Soft Skills

Training

Faculty
Aptitude
Development
Training
Program

SIX
PHRASE
Corporate
Finance Training
Coaching

Technical
Training

C++ Reference Book

93A GKD Nagar P.N.Palayam Coimbatore – 641037
Prabhu - 99946 75750
Email - [email protected]
Website - www.sixphrase.in
C++ - Reference Book

1) What is C++?

Released in 1985, C++ is an object-oriented programming language created by Bjarne Stroustrup.

C++ maintains almost all aspects of the C language, while simplifying memory management and
adding several features - including a new datatype known as a class (you will learn more about
these later) - to allow object-oriented programming. C++ maintains the features of C which
allowed for low-level memory access but also gives the programmer new tools to simplify
memory management.

C++ is a powerful general-purpose programming language. It can be used to create small programs
or large applications. It can be used to make CGI scripts or console-only DOS programs. C++
allows you to create programs to do almost anything you need to do. The creator of C++, Bjarne
Stroustrup, has put together a partial list of applications written in C++.

2) How do you find out if a linked-list has an end? (i.e. the list is not a cycle)
You can find out by using 2 pointers. One of them goes 2 nodes each time. The second one goes at
1 nodes each time. If there is a cycle, the one that goes 2 nodes each time will eventually meet the
one that goes slower. If that is the case, then you will know the linked-list is a cycle.

3) What is the difference between realloc() and free()?

The free subroutine frees a block of memory previously allocated by the malloc subroutine.
Undefined results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer. If the Pointer parameter is
a null value, no action will occur.

The realloc subroutine changes the size of the block of memory pointed to by the Pointer
parameter to the number of bytes specified by the Size parameter and returns a new pointer to the
block. The pointer specified by the Pointer parameter must have been created with the malloc,
calloc, or realloc subroutines and not been deallocated with the free or realloc subroutines.
Undefined results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer.

4) What is function overloading and operator overloading?

Function overloading: C++ enables several functions of the same name to be defined, as long as
these functions have different sets of parameters (at least as far as their types are concerned). This

1
C++ - Reference Book

capability is called function overloading. When an overloaded function is called, the C++
compiler selects the proper function by examining the number, types and order of the arguments
in the call. Function overloading is commonly used to create several functions of the same name
that perform similar tasks but on different data types.
Operator overloading allows existing C++ operators to be redefined so that they work on objects
of user-defined classes. Overloaded operators are syntactic sugar for equivalent function calls.
They form a pleasant facade that doesn't add anything fundamental to the language (but they can
improve understandability and reduce maintenance costs).

5) What is the difference between declaration and definition?

The declaration tells the compiler that at some later point we plan to present the definition of this
declaration.
E.g.: void stars () //function declaration
The definition contains the actual implementation.
E.g.: void stars () // declarator
{
for(int j=10; j>=0; j--) //function body
cout<<‖*‖;
cout<<endl; }

6) What do you mean by inline function?

The idea behind inline functions is to insert the code of a called function at the point where the
function is called. If done carefully, this can improve the application's performance in exchange
for increased compile time and possibly (but not always) an increase in the size of the generated
binary executables.

7) Write a short code using C++ to print out all odd number from 1 to 100 using a for loop
for( unsigned int i = 1; i < = 100; i++ )
if( i & 0x00000001 )
cout << i << \",\";

2
C++ - Reference Book

8) What is public, protected and private?

Public, protected and private are three access specifiers in C++.
Public data members and member functions are accessible outside the class.
Protected data members and member functions are only available to derived classes.
Private data members and member functions can‘t be accessed outside the class. However there is
an exception can be using friend classes.
Write a function that swaps the values of two integers, using int* as the argument type.
void swap(int* a, int*b) {
int t;
t = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = t;
}

9) Tell how to check whether a linked list is circular.

Create two pointers, each set to the start of the list. Update each as follows:

while (pointer1) {
pointer1 = pointer1->next;
pointer2 = pointer2->next; if (pointer2) pointer2=pointer2->next;
if (pointer1 == pointer2) {
print (\"circular\n\");
}
}

If a list is circular, at some point pointer2 will wrap around and be either at the item just before
pointer1, or the item before that. Either way, it‘s either 1 or 2 jumps until they meet.

10) What is virtual constructors/destructors?

Answer1
Virtual destructors:
If an object (with a non-virtual destructor) is destroyed explicitly by applying the delete operator
to a base-class pointer to the object, the base-class destructor function (matching the pointer type)

3
C++ - Reference Book

is called on the object.

