COMPUTER

NETWORKING AND
INTERNET

PRESENTED BY:- ASHUTOSH PRASHAR

PRESENTED TO:- AVNEET GILL
COURSE:- BBA
SEMESTER: 5th
CONTENT……….

1. Computer networking and Network Topologies

2. Types and uses of Computer Network
3. Study about various networking devices
4. Study about Internet Service Provider
5. Study of Search Engine
6. Study about HTML
7. Study about Ethernet Cable and Color Coding
8. Study about various types of guided
transmission media
9. Study about various types of connectors used in
network
10. Creation of “HEADING” using HTML
EXPERIMENT :- 1:-
Computer Networking and
Network Topologies

A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices,

peripherals, or other devices connected to one another to allow the sharing of
data. An example of a network is the Internet, which connects millions of people
all over the world.
A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common
communication protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing
resources located on or provided by the network nodes. The interconnections
between nodes are formed from a broad spectrum of telecommunication network
technologies, based on physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency
methods that may be arranged in a variety of network topologies.
The nodes of a computer network may be classified by many means as personal
computers, servers, networking hardware, or general-purpose hosts. They are
identified by hostnames and network addresses. Hostnames serve as memorable
labels for the nodes, rarely changed after initial assignment. Network addresses
serve for locating and identifying the nodes by communication protocols such as
the Internet Protocol.
Computer networks may be classified by many criteria, for example, the
transmission medium used to carry signals, bandwidth, communications protocols
to organize network traffic, the network size, the topology, traffic control
mechanism, and organizational intent.
Computer networks support many applications and services, such as access to the
World Wide Web, digital video, digital audio, shared use of application and
storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use of email and instant
messaging applications.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY

MEANING

Network topology is the arrangement of the elements of a communication

network. Network topology can be used to define or describe the
arrangement of various types of telecommunication networks, including
command and control radio networks, industrial field busses and computer
networks.
1.Bus network

A bus network is a network topology in which nodes are directly connected

to a common half-duplex link called a bus. A host on a bus network is called
a station. In a bus network, every station will receive all network traffic, and
the traffic generated by each station has equal transmission priority.

2.Star network
A star network is an implementation of a spoke–hub distribution paradigm in
computer networks. In a star network, every host is connected to a central
hub. In its simplest form, one central hub acts as a conduit to transmit
messages. The star network is one of the most common computer network
topologies.

3.Tree network

A tree network, or star-bus network, is a hybrid network topology in which

star networks are interconnected via bus networks. Tree networks are
hierarchical, and each node can have an arbitrary number of child nodes.

4.Mesh networking
A mesh network is a local network topology in which the infrastructure
nodes connect directly, dynamically and non-hierarchically to as many other
nodes as possible and cooperate with one another to efficiently route data
from/to clients.

5.Ring network
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly
two other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through
each node - a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the
way handling every packet.
EXPERIMENT (2):-
Types and Uses of Computer Networking

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables
the computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources,
data, and applications. A computer network can be categorized by their size.
A computer network is mainly of four types:

● LAN(Local Area Network)

● PAN(Personal Area Network)
● MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
● WAN(Wide Area Network)

1.Local area network

A local area network is a computer network that interconnects computers
within a limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university
campus or office building. By contrast, a wide area network not only covers
a larger geographic distance, but also generally involves leased
telecommunication circuits.

Features of LAN are following:-

● Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the
network.
● High degree of interconnection between computers.
● Easy physical connection of computers in a network.
● Inexpensive medium of data transmission.

Advantages of LAN:
➨The basic LAN implementation does not cost too much.
➨It is easy to control and manage the entire LAN as it is available in one small region.
➨The LAN configuration is very easy due to availability of required protocols in the
Operating System (OS) itself.

Disadvantages of LAN:
➨LAN covers small geographical area.
➨Security issues are big concern as it is easy to have access to programs and data of peers.
Special security measures are needed to stop unauthorized access.
➨It is difficult to setup and maintain LAN and requires skilled technicians and network
administrators.

2.Personal area network

A personal area network is a computer network for interconnecting

electronic devices centered on an individual person's workspace. A PAN
provides data transmission among devices such as computers, smartphones,
tablets and personal digital assistant

Features of a PAN:
● Short-range communication.
● Low power consumption.
● Low cost.
● Small personal networks.
● Communication of devices within a personal space.

