Republic of the Philippines

Surigao del Sur State University

Bislig Campus
Maharlika, Bislig City
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Module Number 3

PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

MATHEMATICAL REASONING
It refers to the ability of a person to analyze problem situations and construct logical arguments
to create both conceptual foundations and connections to be able to process the available
information and solve the problem. In our daily lives, we make decisions based on our reasoning
but this is a process that varies depending on the situation obtained on the ground.
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
There are two types of reasoning: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning is the process of making general conclusions based on specific examples. It
is a reasoning based on patterns that you observe. If you observe a pattern in a sequence, for
example, you can use inductive reasoning to decide the next successive terms of the sequence. A
conclusion you reach using inductive reasoning is called a conjecture.
Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data. “In inductive inference, we go
from specific to the general. We make many observations, discern a pattern, make a
generalization and infer an explanation or theory,” according to Dr. Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller.
Examples:
1. Every object that I release from my hand falls to the ground. Therefore, the next object I
release from my hand will fall to the ground.
2. The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. The next coin I pulled is also a penny. A third
coin pulled from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies.
Note that even if the premises presented are true, it does not mean that the conclusion is also
true. Just like in second example, just because the coins pulled were all pennies, does not mean
all the coins in the bag are pennies. We can’t say so until all the coins have been pulled out and
see that they are all pennies.
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures or principles. It starts out with a general statement or a hypothesis, and examines the
possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. According to Dr. Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller,
“In deductive inference, we hold a theory and based on it, we make a prediction of its
consequences. That is, we predict what the observations should be if the theory were correct. We
go from the general (the theory) to the specific (the observations)”.
Examples:
1. All men are mortal. I am a man. Therefore, I am mortal.
2. All bald men are grandfathers. Harold is bald. Therefore, Harold is a grandfather.
There is a difference between asserting that a premise is untrue and asserting that the logic of the
argument is faulty. In the second example, it is a perfectly valid argument in terms of logic, but
this flawless logic is based on an untrue premise. If in an argument, the logic reaches a
conclusion that seems absurd, it behooves you to analyze each sentence separately. Be on the

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lookout for “equivocation”, the use of two different meanings of one word during the process of
an argument.
Inductive vs. Deductive: Solving problems through Reasoning
Consider the following procedure.
(a) Pick a number.
(b) Multiply the number by 8.
(c) Add 6 to the product.
(d) Divide the sum by 2.
(e) Subtract 3.
In inductive reasoning, we pick different numbers, follow the procedure and make a conclusion
based on the results.
Number ×8 +6 ÷2 −3
3 24 30 15 12
5 40 46 23 20
10 80 86 43 40

As you continue to pick numbers, you can see a pattern of what happens to the number after
completing all the procedures. 3 becomes 12, 5 becomes 20 and 10 becomes 40. As you can see,
all numbers have been quadrupled after the procedures. So by inductive reasoning, if we try any
more number and follow through with the procedure, the result will be four times the original
number. This is how inductive reasoning works. Find the pattern, then conclude that the pattern
will continue.

If you use, deductive reasoning, on the other hand, it is a different story. Considering still the
procedure above, we can reach a conclusion using deductive reasoning as shown below:

Pick a number. : n

Multiply the number by 8. : 8n

Add 6 to the product. : 8 n+6

Divide the sum by 2. : 4 n+3

Subtract by 3. : 4n

Based on the general procedure above, we can see that after the final step, we have 4 n. Then we
can conclude that the given procedure will produce a number that is four times the original.

Note that we have used to different types of reasoning, but we still have the same conclusion.
The procedure will give us a number four times the original.

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

 What is asked?
 What are the given facts?
 What operation will you use?
 What is the number sentence?
 What is the answer?

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Since elementary mathematics, we are already taught how to solve problems. If you can still
remember the following questions, you already have an idea on problem solving.

One of the primary reasons why students have trouble with problem solving is that there is no
single procedure that works all the time, each item is slightly different. Also, problem solving
requires practical knowledge about the specific situation. If you misunderstand either the
problem or the underlying situation, you may make mistakes or incorrect assumptions. One of
the main goals of this topic is to help you become better problem solvers. To begin this, let us
have a framework for thinking about problem solving: Polya’s four-step approach to problem
solving.

In 1945, George Polya published the book How To Solve It which quickly became his most
prized publication. In this book, he identifies four basic principles in problem solving.

First Principle: Understand the Problem

This seems so obvious that it is often not even mentioned, yet students are often hindered in their
efforts to solve problems simply because they don’t understand it fully, or even in part.

 You have to understand the problem.