There is a simple solution to this problem declare a virtual base-class destructor.
This makes all derived-class destructors virtual even though they don‘t have the same name as the
base-class destructor. Now, if the object in the hierarchy is destroyed explicitly by applying the
delete operator to a base-class pointer to a derived-class object, the destructor for the appropriate
class is called.
Virtual constructor: Constructors cannot be virtual. Declaring a constructor as a virtual function
is a syntax error.
Answer2
Virtual destructors: If an object (with a non-virtual destructor) is destroyed explicitly by applying
the delete operator to a base-class pointer to the object, the base-class destructor function
(matching the pointer type) is called on the object.
There is a simple solution to this problem – declare a virtual base-class destructor. This makes all
derived-class destructors virtual even though they don‘t have the same name as the base-class
destructor. Now, if the object in the hierarchy is destroyed explicitly by applying the delete
operator to a base-class pointer to a derived-class object, the destructor for the appropriate class is
called.
Virtual constructor: Constructors cannot be virtual. Declaring a constructor as a virtual function
is a syntax error.

11) Does c++ support multilevel and multiple inheritance?

Yes.

12) What are the advantages of inheritance?

• It permits code reusability.
• Reusability saves time in program development.
• It encourages the reuse of proven and debugged high-quality software, thus reducing problem
after a system becomes functional.

13) What is the difference between an ARRAY and a LIST?

Answer1
Array is collection of homogeneous elements.

4
C++ - Reference Book

List is collection of heterogeneous elements.

For Array memory allocated is static and continuous.

For List memory allocated is dynamic and Random.

Array: User need not have to keep in track of next memory allocation.
List: User has to keep in Track of next location where memory is allocated.

Answer2
Array uses direct access of stored members, list uses sequencial access for members.

//With Array you have direct access to memory position 5

Object x = a[5]; // x takes directly a reference to 5th element of array

//With the list you have to cross all previous nodes in order to get the 5th node:
list mylist;
list::iterator it;

for( it = list.begin() ; it != list.end() ; it++ )

{
if( i==5)
{
x = *it;
break;
}
i++;
}

14) Does c++ support multilevel and multiple inheritance?

Yes.

15) What is a template?

Templates allow to create generic functions that admit any data type as parameters and return

5
C++ - Reference Book

value without having to overload the function with all the possible data types. Until certain point
they fulfill the functionality of a macro. Its prototype is any of the two following ones:
template <class indetifier> function_declaration; template <typename indetifier>
function_declaration;
The only difference between both prototypes is the use of keyword class or typename, its use is
indistinct since both expressions have exactly the same meaning and behave exactly the same
way.

16) Define a constructor - What it is and how it might be called (2 methods).

Answer1
constructor is a member function of the class, with the name of the function being the same as the
class name. It also specifies how the object should be initialized.

Ways of calling constructor:

1) Implicitly: automatically by complier when an object is created.
2) Calling the constructors explicitly is possible, but it makes the code unverifiable.

Answer2
class Point2D{
int x; int y;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
};

main(){

Point2D MyPoint; // Implicit Constructor call. In order to allocate memory on stack, the default
constructor is implicitly called.

Point2D * pPoint = new Point2D(); // Explicit Constructor call. In order to allocate memory on
HEAP we call the default constructor.

17) You have two pairs: new() and delete() and another pair : malloc() and free().
Explain differences between eg. new() and malloc()

6
C++ - Reference Book

Answer1
1.) ―new and delete‖ are preprocessors while ―malloc() and free()‖ are functions. [we dont use
brackets will calling new or delete].
2.) no need of allocate the memory while using ―new‖ but in ―malloc()‖ we have to use ―sizeof()‖.
3.) ―new‖ will initlize the new memory to 0 but ―malloc()‖ gives random value in the new alloted
memory location [better to use calloc()]

Answer2
new() allocates continous space for the object instace
malloc() allocates distributed space.
new() is castless, meaning that allocates memory for this specific type,
malloc(), calloc() allocate space for void * that is cated to the specific class type pointer.

18) What is the difference between class and structure?

Structure: Initially (in C) a structure was used to bundle different type of data types together to
perform a particular functionality. But C++ extended the structure to contain functions also. The
major difference is that all declarations inside a structure are by default public.
Class: Class is a successor of Structure. By default all the members inside the class are private.

19) What is RTTI?

Runtime type identification (RTTI) lets you find the dynamic type of an object when you have
only a pointer or a reference to the base type. RTTI is the official way in standard C++ to discover
the type of an object and to convert the type of a pointer or reference (that is, dynamic typing).
The need came from practical experience with C++. RTTI replaces many Interview Questions -
Homegrown versions with a solid, consistent approach.

20) What is encapsulation?

Packaging an object‘s variables within its methods is called encapsulation.

21) Explain term POLIMORPHISM and give an example .

Answer1
POLYMORPHISM : A phenomenon which enables an object to react differently to the same
function call.
in C++ it is attained by using a keyword virtual

7
C++ - Reference Book

class SHAPE{
public virtual Draw() = 0; //abstract class with a pure virtual method
};

class CIRCLE{
public int r;
public virtual Draw() { this->drawCircle(0,0,r); }
};

class SQURE
public int a;
public virtual Draw() { this->drawRectangular(0,0,a,a); }
};

Each object is driven down from SHAPE implementing Draw() function in its own way.