Advantages of PAN:
● No extra space requires
● Cost effective
● Connect to many devices at a time
● Easy to use
● reliable

Disadvatgaes of PAN:-

PAN can be operated in less range of areas.

Can only be used for personal area

Slow data transfer

Interfere with radio signals:

Infrared signals travel only in a straight lin

3.Metropolitan area network

A metropolitan area network is a computer network that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographic region of the size of a metropolitan area.

The distinguishing features of MAN are

● Network size generally ranges from 5 to 50 km. ...
● Data rates are moderate to high.
● In general, a MAN is either owned by a user group or by a network provider who
sells service to users, rather than a single organization as in LAN.
● It facilitates sharing of regional resources.

Advantages of MAN:-
● 1: Less Expensive: It is less expensive to attach MAN with WAN Network. ...
● 2: Sending Local Emails: ...
● 3: High Speed than WAN: ...
● 4: Sharing of the Internet: ...
● 5: Conversion of LAN to MAN is Easy: ...
● 6: High Security:

Disadvantages of MAN:
➨It is difficult to manage the network once it becomes large.
➨It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage.
➨Network installation requires skilled technicians and network administrators. This
increases overall installation and management costs.
➨It requires more cables for connection from one place to the other compare to LAN.

4.Wide area network

A wide area network is a telecommunications network that extends over a

large geographic area for the primary purpose of computer networking.
Wide area networks are often established with leased telecommunication
circuits.

WAN Features:

1.Large capacity and adapt to sudden communication requirements

2.to adapt to the requirements of integrated business services,

3.open and standardized protocol device interface

4.improve communications services and network management.

Advantages of a wide area network (WAN)

● Covers large geographical area: ...
● Centralized data: ...
● Get updated files and data: ...
● A lot of application to exchange messages: ...
● Sharing of software and resources: ...
● Global business: ...

Disadvantage of WAN are :

● Setting up the network could be expensive.
● Maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors
and technicians to be employed.
● Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use
information from other computers.
EXPERIMENT-3:- Study about
various Networking Devices

1.Network interfaces

An ATM network interface in the form of an accessory card. A lot of network

interfaces are built-in.

A network interface controller (NIC) is computer hardware that connects the

computer to the network media and has the ability to process low-level
network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for
accepting a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and
the associated circuitry.
In Ethernet networks, each network interface controller has a unique Media
Access Control (MAC) address—usually stored in the controller's permanent
memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) maintains and administers
MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six octets.
The three most significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers.
These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the
three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce.

2. Repeaters and hubs

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal, cleans it of

unnecessary noise and regenerates it. The signal is retransmitted at a higher
power level, or to the other side of an obstruction so that the signal can
cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet
configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100
meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or even hundreds of
kilometers apart.
Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model but still require a
small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation
delay that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a
result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters used in a
network, e.g., the Ethernet 5-4-3 rule.
An Ethernet repeater with multiple ports is known as an Ethernet hub. In
addition to reconditioning and distributing network signals, a repeater hub
assists with collision detection and fault isolation for the network.
3.Bridges

A network bridge opeates at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model and
connects and filters traffic between two network segments to form a single
network. This divides the network's collision domain but maintains a single
broadcast domain. Network segmentation through bridging breaks down a large,
congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks.
4.Routers

A typical home or small office router showing the ADSL telephone line and Ethernet network
cable connections

A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between

networks by processing the addressing or routing information included in the
packet. The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the
routing table. A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward
packets.
5.Switches

A network switch is a device that forwards and frames of data between ports based
on the destination MAC address in each frame. [27] A switch is distinct from a hub
in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication
whereas a hub forwards to all ports. A switch can be thought of as a multi-port
bridge.[28] A switch learns the association of physical ports to MAC addresses by
examining the source addresses of received frames. If an unknown destination
MAC is targeted, the switch broadcasts to all ports but the source. Switches
normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and for
cascading additional switches.
EXPERIMENT-4:- Study about Internet
Service Provider

An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides services for accessing, using, or
participating in the Internet. Internet service providers can be organised in various forms, such as
commercial, community-owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.
Internet services typically provided by ISPs can include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name
registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation.
An ISP typically serves as the access point or the gateway that provides a user, access to everything
available on the Internet.
Classifications

Access providers
Access provider ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to
connect users to their network.[41] Available technologies have ranged from computer
modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable (CATV), Wi-Fi,
and fiber optics.
For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide
dial-up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), cable modem or
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) (typically basic rate interface). Using
fiber-optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names.Customers
with more demanding requirements (such as medium-to-large businesses, or other
ISPs) can use higher-speed DSL (such as single-pair high-speed digital subscriber
line), Ethernet, metropolitan Ethernet, gigabit Ethernet, Frame Relay, ISDN Primary
Rate Interface, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and synchronous optical
networking (SONET).

