➔-3 x➔-3 (x + 3)
2
o
y

The function y = 1 /x shows no consistent behavior as x ➔ O. We have

1
1/x ➔ oo i f x ➔ o+,butl/x ➔ - oo i fx ➔ o - . A n w e c a n s a y a b o u t li m x ➔ O (1/x)
y = (x + 3) 2 5
2
is that it <loes not exist. The function y = 1 /x is different. Its values approach in­
2)
4 finity as x approaches zero from either side, so we can say that limx ➔ O ( 1 /x = oo.

EXAMPLE 6 Rational functions can b e h a v e in various ways n e a r zeros

2 o f their denominators.

2 2
(x - 2) (x - 2) x - 2
a) lim = lim = lim - - = 0
2
x➔2 x - 4 x➔2 (x - 2)(x + 2 ) x➔2 x + 2
X

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 O
x - 2 x - 2 1 1
b) lim = li m = lim -
2
(b) x➔2 x - 4 x➔2 (x - 2)(x + 2 ) x➔2 x + 2 4

x - 3 x - 3
1.3 1 The g r a p h s of the functions i n Thc v a l u c -. are n c g . u i v e
e) lim --
= lim = - 00
2
E x a m p l e 5. x ➔ 2+ x - 4 x ➔ 2+ (x - 2)(x + 2 ) for 1 > 2. 1 ncar 2.