22) What is an object?

Object is a software bundle of variables and related methods. Objects have state and behavior.

23) What do you mean by inheritance?

Inheritance is the process of creating new classes, called derived classes, from existing classes or
base classes. The derived class inherits all the capabilities of the base class, but can add
embellishments and refinements of its own.

24) Describe PRIVATE, PROTECTED and PUBLIC – the differences and give examples.
class Point2D{
int x; int y;

public int color;

protected bool pinned;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
};

8
C++ - Reference Book

Point2D MyPoint;

You cannot directly access private data members when they are declared (implicitly) private:

MyPoint.x = 5; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR

//Nor yoy can see them:
int x_dim = MyPoint.x; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR

On the other hand, you can assign and read the public data members:

MyPoint.color = 255; // no problem

int col = MyPoint.color; // no problem

With protected data members you can read them but not write them: MyPoint.pinned = true; //
Compiler will issue a compile ERROR

bool isPinned = MyPoint.pinned; // no problem

25) What is namespace?

Namespaces allow us to group a set of global classes, objects and/or functions under a name. To
say it somehow, they serve to split the global scope in sub-scopes known as namespaces.
The form to use namespaces is:
namespace identifier { namespace-body }
Where identifier is any valid identifier and namespace-body is the set of classes, objects and
functions that are included within the namespace. For example:
namespace general { int a, b; } In this case, a and b are normal variables integrated within the
general namespace. In order to access to these variables from outside the namespace we have to
use the scope operator ::. For example, to access the previous variables we would have to put:
general::a general::b
The functionality of namespaces is specially useful in case that there is a possibility that a global
object or function can have the same name than another one, causing a redefinition error.

9
C++ - Reference Book

26) What is a COPY CONSTRUCTOR and when is it called?

A copy constructor is a method that accepts an object of the same class and copies it‘s data
members to the object on the left part of assignement:

class Point2D{
int x; int y;

public int color;

protected bool pinned;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
public Point2D( const Point2D & ) ;
};

Point2D::Point2D( const Point2D & p )

{
this->x = p.x;
this->y = p.y;
this->color = p.color;
this->pinned = p.pinned;
}

main(){
Point2D MyPoint;
MyPoint.color = 345;
Point2D AnotherPoint = Point2D( MyPoint ); // now AnotherPoint has color = 345

27) What is Boyce Codd Normal form?

A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional dependencies if for all
functional dependencies in F+ of the form a-> , where a and b is a subset of R, at least one of the
following holds:
* a- > b is a trivial functional dependency (b is a subset of a)
* a is a superkey for schema R

10
C++ - Reference Book

28) What is virtual class and friend class?

Friend classes are used when two or more classes are designed to work together and need access to
each other's implementation in ways that the rest of the world shouldn't be allowed to have. In
other words, they help keep private things private. For instance, it may be desirable for class
DatabaseCursor to have more privilege to the internals of class Database than main() has.

29) What is the word you will use when defining a function in base class to allow this function to be a
polimorphic function?
virtual

30) What do you mean by binding of data and functions?

Encapsulation.

31) What are 2 ways of exporting a function from a DLL?

1.Taking a reference to the function from the DLL instance.
2. Using the DLL ‘s Type Library

32) What is the difference between an object and a class?

Classes and objects are separate but related concepts. Every object belongs to a class and every
class contains one or more related objects.
- A Class is static. All of the attributes of a class are fixed before, during, and after the execution of
a program. The attributes of a class don't change.
- The class to which an object belongs is also (usually) static. If a particular object belongs to a
certain class at the time that it is created then it almost certainly will still belong to that class right
up until the time that it is destroyed.
- An Object on the other hand has a limited lifespan. Objects are created and eventually
destroyed. Also during that lifetime, the attributes of the object may undergo significant change.

33) Suppose that data is an array of 1000 integers. Write a single function call that will sort the 100
elements data [222] through data [321].
quicksort ((data + 222), 100);

34) What is a class?

Class is a user-defined data type in C++. It can be created to solve a particular kind of problem.
After creation the user need not know the specifics of the working of a class.

11
C++ - Reference Book

35) What is friend function?

As the name suggests, the function acts as a friend to a class. As a friend of a class, it can access its
private and protected members. A friend function is not a member of the class. But it must be
listed in the class definition.

36) Which recursive sorting technique always makes recursive calls to sort subarrays that are about
half size of the original array?
Mergesort always makes recursive calls to sort subarrays that are about half size of the original
array, resulting in O(n log n) time.

37) What is abstraction?

Abstraction is of the process of hiding unwanted details from the user.

