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844 viewsITC Unit 3 Linear Block Code and Cyclic Code
inear block code and cyclic code
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 35
—=—=—— Ss
Error Control Codin,
es
45 Inside this Chapter
16.1, Introduction
16.2. Few Terms Related to Error
16.3. Parity Coding
16.4. Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
16.5. Linear Block Code:
16.6. Hamming Codes
Encoder of (7, 4) Hamming Code
Control Coding «. ~ in
16.
46.8. Syndrome Decoding: Method of Correct Errors aes
46.9. Error Correction using Syndrome Vector in
~ 818
16.10. Syndrome Decoder for (n, k) Block Code
16.11. Other Linear Block Code
16.12. . Cyclic Codes...
16.13. Generator and Parity Check Matrices of Cyclic Codes
16.14. Encoders for Cyclic Codes
16.15. BCH Codes (Bose-Chaudhri-Hocquenghem Codes)
16.16. Convolutional Codes.
eee
[1612 Introduction
As discussed earlier that during the transmission process, the transmitted signal passes throug
a noisy channel. Due to noise interference, some errors are introduced in the received dat
ese errors can be detected and sometimes corrected using coding techniques. Generally, te
error control methods are of two types:
@ Error detection with retrans-nission; and
(ii) Forward acting error correction,
h ‘i i
Praae . cA ae when an error is detected, the retransmission request (ARQ) is
ending toctuiiquag'at thaan the second method, the errors are detected and corrected by Prom
receivers, the forward actine sree nnneg penever a single source transmits data to a mum
isienee beim inee ae rection is used. This is due to the fact that the retransmiss™
In this chapter, we shi
» We shalll study some si : ity check
Some of the coding techniques which denne ret cetecting techniques such as pavitY che
Subsequent sections. Coding techniques add area @ pero erters Will also be discussed
add some extra bits to the message bits and thes?
798
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rors put the advantage is that error probability reduced, na mnctehe
o'the block diagram of the channel encoder and decoder.
4 gh ou Discrete
Input Channel shea
sossaee encoder Modulate | eee 1? “+
bits
Noise
Noisy Channel
signal 1 fate
from channe’ bits
® Digital communication system with channel
encoding/decoding operations
coaer adds extra bits to the message signal, On the other h
somes nder oCtdundant bits and uses them to detect and correct Oeeaa aia
ere ahere is any: Let We consider that the ‘k’ message bits are combined in one block
bit* gome bits are ‘added by the encoder to this block and total encoded bits become ‘n’.
hk) block code. Then we can write, :
20g ge is known as ("
syndant DitS ded to the block by encoder = (Bits at the output of encoder) ~ Bits at the
of encoder) ue
(n-B) redundant bits (Le. code bits) are
g technique used. 4
ji Few Terms Related to Error Control Coding
nder:
Fig.
(16.1)
related to ‘k’ message bit depending on the
of the
Codeword
‘Theencoded block of ‘n’ bits is Jmown as a code word. It consi
e related terms are described here.as w
ists of message bits and redundant
Block Length
Thewunber of bits ‘n’ after coding is known as the block length of the code.
Code Rate
The ratio of message bits (k) and the encoder output bits (n) is known as co
fs
rate is denoted by ‘r’ i.e.,
de rate. Usually,
E (16.2)
Che
amel data rate is the bit rate/at the output of en,
R, then channel
“Ifthe bi
the bit rate at the input of encoder is
Tate will be,
Chan
el data ah 06.3) =
code Vector eos ye : righ 16.2! Code vectom
Sepa ee owenting s-bit code
se sit code word ean be visualized in on viedimension@l a ae word, Let us visualize
Biter Ctr Whose elements oF co-ordinates ie ue aie Spit eode vector There will be
It eo
de words as it is quite simpler. Fig
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=2', 1 i
distinct 8 code words (since number of code words = 24. If we points 09002
and 0, on z-axis, then the following Table 16.
dimensional space.
(Table 167
Bits of code vector
S.No =
ez b=y [=e
0 0 0
a 0 0 1
0 1 oO
: 0 1 1
i 1 0 oO.