Mailbox providers
A mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic
mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send,
receive, accept, and store email for end users or other organizations.Many mailbox
providers are also access providers, while others are not (e.g., Gmail, Yahoo! Mail,
Outlook.com, AOL Mail, Po box). The definition given in RFC 6650 covers email
hosting services, as well as the relevant department of companies, universities,
organizations, groups, and individuals that manage their mail servers themselves.
Hosting ISPs
Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services.
Other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation.
Transit ISPs

Tiers 1 and 2 ISP interconnections

Just as their customers pay them for Internet access, ISPs themselves pay upstream
ISPs for Internet access. An upstream ISP usually has a larger network than the
contracting ISP or is able to provide the contracting ISP with access to parts of the
Internet the contracting ISP by itself has no access to.In the simplest case, a single
connection is established to an upstream ISP and is used to transmit data to or from
areas of the Internet beyond the home network; this mode of interconnection is often
cascaded multiple times until reaching a tier 1 carrier. In reality, the situation is often
more complex.
Virtual ISPs
A virtual ISP (VISP) is an operation that purchases services from another ISP,
sometimes called a wholesale ISP in this context, which allow the VISP's customers to
access the Internet using services and infrastructure owned and operated by the
wholesale ISP. VISPs resemble mobile virtual network operators and competitive
local exchange carriers for voice communications.
Free ISPs
Free ISPs are Internet service providers that provide service free of charge. Many
free ISPs display advertisements while the user is connected; like commercial
television, in a sense they are selling the user's attention to the advertiser. Other free
ISPs, sometimes called freenets, are run on a nonprofit basis, usually with volunteer
staff.
Wireless ISP
A wireless Internet service provider (WISP) is an Internet service provider with a
network based on wireless networking. Technology may include commonplace Wi-Fi
wireless mesh networking, or proprietary equipment designed to operate over open
900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 4.9, 5.2, 5.4, 5.7, and 5.8 GHz bands or licensed frequencies such
as 2.5 GHz (EBS/BRS), 3.65 GHz (NN) and in the UHF band (including the MMDS
frequency band) and LMDS.

EXPERIMENT-5:-Study about Search

Engine

meaning:-
A search engine is a software system that is designed to carry out web searches
(Internet searches), which means to search the World Wide Web in a systematic way
for particular information specified in a textual web search query. The search results
are generally presented in a line of results, often referred to as search engine results
pages (SERPs). The information may be a mix of links to web pages, images, videos,
infographics, articles, research papers, and other types of files. Some search engines
also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike web directories,
which are maintained only by human editors, search engines also maintain real-time
information by running an algorithm on a web crawler.

TYPES OF SEARCH ENGINES

1. Google
Besides being the most popular search engine covering over 90% of the worldwide
market, Google boasts outstanding features that make it the best search engine in
the market. It boasts cutting-edge algorithms, easy-to-use interface, and
personalized user experience. The platform is renowned for continually updating
its search engine results and features to give users the best experience.
2. Bing
Microsoft’s Bing is the second-most renowned search engine in the world. And
although it trails Google by a broad margin in terms of market share, it boasts
some unique features that may excite users. For starters, the search engine filters
result in different tabs such as ads, images, maps, videos, and news.

3. Yahoo
Although it was once popular than and even went neck-to-neck with Google during its
early days, Yahoo has dropped to the third spot in terms of market share. Its web
portal is still popular, and it is said to be the eleventh most visited site according to
Alexa. Yahoo features an impressive interface, clean results and an impressive
catalog of websites.
4. Baidu
Founded in 2000, Baidu is a top-tier search engine that enjoys dominance in China.
The platform has been experiencing a steady increase in the number of users over the
years. And although it is mainly used in China, it still boasts an intuitive interface,
plenty of search options, and premium-quality search results.