38) What are virtual functions?

A virtual function allows derived classes to replace the implementation provided by the base class.
The compiler makes sure the replacement is always called whenever the object in question is
actually of the derived class, even if the object is accessed by a base pointer rather than a derived
pointer. This allows algorithms in the base class to be replaced in the derived class, even if users
don't know about the derived class.

39) What is the difference between an external iterator and an internal iterator? Describe an
advantage of an external iterator.
An internal iterator is implemented with member functions of the class that has items to step
through. .An external iterator is implemented as a separate class that can be "attach" to the object
that has items to step through. .An external iterator has the advantage that many difference
iterators can be active simultaneously on the same object.

40) What is a scope resolution operator?

A scope resolution operator (::), can be used to define the member functions of a class outside the
class.

41) What do you mean by pure virtual functions?

A pure virtual member function is a member function that the base class forces derived classes to
provide. Normally these member functions have no implementation. Pure virtual functions are

12
C++ - Reference Book

equated to zero.
class Shape { public: virtual void draw() = 0; };

42) What is polymorphism? Explain with an example?

"Poly" means "many" and "morph" means "form". Polymorphism is the ability of an object (or
reference) to assume (be replaced by) or become many different forms of object.
Example: function overloading, function overriding, virtual functions. Another example can be a
plus ‗+‘ sign, used for adding two integers or for using it to concatenate two strings.

43) Why are arrays usually processed with for loop?

The real power of arrays comes from their facility of using an index variable to traverse the array,
accessing each element with the same expression a[i]. All the is needed to make this work is a
iterated statement in which the variable i serves as a counter, incrementing from 0 to a.length -1.
That is exactly what a loop does.

44) What is an HTML tag?

Answer: An HTML tag is a syntactical construct in the HTML language that abbreviates specific
instructions to be executed when the HTML script is loaded into a Web browser. It is like a
method in Java, a function in C++, a procedure in Pascal, or a subroutine in FORTRAN.

45) Explain which of the following declarations will compile and what will be constant - a pointer or
the value pointed at: * const char *
* char const *
* char * const
Note: Ask the candidate whether the first declaration is pointing to a string or a single character.
Both explanations are correct, but if he says that it‘s a single character pointer, ask why a whole
string is initialized as char* in C++. If he says this is a string declaration, ask him to declare a
pointer to a single character. Competent candidates should not have problems pointing out why
const char* can be both a character and a string declaration, incompetent ones will come up with
invalid reasons.

46) You‘re given a simple code for the class Bank Customer. Write the following functions:
* Copy constructor
* = operator overload
* == operator overload

13
C++ - Reference Book

* + operator overload (customers‘ balances should be added up, as an example of joint account
between husband and wife)
Note:Anyone confusing assignment and equality operators should be dismissed from the
interview. The applicant might make a mistake of passing by value, not by reference. The
candidate might also want to return a pointer, not a new object, from the addition operator.
Slightly hint that you‘d like the value to be changed outside the function, too, in the first case.
Ask him whether the statement customer3 = customer1 + customer2 would work in the second
case.

47) Anything wrong with this code?

T *p = new T[10];
delete p;
Everything is correct, Only the first element of the array will be deleted‖, The entire array will be
deleted, but only the first element destructor will be called.

48) Anything wrong with this code?

T *p = 0;
delete p;
Yes, the program will crash in an attempt to delete a null pointer.

49) How do you decide which integer type to use?

It depends on our requirement. When we are required an integer to be stored in 1 byte (means
less than or equal to 255) we use short int, for 2 bytes we use int, for 8 bytes we use long int.
A char is for 1-byte integers, a short is for 2-byte integers, an int is generally a 2-byte or 4-byte
integer (though not necessarily), a long is a 4-byte integer, and a long long is a 8-byte integer.

50) What does extern mean in a function declaration?

Using extern in a function declaration we can make a function such that it can used outside the
file in which it is defined.
An extern variable, function definition, or declaration also makes the described variable or
function usable by the succeeding part of the current source file. This declaration does not replace
the definition. The declaration is used to describe the variable that is externally defined.
If a declaration for an identifier already exists at file scope, any extern declaration of the same

14
C++ - Reference Book

identifier found within a block refers to that same object. If no other declaration for the identifier
exists at file scope, the identifier has external linkage.

51) What can I safely assume about the initial values of variables which are not explicitly initialized?
It depends on complier which may assign any garbage value to a variable if it is not initialized.

52) What is the difference between char a[] = ―string‖; and char *p = ―string‖;?
In the first case 6 bytes are allocated to the variable a which is fixed, where as in the second case if
*p is assigned to some other value the allocate memory can change.

53) What‘s the auto keyword good for?