 What is the unknown? What are the data? What is the condition?
 Is it possible to satisfy the condition? Is the condition sufficient to determine the
unknown? Or is it insufficient? Or redundant? Or contradictory?
 Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notation.
 Separate the various parts of the condition.

Second Principle: Devise a plan

Polya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve a problem. The skill at choosing an
appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find choosing a strategy
increasingly easy.

 Find the connection between the data and the unknown. You may be obliged to consider
auxiliary problems if an immediate connection cannot be found. You should obtain
eventually a plan of the solution.
 Have you seen it before? Or have you seen the same problem in a slightly different form?
 Do you have a related problem? Do you know a theorem that could be useful?
 Look at the unknown! Try to think of a familiar problem having the same or a similar
unknown.
 Here is a problem related to yours and has been solved before. Could you use it? Could
you use it result? Could you use its method? Should you introduce some auxiliary
element in order to make its use possible?
 Could you restate the problem? Could you restate it still differently? Go back to
definitions.
 If you cannot solve the proposed problem, try to solve first some related problem. Could
you imagine a more accessible related problem? A more general problem? A more
special problem? An analogous problem? Could you solve part of the problem? Keep
only a part of the condition, drop the other part; how far is the unknown then determined,
how can it vary? Could you derive something useful from the data? Could you think of
other data appropriate to determine the unknown? Could you change the unknown or
data, or both if necessary, so that the new unknown and the new data are nearer to each
other?

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 Did you use all the data? Did you use the whole condition? Have you taken into account
all essential notions involved in the problem?

Third Principle: Carry out the plan

 Carrying out your plan of the solution, check each step. Can you see clearly that the step
is correct? Can you prove that it is correct?

Fourth principle: Look back or Review the Solution

 Examine the solution obtained.

 Can you check the result? Can you check the argument?
 Can you derive the solution differently? Can you see it in a glance?
 Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?

ACTIVITY

I. Read the following arguments and determine whether they use inductive or deductive
reasoning.
1. Since today is Friday, tomorrow will be Saturday.
2. Since it snowed every New Year’s Eve for the past four years, it will snow on
New Year’s Eve this year.
3. A child examines ten tulips, all of which are red, and concludes that all tulips
must be red.
4. If an isosceles triangle has at least two sides congruent, then an equilateral
triangle is also isosceles.
5. Sandy earned A’s on her first six geometry tests, so she concludes that she will
earn A’s on geometry tests.
II. Use inductive reasoning skills to draw logical inferences. Read carefully the information
you are given and consider what would be the most logical conclusion to draw from that
evidence. Choose from the choices provided and offer an explanation of your conclusion.
1. Each time you go to the grocery, you end up buying far more than you had
planned on. You carefully make a list and plan to spend 500 pesos, but usually
spend twice that amount. You can therefore logically conclude that
______________________.
a. the department store charges too much for its products.
b. you need more items than you had originally thought.
c. a need for immediate gratification is one of your main traits.
2. Every June, your Aunt Patricia sends you a birthday check in the mail. Every
July, your Uncle Ian sends you a check with a belated birthday card. When you go
out the mailbox on June 16, there is an envelope with your name on it waiting
inside. You can therefore logically conclude that you are getting
____________________.
a. a check early from Uncle Ian.
b. Aunt Patricia’s card.
c. a letter from a friend.
III. Decide whether the following arguments are VALID or INVALID. If invalid, explain
why. To help you out, the first item is given as an example.
1. All snakes are cold-blooded.
All snails are cold blooded.
Therefore, all snails are snakes.

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Answer: INVALID, obviously because snails are not snakes.
2. All humans are selfish.
Confucius is a human.
Therefore, Confucius is selfish.
Answer: __________________________________________________________
3. All human societies are doomed to deteriorate over time.
America is a human society.
Therefore, America is doomed to deteriorate over time.
Answer: __________________________________________________________
4. God is love.
Love is blind.
Ray Charles is blind.
Therefore, Ray Charles is God.
Answer: __________________________________________________________
5. If he has leukemia, he will die.
He will die.
Thus, he must have leukemia.
Answer: __________________________________________________________
6. Nobody is perfect.
I am a nobody.
Therefore, I am perfect.
Answer: __________________________________________________________
7. Violent television influences some children in negative ways.
Some children are violent.
Therefore, some children are influenced by violent television.
Answer: __________________________________________________________
8. My name is Pi.
Pi is irrational.
Therefore, I am irrational.
9. As Emerson said, “All the world loves a lover.”
Now that I think about it, you are part of the world.
I am a lover, now that I think about it.
Therefore, you love me! The logic is irresistible.
Answer: __________________________________________________________

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