. 1 0 1
fi 1 1 0
4 1 1 1
x ing Distance F
“ Mth tae distance between the two code vectors is equal to the number Of clemeas
i iffer. re
beara ae ceennle let X= 101 and Y= 110. Since the two code vectors differ in secon, ad
bits, therefore, Hamming distance between X and Y is ‘two’. Hamming distance is denne
(X,Y) or simply ‘d’. i.e,
(XY) = d=2 id arnt
Hence, it may be observed from figure 16.2 that the hamming distance betwe
(011) is maximum, i.e. 3. This has been indicated by the vector diagram also,
em (100) ag
7. Minimum Distance (d,,;,)
Minimum distance (d,,;,) is the smallest Hamming distance between the valid code Veter,
S.No._| Name of errors detected /eorrected Distance requirement
1 Detect upto ‘s’ errors per word dpin2 8 +1
2 Correct upto ‘t’ errors per word Gyig 2 2t +1
3 Correct upto ‘t errors and detect 5 > t » Aig 2tts+1
errors per word —
For the (n, k) block code, the minimum distance is expressed as 164)
Grin S R-R+L: i abevciee 1
8. Code Efficiency :
The code efficiency is ex;
Pressed as t]
for that particular block by
itted bits
‘he ratio of message bits in'a block to the transmit
the encoder ive,, f
Code efficiency = —Message bits in a block
} Transmitted bits for the block
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ince ill be Message hi 804
por ficiency WY Be bits ang ty»
pie el
TaNnsmi
we . k Mitted hitg
ae efficiency =
bove e:
spwocompare tho abOVE OXPFESION With the ade at ©) gi (16.5)
ven in equation (16 2),
code efficiency = code rate , we
de
f the co . (16
Oger of non-zero elements in the transmitted co :
enti a(), where Xis the code vector. Av at
ye ect will be @(X) = 5. -
nb
« parity Coding
: f coding is a parity cod ;
Jest method of is a parity coding. In this met cael
«the time of transmission. At the reception en Te bits
‘are detected if the expected pattern of parity bits is not received. iecks these Parity bits,
qpmay be noted that parity coding is used only to detect the errors. l.
parity may be of two types: .
ven Parity *
the party ofa binary word is known as ‘even’ if it contains ev ;
0101 has even parity since there are four number of len, ave of's For example,
odd Parity
The parity of a binary word is known as ‘odd’
110001 has odd parity because there are three
de vector is k
: own a:
mple, if X= 1110107 ete Meieht,
if it contains odd number of 1's. For example,
number of 1s in this word,
jA!| Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
tis method, the parity check is done on each character separately. This method is always
fo ASCII code. In ASCII code, each character has seven binary digits. Also, one redundant
itis added to each character to make the parity odd or even. As an example, let us consider the
Table 16:8)\. Vertical redundancy check, even parity
ASCII code of the character ‘Additional parity bit
by | be | by | by | bs | b6.| Or | be
mber of 1s in ASCII
2] fo ft |o} oft | 0 © Been reetore pity biti zero.
i IT
\dd number of 1s in ASCI
vfaifafafolfo fa °F cote, tre pai
10 | 0 | 1 oslo | oe lee
Tyojo};ofo|{o [i]?
Ny
“1. Few Points ink
2 Table 16,3, let us note the following points:
") Asdepicted in the Table 16.2, the message Cm
hits b, to
sats of total 8 its ie. by 6,6, BS
- a
the bit be
2 Are used for ASCII code of the character an
is used for parity bit.
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(ii) For example, the ASCI code of Kis 1101001. This consists of even number of 1,
the 8th parity bit has ‘0’ value. Hence, the transmitted message for K will be peetn,
which has even parity. an 1togis
) The ASCII code for 0 is 1111001. This contains odd (i.e, five) number of 1, ;
) parity bit has value of 1. Hence, the transmitted message for 0 is 11110011 HP® ty
even parity. , es 7 which At
Gv) During the transmission, if single error is created, it will make number of 1
example, let us consider that the received message for character K is as rare ohn)
n bits
; ‘Fig 16.4.) Functional block diagram of a block coder
In this section, we shall consider binary codes ie., in which all tranamitted digits are bi
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ted.