Answer1
Not much. It declares an object with automatic storage duration. Which means the object will be
destroyed at the end of the objects scope. All variables in functions that are not declared as static
and not dynamically allocated have automatic storage duration by default.
For example
int main()
{
int a; //this is the same as writing ―auto int a;‖
}

Answer2
Local variables occur within a scope; they are ―local‖ to a function. They are often called
automatic variables because they automatically come into being when the scope is entered and
automatically go away when the scope closes. The keyword auto makes this explicit, but local
variables default to auto auto auto auto so it is never necessary to declare something as an auto
auto auto auto.

54) What is the difference between char a[] = ―string‖; and char *p = ―string‖; ?
Answer1
a[] = ―string‖;
char *p = ―string‖;
The difference is this:
p is pointing to a constant string, you can never safely say

15
C++ - Reference Book

p[3]=‘x';
however you can always say a[3]=‘x';
char a[]=‖string‖; - character array initialization.
char *p=‖string‖ ; - non-const pointer to a const-string.( this is permitted only in the case of char
pointer in C++ to preserve backward compatibility with C.)

Answer2
a[] = ―string‖;
char *p = ―string‖;
a[] will have 7 bytes. However, p is only 4 bytes. P is pointing to an adress is either BSS or the
data section (depending on which compiler — GNU for the former and CC for the latter).

Answer3
char a[] = ―string‖;
char *p = ―string‖;
for char a[]…….using the array notation 7 bytes of storage in the static memory block are taken
up, one for each character and one for the terminating nul character.

But, in the pointer notation char *p………….the same 7 bytes required, plus N bytes to store the
pointer variable ―p‖ (where N depends on the system but is usually a minimum of 2 bytes and can
be 4 or more)……

55) How do I declare an array of N pointers to functions returning pointers to functions returning
pointers to characters?
Answer1
If you want the code to be even slightly readable, you will use typedefs.
typedef char* (*functiontype_one)(void);
typedef functiontype_one (*functiontype_two)(void);
functiontype_two myarray[N]; //assuming N is a const integral

Answer2

16
C++ - Reference Book

char* (* (*a[N])())()
Here a is that array. And according to question no function will not take any parameter value.

56) What does extern mean in a function declaration?

It tells the compiler that a variable or a function exists, even if the compiler hasn‘t yet seen it in
the file currently being compiled. This variable or function may be defined in another file or
further down in the current file.

57) How do I initialize a pointer to a function?

This is the way to initialize a pointer to a function
void fun(int a)
{

void main()
{
void (*fp)(int);
fp=fun;
fp(1);

58) How do you link a C++ program to C functions?

By using the extern "C" linkage specification around the C function declarations.

59) Explain the scope resolution operator.

It permits a program to reference an identifier in the global scope that has been hidden by
another identifier with the same name in the local scope.

60) What are the differences between a C++ struct and C++ class?
The default member and base-class access specifier are different.

61) How many ways are there to initialize an int with a constant?
Two.

17
C++ - Reference Book

There are two formats for initializers in C++ as shown in the example that follows. The first
format uses the traditional C notation. The second format uses constructor notation.
int foo = 123;
int bar (123);

62) How does throwing and catching exceptions differ from using setjmp and longjmp?
The throw operation calls the destructors for automatic objects instantiated since entry to the try
block.

63) What is a default constructor?

Default constructor WITH arguments class B { public: B (int m = 0) : n (m) {} int n; }; int main(int
argc, char *argv[]) { B b; return 0; }

64) What is a conversion constructor?

A constructor that accepts one argument of a different type.

65) What is the difference between a copy constructor and an overloaded assignment operator?
A copy constructor constructs a new object by using the content of the argument object. An
overloaded assignment operator assigns the contents of an existing object to another existing
object of the same class.

66) When should you use multiple inheritance?

There are three acceptable answers: "Never," "Rarely," and "When the problem domain cannot be
accurately modeled any other way."

67) Explain the ISA and HASA class relationships. How would you implement each in a class design?
A specialized class "is" a specialization of another class and, therefore, has the ISA relationship
with the other class. An Employee ISA Person. This relationship is best implemented with
inheritance. Employee is derived from Person. A class may have an instance of another class. For
example, an employee "has" a salary, therefore the Employee class has the HASA relationship
with the Salary class. This relationship is best implemented by embedding an object of the Salary
class in the Employee class.

68) When is a template a better solution than a base class?

When you are designing a generic class to contain or otherwise manage objects of other types,
when the format and behavior of those other types are unimportant to their containment or

18
C++ - Reference Book

management, and particularly when those other types are unknown (thus, the generosity) to the
designer of the container or manager class.

69) What is a mutable member?

One that can be modified by the class even when the object of the class or the member function
doing the modification is const.

70) What is an explicit constructor?

A conversion constructor declared with the explicit keyword. The compiler does not use an
explicit constructor to implement an implied conversion of types. It‘s purpose is reserved
explicitly for construction.