EXPERIMENT-6:-Study about HTML

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the standard markup language for documents
designed to be displayed in a web browser. It can be assisted by technologies such as
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and scripting languages such as JavaScript.
Web browsers receive HTML documents from a web server or from local storage and
render the documents into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a
web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the
document.
HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs,
images and other objects such as interactive forms may be embedded into the
rendered page. HTML provides a means to create structured documents by denoting
structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and
other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets.
Tags such as <img /> and <input /> directly introduce content into the page. Other
tags such as <p> surround and provide information about document text and may
include other tags as sub-elements. Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use
them to interpret the content of the page.
HTML can embed programs written in a scripting language such as JavaScript,
which affects the behavior and content of web pages. Inclusion of CSS defines the
look and layout of content. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), former
maintainer of the HTML and current maintainer of the CSS standards, has
encouraged the use of CSS over explicit presentational HTML since 1997.

What is an HTML Element?

An HTML element is defined by a start tag, some content, and an end tag:

<tagname>Content goes here...</tagname>

The HTML element is everything from the start tag to the end tag:

<h1>My First Heading</h1>

<p>My first paragraph.</p>
HOW TO WRITE HTML CODE?

Step 1: Open Notepad (PC)

Open the Start Screen (the window symbol at the bottom left on your screen). Type
Notepad.

Windows 7 or earlier:

Open Start > Programs > Accessories > Notepad

Step 1: Open TextEdit (Mac)

Open Finder > Applications > TextEdit

Also change some preferences to get the application to save files correctly. In Preferences >
Format > choose "Plain Text"

Then under "Open and Save", check the box that says "Display HTML files as HTML code
instead of formatted text".

Then open a new document to place the code.

Step 2: Write Some HTML

Write or copy the following HTML code into Notepad:

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>
<h1>My First Heading</h1>

<p>My first paragraph.</p>

</body>

</html>

Step 3: Save the HTML Page

Save the file on your computer. Select File > Save as in the Notepad menu.

Name the file "index.htm" and set the encoding to UTF-8 (which is the preferred
encoding for HTML files).
Step 4: View the HTML Page in Your Browser
Open the saved HTML file in your favorite browser (double click on the file, or right-
click - and choose "Open with").

The result will look much like this:

EXPERIMENT-7:-Study about ethernet
cable and color coding

Study about ethernet cable

Ethernet is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly used in

local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area
networks (WAN).[1] It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in
1983 as IEEE 802.3. Ethernet has since been refined to support higher bit rates, a
greater number of nodes, and longer link distances, but retains much backward
compatibility. Over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN
technologies such as Token Ring, FDDI and ARCNET.
The original 10BASE5 Ethernet uses coaxial cable as a shared medium, while the
newer Ethernet variants use twisted pair and fiber optic links in conjunction with
switches. Over the course of its history, Ethernet data transfer rates have been
increased from the original 2.94 megabits per second (Mbit/s)[2] to the latest 400
gigabits per second (Gbit/s). The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and
signaling variants of the OSI physical layer in use with Ethernet.

Types of Ethernet cabling

There are three cable types commonly used for Ethernet cabling: coaxial, twisted
pair, and fiber-optic cabling. In today’s LANs, the twisted pair cabling is the most
popular type of cabling, but the fiber-optic cabling usage is increasing, especially in
high performance networks. Coaxial cabling is generally used for cable Internet
access. Let’s expain all three cable types in more detail.
Coaxial cabling

A coaxial cable has an inner conductor that runs down the middle of the cable. The
conductor is surrounded by a layer of insulation which is then surrounded by another
conducting shield, which makes this type of cabling resistant to outside interference.
This type of cabling comes in two types – thinnet and thicknet. Both types have
maximum transmission speed of 10 Mbps. Coaxial cabling was previously used in
computer networks, but today are largely replaced by twisted-pair cabling (Photo
credit: Wikipedia)

Twisted-pair cabling

A twisted-pair cable has four pair of wires. These wires are twisted around each other
to reduce crosstalk and outside interference. This type of cabling is common in
current LANs.

Twisted-pair cabling can be used for telephone and network cabling. It comes in two
versions, UTP (Unshielded Twisted-Pair) and STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair). The
difference between these two is that an STP cable has an additional layer of
insulation that protects data from outside interferences.
A twisted-pair cable uses 8P8C connector, sometimes wrongly referred to as RJ45
connector.

Fiber-optic cabling

This type of cabling uses optical fibers to transmit data in the form of light signals.
The cables have strands of glass surrounded by a cladding material
This type of cabling can support greater cable lengths than any other cabling type (up
to a couple of miles). The cables are also immune to electromagnetic interference. As
you can see, this cabling method has many advantages over other methods but its
main drawback is that it is more expensive.

