ATOMIC ENERGY CENTRAL SCHOOL, MYSORE

DISTANT LEARNING PROGRAM 2020-21

CHAPTER-7

ALTERNATING CURRENT
PPT-( 2 of 2 )

DONE BY: P.SARAVANAN

RESONANCE:
When the frequency of the applied alternating source( 𝜔 ) is equal to the natural frequency of the RLC circuit, the
current in the circuit reaches its maximum value. Then the circuit is said to be in electrical resonance. The
frequency at which resonance takes place is called resonant frequency.
The current amplitude in an RLC circuit is given by
𝑣𝑚
𝑖𝑚 =
𝑍
𝑣𝑚
(or) 𝑖𝑚 = (1)
𝑅2 + ( 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
where, Z = 𝑅2 + ( 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 is called ‘impedance’ of the circuit.
1
But, 𝑋C = and 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔 L . The frequency 𝜔 of the applied AC voltage is varied continuously.
ωC
At a particular frequency 𝜔 = 𝜔0 , called as resonant frequency
𝑋C = 𝑋𝐿 (2)
1
= 𝜔0 L
𝜔0 𝐶
1
𝜔0 2 =
LC
1
𝜔0 = (3)
LC
At resonance, impedance in the circuit is minimum and it is equal to the resistance R.
Z= 𝑅2 + ( 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 = 𝑅2 + 0 = R
At resonance, current in the circuit is maximum. It is given by
𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚
𝑖𝑚 = = ( ∵ Z = R) (4)
𝑍 𝑅
The voltage across L and C cancel each other. The net voltage is equal to the voltage across the resistor R.

The maximum current at series resonance is limited by the resistance (R) of the circuit.
For smaller resistance, larger current with sharper curve is obtained and vice versa.
Applications of series RLC resonant circuit:
RLC circuits have many applications like filter circuits, oscillators, voltage multipliers etc. An
important use of series RLC resonant circuits is in the tuning circuits of radio and TV systems.
SHARPNESS OF RESONANCE: ( Assuming predominantly inductive circuit, ie; 𝑋L > 𝑋C
The amplitude of current in series LCR circuit is given by
𝑣𝑚
𝑖𝑚 =
𝑅2 + ( 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑣𝑚
(or) 𝑖𝑚 = 1
𝑅2 + ( 𝜔 L − )2
ωC
1
The current is maximum when 𝜔 = 𝜔0 = . Its maximum value is given by
LC
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑚
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑅
From the above resonance curve, it is found that the curve is symmetrical at 𝜔 = 𝜔1 and 𝜔 = 𝜔2 .
𝜔1 = 𝜔0 + ∆ 𝜔
𝜔2 = 𝜔0 − ∆ 𝜔
𝜔1 − 𝜔2 = 2 ∆ 𝜔 = Band width of the circuit.
𝜔
The quantity 2 ∆ 0𝜔 is a measure of ‘sharpness of resonance’.
If ∆ 𝜔 is smaller, resonance is sharper.
1
Suppose we choose a value of ω for which the current amplitude is times its maximum value.
2
At this value, the power dissipated by the circuit becomes half.
EXPRESSION FOR BAND WIDTH: (∆ 𝝎)

1 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Current Amplitude 𝑖𝑚 = 𝑖 (1)
2 𝑚
𝑣𝑚
For 𝜔1 = 𝜔0 + ∆ 𝜔, 𝑖𝑚 = 1
(2)
𝑅2 + ( 𝜔1 L − ω1 C
)2

1 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑚
Equating (1) and (2), 𝑖 =
2 𝑚 1
𝑅2 + ( 𝜔1 L − ω C )2
1
1 𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚
=
2 𝑅 1
𝑅2 + ( 𝜔1 L − ω C )2
1
1 1
=
2R 1
𝑅2 + ( 𝜔1 L − ω C )2
1

1
2R = 𝑅2 + ( 𝜔1 L − )2
ω1 C
1
Squaring on both sides, 2 R2 = R2 + ( 𝜔1 L − )2
ω1 C
1
R2 = ( 𝜔1 L − ω1 C
)2
1
(or) R = 𝜔1 L − ω1 C
(3)
Substituting 𝜔1 = 𝜔0 + ∆ 𝜔 ,
1
( 𝜔0 + ∆ 𝜔 ) L − = R
( 𝜔0 + ∆ 𝜔 ) C
∆𝜔 1
𝜔0 L ( 1 + ) − ∆𝜔 =R
𝜔0 𝜔0 C (1+ )
𝜔0