71) What is the Standard Template Library (STL)?

A library of container templates approved by the ANSI committee for inclusion in the standard
C++ specification.
A programmer who then launches into a discussion of the generic programming model, iterators,
allocators, algorithms, and such, has a higher than average understanding of the new technology
that STL brings to C++ programming.

72) Describe run-time type identification.

The ability to determine at run time the type of an object by using the typeid operator or the
dynamic_cast operator.

73) What problem does the namespace feature solve?

Multiple providers of libraries might use common global identifiers causing a name collision
when an application tries to link with two or more such libraries. The namespace feature
surrounds a library‘s external declarations with a unique namespace that eliminates the potential
for those collisions.
This solution assumes that two library vendors don‘t use the same namespace identifier, of course.

74) Are there any new intrinsic (built-in) data types?

Yes. The ANSI committee added the bool intrinsic type and its true and false value keywords.

75) What is the difference between Mutex and Binary semaphore?

semaphore is used to synchronize processes. where as mutex is used to provide synchronization
between threads running in the same process.

19
C++ - Reference Book

76) In C++, what is the difference between method overloading and method overriding?
Overloading a method (or function) in C++ is the ability for functions of the same name to be
defined as long as these methods have different signatures (different set of parameters). Method
overriding is the ability of the inherited class rewriting the virtual method of the base class.

77) What methods can be overridden in Java?

In C++ terminology, all public methods in Java are virtual. Therefore, all Java methods can be
overwritten in subclasses except those that are declared final, static, and private.

78) What are the defining traits of an object-oriented language?

The defining traits of an object-oriented langauge are:
* encapsulation
* inheritance
* polymorphism

79) What is the diffrence between a "assignment operator" and a "copy constructor"?
Answer1.
In assignment operator, you are assigning a value to an existing object. But in copy constructor,
you are creating a new object and then assigning a value to that object. For example:
complex c1,c2;
c1=c2; //this is assignment
complex c3=c2; //copy constructor

Answer2.
A copy constructor is used to initialize a newly declared variable from an existing variable. This
makes a deep copy like assignment, but it is somewhat simpler:
There is no need to test to see if it is being initialized from itself.
There is no need to clean up (eg, delete) an existing value (there is none).
A reference to itself is not returned.

80) STL Containers - What are the types of STL containers?

There are 3 types of STL containers:
1. Adaptive containers like queue, stack

20
C++ - Reference Book

2. Associative containers like set, map

3. Sequence containers like vector, deque

81) What is "mutable"?

Answer1.
"mutable" is a C++ keyword. When we declare const, none of its data members can change. When
we want one of its members to change, we declare it as mutable.

Answer2.
A "mutable" keyword is useful when we want to force a "logical const" data member to have its
value modified. A logical const can happen when we declare a data member as non-const, but we
have a const member function attempting to modify that data member. For example:
class Dummy {
public:
bool isValid() const;
private:
mutable int size_ = 0;
mutable bool validStatus_ = FALSE;
// logical const issue resolved
};

bool Dummy::isValid() const

// data members become bitwise const
{
if (size > 10) {
validStatus_ = TRUE; // fine to assign
size = 0; // fine to assign
}
}
82) Differences of C and C++
Could you write a small program that will compile in C but not in C++ ?
In C, if you can a const variable e.g.

21
C++ - Reference Book

const int i = 2;
you can use this variable in other module as follows
extern const int i;
C compiler will not complain.

But for C++ compiler u must write

extern const int i = 2;
else error would be generated.
83) Bitwise Operations - Given inputs X, Y, Z and operations | and & (meaning bitwise OR and AND,
respectively), what is output equal to in?
output = (X & Y) | (X & Z) | (Y & Z);
84) What is a modifier?
A modifier, also called a modifying function is a member function that changes the value of at
least one data member. In other words, an operation that modifies the state of an object. Modifiers
are also known as ‗mutators‘. Example: The function mod is a modifier in the following code
snippet:

class test
{
int x,y;
public:
test()
{
x=0; y=0;
}
void mod()
{
x=10;
y=15;
}
};

22
C++ - Reference Book

85) What is an accessor?

An accessor is a class operation that does not modify the state of an object. The accessor functions
need to be declared as const operations

86) Differentiate between a template class and class template.

Template class: A generic definition or a parameterized class not instantiated until the client
provides the needed information. It‘s jargon for plain templates. Class template: A class template
specifies how individual classes can be constructed much like the way a class specifies how
individual objects can be constructed. It‘s jargon for plain classes.

87) When does a name clash occur?

A name clash occurs when a name is defined in more than one place. For example., two different
class libraries could give two different classes the same name. If you try to use many class libraries
at the same time, there is a fair chance that you will be unable to compile or link the program
because of name clashes.

88) What is the use of ‗using‘ declaration. ?

A using declaration makes it possible to use a name from a namespace without the scope operator.