6.+ of any two code vectors produces anothe code vector.
r combination of other code vectors.
the sum’
ay be expressed as a lineat
termination of all the Codewords for a Linear Block Code
ce : :
at the particular code vector consists of m,, my, mg, ... m, message bits
ta Then this code vector may be written as under:
¢, check bi
oe
X= (amyy May + My Cy» Car CQ)
as tinent’ it
eode vector ™
q=
are the number of re
ye written as,
x =(MIC)
M= k-bit message vector and
C = q-bit check vector
he role of error detection and correction. The function of the
‘te these ‘check bits’. The code vector can be represented as,
(16.10)
dundant bits added by the encoder. The above
ns that 7
_ Js be
rector may #
a (16.9)
eck bits play
is to general
X=MG
X = Code vector of 1x size or n bits
‘M = Message vector of 1k size or k bits
G = Generator matrix of kx n size.
ation (16.10) represents matrix form i.e.,
(16.11)
[Xan = MD tx (Gliexn
yr matrix depends upon the linear blo:
e, the chi
rear plock code i
1d
fence, eau
e generator ck code used. Normally, it is repre-
ynted as,
G= [nl Pxahecn (16.12)
re I, = kx k identity matrix, and
P =k xq submatrix
Now, the check vector may be obtained as,
Cc =MP (16.18)
, in the expanded form, the above expression can be written as
Pa Pa
Par Poa
=+(16.14)
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Example 16.1. The generator matrix for a (6,
words of this code.
ay
Solution: We know that generation matrix is given by
G= [ht Pxaleen
Given generator matrix is
100
G=|010
G
ne
1
0
1
oO:
Oo:
1:
oo1
100
I, = Igx3 =|0 1 0
001
oid
and Pyg = Paxg=|1 0 1
110
Here k= 3, q=3 andn=6.
This means that the block size of the message vector is 3 bits. Thus,
possible message vectors as shown in the Table 16.5.
3) block code is shown below, 0
Obtain ay
N
“dey
“fi
there will be total g
Sr. No.
ms
1 0
2 1
3 0
4 1
5 0
6 1
7 0
8 1
The P submatrix is given in the example which is reproduced here i.e.
0
=].
1m
o1
41° 0.
For the check bit vector, there would be three bits. These may be obtained
(16.13) as under:
a
C= MP
according tooo?
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11
01
1%
ore
. 2 [mma ms]
: texeaea) Im
xc multiplication, we get
matrix mul
on the aoe © (gx m3) Om) © (ms)
cy = om) © (0X mg) @ (ms)
22 cn) omg (0% MD
ions, we get
spree eatatiOD5>
ast ey = OM
m, @ Mg os
m,@ my
ations give check bits for each block of my, my m message bits.
6 equa Or plock of (rm, Mz, ms) = 000, we have
¢,
6
firs
angle OF BN = 00=0
c, = 0@0=0
c, = 0@0=0
,¢) 2000
eo of (my, May m,) = 001, we have
co, = 0@1=1
c= 0@1=1
5 = 0@0=0
(cys €q) G3) = 110
qable 16,6 shows all the message bits, their check bits and code vectors calculated as
‘Table IGG! Code Vectors of (6, 3) Block Code.