There are two types of fiber-optic cables:

● Single-mode fiber (SMF) – uses only a single ray of light to carry data.
Used for larger distances.
● Multi-mode fiber (MMF) – uses multiple rays of light to carry data. Less
expensive than SMF.

Four types of connectors are commonly used:

● ST (Straight-tip connector)
● SC (Subscriber connector)
● FC (Fiber Channel)
● LC (Lucent Connector)

Study about color coding

In computer science and graph theory, the term color-coding refers to an
algorithmic technique which is useful in the discovery of network motifs. For example,
it can be used to detect a simple path of length k in a given graph. The traditional
color-coding algorithm is probabilistic, but it can be derandomized without much
overhead in the running time.
Color-coding also applies to the detection of cycles of a given length, and more
generally it applies to the subgraph isomorphism problem (an NP-complete problem),
where it yields polynomial time algorithms when the subgraph pattern that it is trying
to detect has bounded treewidth.
The color-coding method was proposed and analyzed in 1994 by Noga Alon, Raphael
Yuster, and Uri Zwick.

How to do color coding in excel?

CREATING THE RULES

The attendee had a worksheet with a status code in column D that contains

possible values of 1 through 5. Items with a status of 1 should be green, 2

should be blue, 3 yellow, 4 orange, and 5 red. He was also very specific about

which shades of blue and green needed to be used.

Here are the steps to get the results shown:

1. Select the cells with the status codes.

2. On the Home tab, select Conditional Formatting, Highlight Cells Rules,

Equal To…
3. In the Equal To dialog box, type a 1 in the left box. Open the dropdown and

choose Custom Format…

4. The Format Cells dialog opens on the Font tab. You could use this tab to

change the color of the numbers in the cell. But to change the fill color of the

cell, go to the Fill tab.

5. The 60 available colors have changed with each version of Excel and will

change based on the theme used for the document. For a reliable palette of

colors, click More Colors. This offers 163 colors, including many shades of

popular colors such as red, orange, yellow, blue, and green. But if none of

those colors are the exact right shade, you can use the Custom tab to choose

from 16.7 million colors.

6. After choosing a color, click OK in each of the three open dialog boxes in

order to return to Excel.

7. Repeat steps 2 through 6 for each of the four remaining colors, changing the

1 in step 3 to the other values.

EXPERIMENT-8:- Study about various
types of guided transmission media

Types of Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path

between the transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is
sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the
following types:

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:

● High Speed
● Secure
● Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are
the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not
depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic
applications.
Advantages:
○ Least expensive
○ Easy to install
○ High-speed capacity
○ Susceptible to external interference
○ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
○ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external
interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data
channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
○ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to
UTP
○ Eliminates crosstalk
○ Comparatively faster
○ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
○ More expensive
○ Bulky

(ii) Coaxial Cable –

It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a
separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two
modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable
bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks
widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:

● High Bandwidth
● Better noise Immunity
● Easy to install and expand
● Inexpensive

Disadvantages:

● Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

(iii) Optical Fibre Cable –

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.
It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages:

● Increased capacity and bandwidth

● Lightweight
● Less signal attenuation
● Immunity to electromagnetic interference
● Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:

● Difficult to install and maintain

● High cost
● Fragile
(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by
Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s.
Stripline is the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting
material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This
conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are
usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.

(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of
dielectric.

2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:

● The signal is broadcasted through air

● Less Secure
● Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

(i) Radiowaves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radiowaves for transmission.
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii)Microwaves-
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These
are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc.

EXPERIMENT-9:- Study various types of

connectors used in networking
network Cable Connectors Types and
Specifications
Thisl explains network cable connector types and specifications in details. Learn what
type of network cable connector (such as Rj-45, J Rj-11, USB, MT-RJ, Coaxial BNC,
LC Local Connector, MT-RJ, USB BNC and AUI) is used to connect what type of
network cable.

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

Universal Serial Bus, or USB, is a computer standard designed to eliminate the
guesswork in connecting peripherals to a PC. It is expected to replace serial and
parallel ports. A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices,
such as mice, modems, keyboards, digital camera's, printers, scanners, MP3 players
and many more. USB also supports Plug-and-Play installation and hot plugging.
● USB 1.1 standard supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps.
● USB 2.0 (Also referred to as Hi-Speed USB) specification defines a new High-
speed transfer rate of 480 Mb/sec.
USB 2.0 is fully compatible with USB 1.1 and uses the same cables and connectors.
USB has with two connector types. The first is Type A (on the right), This connector
connects to the PC's USB port. The Type B (on the left) connector and is for
connecting to the relevant peripheral. Where as the type A connector is truly
standard, the Type B connector could be changed in size etc. with individual
peripherals meaning they require there own unique cables.