89) What is an Iterator class ?

A class that is used to traverse through the objects maintained by a container class. There are five
categories of iterators: input iterators, output iterators, forward iterators, bidirectional iterators,
random access. An iterator is an entity that gives access to the contents of a container object
without violating encapsulation constraints. Access to the contents is granted on a one-at-a-time
basis in order. The order can be storage order (as in lists and queues) or some arbitrary order (as in
array indices) or according to some ordering relation (as in an ordered binary tree). The iterator is
a construct, which provides an interface that, when called, yields either the next element in the
container, or some value denoting the fact that there are no more elements to examine. Iterators
hide the details of access to and update of the elements of a container class.
The simplest and safest iterators are those that permit read-only access to the contents of a
container class.

90) What is an incomplete type?

Incomplete types refers to pointers in which there is non availability of the implementation of the
referenced location or it points to some location whose value is not available for modification.

23
C++ - Reference Book

int *i=0x400 // i points to address 400

*i=0; //set the value of memory location pointed by i.

Incomplete types are otherwise called uninitialized pointers.

91) What is a dangling pointer?

A dangling pointer arises when you use the address of an object after
its lifetime is over. This may occur in situations like returning
addresses of the automatic variables from a function or using the
address of the memory block after it is freed. The following
code snippet shows this:

class Sample
{
public:
int *ptr;
Sample(int i)
{
ptr = new int(i);
}

~Sample()
{
delete ptr;
}
void PrintVal()
{
cout << "The value is " << *ptr;
}
};

24
C++ - Reference Book

void SomeFunc(Sample x)
{
cout << "Say i am in someFunc " << endl;
}

int main()
{
Sample s1 = 10;
SomeFunc(s1);
s1.PrintVal();
}

In the above example when PrintVal() function is

called it is called by the pointer that has been freed by the
destructor in SomeFunc.

92) Differentiate between the message and method.

Message:
* Objects communicate by sending messages to each other.
* A message is sent to invoke a method.

Method
* Provides response to a message.
* It is an implementation of an operation.

93) What is an adaptor class or Wrapper class?

A class that has no functionality of its own. Its member functions hide the use of a third party
software component or an object with the non-compatible interface or a non-object-oriented
implementation.

94) What is a Null object?

It is an object of some class whose purpose is to indicate that a real object of that class does not
exist. One common use for a null object is a return value from a member function that is supposed
to return an object with some specified properties but cannot find such an object.

25
C++ - Reference Book

95) What is class invariant?

A class invariant is a condition that defines all valid states for an object. It is a logical condition to
ensure the correct working of a class. Class invariants must hold when an object is created, and
they must be preserved under all operations of the class. In particular all class invariants are both
preconditions and post-conditions for all operations or member functions of the class.

96) What do you mean by Stack unwinding?

It is a process during exception handling when the destructor is called for all local objects
between the place where the exception was thrown and where it is caught.

97) Define precondition and post-condition to a member function.

Precondition: A precondition is a condition that must be true on entry to a member function. A
class is used correctly if preconditions are never false. An operation is not responsible for doing
anything sensible if its precondition fails to hold. For example, the interface invariants of stack
class say nothing about pushing yet another element on a stack that is already full. We say that
isful() is a precondition of the push operation. Post-condition: A post-condition is a condition that
must be true on exit from a member function if the precondition was valid on entry to that
function. A class is implemented correctly if post-conditions are never false. For example, after
pushing an element on the stack, we know that isempty() must necessarily hold. This is a post-
condition of the push operation.

98) What are the conditions that have to be met for a condition to be an invariant of the class?
* The condition should hold at the end of every constructor.
* The condition should hold at the end of every mutator (non-const) operation.

99) What are proxy objects?

Objects that stand for other objects are called proxy objects or surrogates.
template <class t="">
class Array2D
{
public:
class Array1D
{
public:

26
C++ - Reference Book

T& operator[] (int index);

const T& operator[] (int index)const;
};

Array1D operator[] (int index);

const Array1D operator[] (int index) const;
};

The following then becomes legal:

Array2D<float>data(10,20);
cout<<data[3][6]; // fine

Here data[3] yields an Array1D object and the operator [] invocation on that object yields the
float in position(3,6) of the original two dimensional array. Clients of the Array2D class need not
be aware of the presence of the Array1D class. Objects of this latter class stand for one-
dimensional array objects that, conceptually, do not exist for clients of Array2D. Such clients
program as if they were using real, live, two-dimensional arrays. Each Array1D object stands for a
one-dimensional array that is absent from a conceptual model used by the clients of Array2D. In
the above example, Array1D is a proxy class. Its instances stand for one-dimensional arrays that,
conceptually, do not exist.

100) Name some pure object oriented languages.

Smalltalk, Java, Eiffel, Sather.

101) What is an orthogonal base class?