Bil of message
‘vector in Check bits Complete code vector or
block Complete codeword
qm = oy =
My |_m, | mm, m,® my m,@m,|m, | my | mg Cc, Cy Cy
BE} 0 0 o fo [o [ojo jo] o
OH af 1 one 2s M0 Oa te oe eee
; : 1 0 1 Ot i Jet ]a0e [Et
Ifo o 1 1 Ce Ee 1
pets g 1 Z 1 .[tor] o-f os] a ea
in _ o 1 aero. s} 1: | a|fo 1
Tot 1 0 me [uo [ate |
= ——__° 0 0 T2121 [° [o |] °
Cent of
tter i ee ‘ity Check Matrix (H) for Linear Block Code
as, fc
Under,“ fF each block code, there is a q x n parity check matrix (H). This is
Scanned with CamScannerH= [Prt], ot
PTis the transpose of P submatix. The P submatrix is defined 7
Pr Ba Ba
Py Pa Ps
Pa Pa Big
Here,
OnE
O35
Pa Fa As Paley
Pay Poy Pa oe
Fis Pag, Pag
Ps Pas Pog
f
= e
Le a0 Se
Fa Pa By om Fadi 4
i coat A
With the above equation, we can write equation (16.15) as under:
Ril
is acne
16.6. Hamming Codes
Hamming codes are defined as the (n,
These codes satisfy the following
© Number of check bits q > 3
(i) Block length n = 20_
(i) Number of message bits & = ng
Gv) Minimum distance d,.,, = 3
We know that the
¥) linear block codes.
conditions;
in
code rate is expressed as,
k
Fi +1 101. (H) xtzieM dand),
*10NY Loboa facta ae
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(16,20) }
serve that r= 1ifq>>1.
we may ob:
yiscauator and Correction Capabilities of Hamming Codes
ro (or Pete gum distance (din) of Hamming code is 3, it can be used to detect d
50° Peet dieteyis can also be obtained form the generalized Table 16.2. 4
errors => dyyig 2 24 LIC: dyin 2 8 im |
sess a8 ‘upto one (1) errors =? pin 2 21) +1 be. dyin > 3
‘i a arity enock matrix of a particular (7, 4) linear blok code is expressed as \
62-7 1110100
sph
Ca me|proro le ; an
170. 2 10h old
enerator matrix (G)
8
distance between code vector?
ibe detected? How many errors can be corrected?
G7 To many errors Can
ga How ven thatn=7and k= 4
tio! Fr check bits aren — = 7-4ie.g=3
amber of nem-1=2-157
ath «ates that the given code is a Hamming code. The parity check matrixis of qn size
Lariat by equation (16.18). It can be written as (with q= 3 andn=7andk=4)
dis 8
Ai. Pa Pat Put 09
(Hlgxa = [Piz Pee Pao. in Parnes 02 ALO. (ii)
Pa Pas Psp Pa 0-0 7
e (ga = [P45] id)
arity check matrices of equations (Hf) and (iii), we have
Pa Poa Po Pa -
pt=| Po Pao Poo Pa ;
Ps Pos Pas Pas
Nor, according to equations (i) and (iv), we have
V1, 1-0
pr=|1 101 f ; ‘
, 1011
lence, the P submatrix may be obtained as,
Pi Pe As
Py Pe Pes| 2
Py Bo Pes
Pa Pa Pas
‘On comparing P:
wei)
(0)
orre
nore
heer
Scanned with CamScannerFurther, we know that generator matrix G is expressed as under; =™
G= [hiPoaken
nd n = 7, the above equation becomes,
@= [hiPoalier
Substituting the identity matrix I, of size 4 * 4 and parity submatrix P,,, of size i.
in equation (v), in above equation, we get obta;
1000:111
0100:110
qg=|0010:1 o1
0001:011
——
Tyg Pars tax
‘This is the required generator matrix.