RJ-11 (Registered Jack)

Standard telephone cable connectors, RJ-11 has 4 wires (and RJ-12 has 6 wires). RJ-
11 is the acronym for Registered Jack-11, a four- or six-wire connector primarily
used to connect telephone equipment.

RJ-11 Pin Signal Name

1 VCC (5 volts regulated)

2 Power Ground
3 One Wire Data

4 One Wire Ground

RJ-45 (Registered Jack)

The acronym for Registered Jack-45 is RJ-45. The RJ-45 connector is an eight-wire
connector that is commonly used to connect computers to a local area network (LAN),
particularly Ethernet LANs. Although they are slightly larger than the more
commonly used RJ-11 connectors, RJ-45s can be used to connect some types of
telephone equipment.

F-Type
The F connector is a type of RF connector commonly used for cable and universally
for satellite television. They are also used for the cable TV connection in DOCSIS
cable modems, usually with RG-6 tri-shield cable. The F connector is inexpensive, yet
has good performance up to 1 GHz. One reason for its low cost is that it uses the
center wire of the coaxial cable as the pin of the male connector. The male connector
body is typically crimped onto the exposed outer braid. Female connectors have a
3/8-32 thread. Most male connectors have a matching threaded connecting ring,
though push-on versions are also available.
ST (Straight Tip) and SC (Subscriber Connector or
Standard Connector)
Fiber network segments always require two fiber cables: one for transmitting data,
and one for receiving. Each end of a fiber cable is fitted with a plug that can be
inserted into a network adapter, hub, or switch. In the North America, most cables use
a square SC connector (Subscriber Connector or Standard Connector) that slides and
locks into place when inserted into a node or connected to another fiber cable,
Europeans use a round ST connector (Straight Tip) instead.
SC connector

ST connector

Fiber LC (Local Connector)

These connectors are used for single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables. FC
connectors offer extremely precise positioning of the fiber-optic cable with respect to
the transmitter's optical source emitter and the receiver's optical detector. FC
connectors feature a position locatable notch and a threaded receptacle.

MT-RJ (Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack)

MT-RJ connectors are used with single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables. The
MT-RJ connectors are constructed with a plastic housing and provide for accurate
alignment via their metal guide pins and plastic ferrules.
Used for Gigabit ethernet. To connect to modules with MT-RJinterfaces, use
multimode fiber-optic cables.
EXPERIMENT -10:- Creation “HEADING”
using HTML

HTML Headings
HTML headings are titles or subtitles that you want to display on a
webpage.

Example

Heading 1
Heading 2

Heading 3

Heading 4

Heading 5

Heading 6
HTML Headings
HTML headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags.

<h1> defines the most important heading. <h6> defines the least
important heading.

Example

<h1>Heading 1</h1>

<h2>Heading 2</h2>

<h3>Heading 3</h3>

<h4>Heading 4</h4>

<h5>Heading 5</h5>

<h6>Heading 6</h6>

Note: Browsers automatically add some white space (a margin) before and
after a heading.

Headings Are Important

Search engines use the headings to index the structure and content
of your web pages.

Users often skim a page by its headings. It is important to use

headings to show the document structure.

<h1> headings should be used for main headings, followed by <h2>

headings, then the less important <h3>, and so on.
Note: Use HTML headings for headings only. Don't use headings to make
text BIG or bold.

Bigger Headings
Each HTML heading has a default size. However, you can specify the
size for any heading with the style attribute, using the CSS font-
size property:

Example

<h1 style="font-size:60px;">Heading 1</h1>

HTML Exercises

Test Yourself With Exercises

Exercise:

Use the correct HTML tag to add a heading with the text "London".
<p>London is the capital city of England. It is the most
populous city in the United Kingdom, with a metropolitan
area of over 13 million inhabitants.</p>

HTML Tag Reference

W3Schools' tag reference contains additional information about
these tags and their attributes.

Tag Description

<html> Defines the root of an HTML document

<body> Defines the document's body

<h1> to <h6> Defines HTML headings