If two base classes have no overlapping methods or data they are said to be independent of, or
orthogonal to each other. Orthogonal in the sense means that two classes operate in different
dimensions and do not interfere with each other in any way. The same derived class may inherit
such classes with no difficulty.

102) What is a node class?

A node class is a class that,
* relies on the base class for services and implementation,

27
C++ - Reference Book

* provides a wider interface to the users than its base class,

* relies primarily on virtual functions in its public interface
* depends on all its direct and indirect base class
* can be understood only in the context of the base class
* can be used as base for further derivation
* can be used to create objects.
A node class is a class that has added new services or functionality beyond the services inherited
from its base class.

103) What is a container class? What are the types of container classes?
A container class is a class that is used to hold objects in memory or external storage. A container
class acts as a generic holder. A container class has a predefined behavior and a well-known
interface. A container class is a supporting class whose purpose is to hide the topology used for
maintaining the list of objects in memory. When a container class contains a group of mixed
objects, the container is called a heterogeneous container; when the container is holding a group
of objects that are all the same, the container is called a homogeneous container.

104) What is pure virtual function?

A class is made abstract by declaring one or more of its virtual functions to be pure. A pure virtual
function is one with an initializer of = 0 in its declaration
105) Write a Struct Time where integer m, h, s are its members
struct Time
{
int m;
int h;
int s;
};
106) How do you traverse a Btree in Backward in-order?
Process the node in the right subtree
Process the root
Process the node in the left subtree

28
C++ - Reference Book

107) What is the two main roles of Operating System?

As a resource manager
As a virtual machine
108) In the derived class, which data member of the base class are visible?
In the public and protected sections.
109) Is C an object-oriented language?
C is not an object-oriented language, but limited object-oriented programming can be done in C.
110) Name some major differences between C++ and Java.
C++ has pointers; Java does not. Java is platform-independent; C++ is not. Java has garbage
collection; C++ does not. Java does have pointers. In fact all variables in Java are pointers. The
difference is that Java does not allow you to manipulate the addresses of the pointer
111) What is the difference between Stack and Queue?
Stack is a Last In First Out (LIFO) data structure.
Queue is a First In First Out (FIFO) data structure
112) What are the advantages and disadvantages of B-star trees over Binary trees?
Answer1
B-star trees have better data structure and are faster in search than Binary trees, but it‘s harder to
write codes for B-start trees.

Answer2
The major difference between B-tree and binary tres is that B-tree is a external data structure and
binary tree is a main memory data structure. The computational complexity of binary tree is
counted by the number of comparison operations at each node, while the computational
complexity of B-tree is determined by the disk I/O, that is, the number of node that will be loaded
from disk to main memory. The comparision of the different values in one node is not counted.
113) Describe one simple rehashing policy.

The simplest rehashing policy is linear probing. Suppose a key K hashes to location i. Suppose
other key occupies H[i]. The following function is used to generate alternative locations:
rehash(j) = (j + 1) mod h
where j is the location most recently probed. Initially j = i, the hash code for K. Notice that this
version of rehash does not depend on K.

29
C++ - Reference Book

114) Describe Stacks and name a couple of places where stacks are useful.
A Stack is a linear structure in which insertions and deletions are always made at one end, called
the top. This updating policy is called last in, first out (LIFO). It is useful when we need to check
some syntex errors, such as missing parentheses.
1)

30
Soft Skills Training Corporate Coaching
Survival of the Fittest Critical Thinking
English Grammar Gym Organizational Excellence
Career Skills Seven Habits of Highly
Oral Communication Effective People
Written Communication Business Skills
Goal Setting Presentation Skills
Resume Writing Conflict Management
Group Discussion Search Engine Optimization
Interview Skills Selling Skills
Reading & Learning Skills Working with MS Excel
Questioning & Listening Skills MS PowerPoint & MS Word
Personality Development Branding
Creativity Supply Chain
Time Management Channel Sales
Leadership Skills Retailing
Team Management Business Analytics & ERP
Entrepreneurship Skills

Finance Training Faculty Development

Financial Market for Beginners Programs
Stock Trading Energizing your Classroom
Wealth Management Delivering Powerful Lectures
Taxation Case Studies as a Teaching
Financial Advisory Tool
Management Technology Tools for the
Personal Finance Management Classroom
Financial Services & Markets Personal Development
Banking Operations & Research Methodology
Management Stress Management
NCFM Certification Coaching Team Building Activities

Technical Training Aptitude/Verbal Training

Quantitative Aptitude
C, C++ & Data Structures
Reasoning Aptitude
Java & J2EE
Creativity Aptitude
Dot Net
Verbal Aptitude
LAMP Training
Data Sufficiency
PHP/MYSQL
Data Interpretation
Web Designing
Certification Courses (SCJP,
OCP, MCP etc…)