To find all the Codewords
‘The check bits can be obtained using equation (16.13), i.e.,
c= MP
In the more general form we can use equation (16.14) ic., (with q = 3, and k= 4), we have
with k=4,q= 3a
(vi)
= [mama mace Plans
eis
as hae)
Feere)= mmm mall 5 4
O21 aris
[ey ¢2 eslixs
Solving the above equation with mod-2 addition, we obtain,
¢, = (1X m,) @ (1x m,) @ (1X mg) @ (0X my)
= (1% m,) @ (1 X m,) ® (0X ms) @ (1x my)
and cg = (1% m,) ® (0X ms) @ (1X mg) @ (1 @ m,)
Thus the above equation may be written as,
¢, = m, Om, Om,
©,
sn(vii)
cy = m, @ my @ my
and ¢y = m, © my @ my
For example, if (m, m m3 m4) =1011, we obtain,
ce, = 1@0@1=0
¢) = 1@0@1=0
at ¢3=1@1@1=1
bo he or wd teen gE mM
(2m mz mg mg e, ¢9 ¢3) = (101 1:00) ;
secasine.the same procedure as given, we may obtain the other eode sords or code veto ‘able
1e code vectors (code words). This table also lists the weight of each code wor®
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code vector
cfm Ma Ma Me 1 CaO oR)
o}o o o oO Oo OO 0
il CE ee ee 7
7 Lo enle Oa 8D 3
Do en ae a 28 4
Drops ove OF toto 3
rr Ore ae ee em oc 4
Tle ma eo ot 4
rage eee 3
cla oO 0f-ed SF 4
Tee 3
Pi. 0 ak ee ous daa 3
fae ee ke A > 4
a 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 3
0 i 1 0 7 0 1 0 4
rarer ee 4
1 1 1 1 J: 1 1 1 7
hh their weights. The smallest weight of
ay
Hence we can write
‘The minimum distance of h
TheTable 16.7 lists 2*
on-zero code vector is
=24= 16 code vectors along wit!
2 We know that the minimum distance is nin
linear block code is equal to th
tdevector. This means that
d,
(i Minimum distance betwee
d,
(iv) Now, since
ia Fe [w @nin ¥= (0 0...0)
zn code words is
Weknow that
ms dain 2 81 ie
ie 32 st1
ence ss2
two errors will be
ae e detected.
® pig 2 241
e 32 2+1
ts.
Th
“tefore one error
will be corrected.
‘¢ minimum weigth of any non-zero
Scanned with CamScannerHence, with the help of Hamming code (d,,;, = 3), two errors can be dete
can be corrected by its property.
[16:7:) Encoder of (7, 4) Hamming Code
Figure 16.5 shows the encoder of (7, 4) Hamming code. This encoder is implemented fo, f
matrix of the example 16.2. The lower register contains check bits c,,e,, ands Thee tty
obtained from the message bits by mod-2 additions. These additions are perfonsiegnet® ite at
nd sin
leg
To
equation (vi). The mod-2 addition operation is nothing but exclusive-OR operatigg *ding
i
~
Input bit
sequence
‘Code words
output
Check bits register
i Encoder for (7, 4) Hamming code or (7, 4) linear block code for example 16.2,
The switch ‘S' is connected to message register first and all message bits are transmitted,
This switch is then connected to the check bit register and check bits are transmitted, This forms
a block of ‘7’ bits. After this input bits are taken for next block. : 3
116.8. - Syndrome Decoding: Method to Corect Errors
In this article, we shall discuss the method to correct errors in linear block. coding. Let the transi
code vector be “X’ and corresponding received code vector be represented by ‘Y’.
Then, we can write, _ si
X=Y- if there are ho transmission errors :
and X+Y__ ifthere are errors produced during transmission
‘The decoder detects or corrects these errors in Y by using the stored bit pattern in the decoder
about the code. For larger block lengths, more and more bits are needed to be stored in the
decoder. This increases the memory requirement and adds to the complexity and cost of the system.
‘Therefore, to avoid these problems, synchrome decoding is used in linear block codes: This method
is shown in the paragraphs to follow:
() We know that with every (n, 2) linear block code, there exists a parity check matrix () of
size q x n. It is defined as,
mitted
A= PTI),
The transpose of the above matrix may be obtained by interchanging the rows and the columns.
Thus, we have
P
HT =
Wax q a
Here P is the submatrix of size & x q and I, is the identity matrix of size q xq. We B®
defined P submatrix earlier. 2
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heck matrix (H®) has very important property as under:
(16,21)
(16.22)
arity check matrix and code vectors obtained in
_for al us consider the P'
1 sere : :
Le et jcke matrix is given by equation (d. The transpose of this matrix can
1
110
101
qra|o1l
100 (16.23)
010
0 0 Lis (retanda=9)
able 16.7 ists all the code vectors for this parity check matrix. Let us consider the third
qa TP his table ie
ier X=(0010101) (16.24)
soe et 8 eY the property of equation (16.21) ie.
£24
110
101
XH = [0010101],