Multiplying and dividing the second term on LHS by 𝜔0 L,

∆𝜔 𝜔0 L
𝜔0 L ( 1 + ) − ∆𝜔 =R
𝜔0 ( 𝜔0 L ) 𝜔0 C ( 1 + )
𝜔0
∆𝜔 𝜔0 L 1
𝜔0 L ( 1 + ) − ∆𝜔 = R (But, 𝜔0 2 = and hence, 𝜔0 2 L C = 1)
𝜔0 𝜔0 2 L C ( 1 + ) LC
𝜔0
∆𝜔 𝜔0 L
∴ 𝜔0 L ( 1 + ) − ∆𝜔 =R
𝜔0 (1+𝜔 )
0
∆𝜔 ∆𝜔 −1
(or) 𝜔0 L ( 1 + ) − 𝜔0 L ( 1 + ) = R
𝜔0 𝜔0
∆𝜔 ∆𝜔 −1 ∆𝜔
Since 𝜔0
≪ 1, ( 1 + 𝜔0
) = (1 − 𝜔0
)
∆𝜔 ∆𝜔
∴ 𝜔0 L ( 1 + ) − 𝜔 0 L ( 1 − ) = R
𝜔0 𝜔0
∆𝜔 ∆𝜔
𝜔 0 L + 𝜔0 L ( ) − 𝜔 0 L + 𝜔 0 L ( )= R
𝜔0 𝜔0
(or) L ∆ 𝜔 + L ∆ 𝜔 = R (or) 2L∆𝜔 =R
R
∴ ∆ 𝜔 = 2L (4)
Sharpness of Resonance:
𝜔0 𝜔0 𝜔0 L
It is given by = 𝑅 = = Quality Factor (Q)
2∆ 𝜔 2 ( 2𝐿 ) 𝑅

𝝎𝟎 𝐋
∴ Q= (5)
𝑹
1
But, 𝜔0 = LC
𝐿 𝐿2
∴ Q=𝑅 =
LC 𝑅 LC

𝟏 𝑳
(or) Q=𝑹 (6)
𝑪

Also, it can be shown that,

𝟏
Q= (7)
𝝎𝟎 𝑪𝑹
NOTE:
1. The physical meaning is that Q–factor indicates the number of times the voltage across L or C is
greater than the applied voltage at resonance.

2. The selectivity or sharpness of a resonant circuit is measured by the quality factor or Q factor.
POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: ( THE POWER FACTOR )
The instantaneous voltage applied to the series RLC circuit is
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 sin ωt (1)
The instantaneous current in the circuit is given by
i = 𝑖𝑚 sin (ωt + 𝜙) (2)
where, 𝜙 → phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current in the
circuit.
( 𝑋C − 𝑋L )
It is given by 𝜙 = tan−1 (3)
𝑅
The instantaneous power supplied by the source is equal to the product of the instantaneous
current and instantaneous voltage.
p = 𝑣I = 𝑣𝑚 sin ωt × 𝑖𝑚 sin (ωt + 𝜙)
= 𝑣𝑚 sin ωt × 𝑖𝑚 sin ωt. cos 𝜙 + cos ωt . sin 𝜙

(or) p = 𝑣𝑚 𝑖𝑚 × sin ωt sin ωt. cos 𝜙 + cos ωt . sin 𝜙

= 𝑣𝑚 𝑖𝑚 sin2 ωt. cos 𝜙 + (sin ωt. cos ωt ) sin 𝜙
Taking average over one cycle of AC on both sides it is found that,
1
sin2 ωt = and (sin ωt. cos ωt ) = 0
2
1
∴ 𝑝𝑎𝑣 = P = 𝑣𝑚 𝑖𝑚 cos 𝜙
2
𝑣𝑚 𝑖𝑚
= × × cos 𝜙
2 2
(or) P = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × cos 𝜙 (4)

(or) P = V I cos 𝜙 (5)

But, V = I Z. ∴ P = I 2 Z cos 𝜙 (6)

So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and current but also on the cosine of
the phase angle 𝜙 between them.
The term 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 is called as ‘power factor’.
The term 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 × 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 is called ‘apparent power’.
SPECIAL CASES:

Case (i) Resistive circuit: If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive.
In that case, 𝜙 = 0, cos 𝜙 = 1. There is maximum power dissipation.

Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit: If the circuit contains only an inductor or
𝜋
capacitor, we know that the phase difference between voltage and current is 𝜙 = .
2
𝜋
Therefore, cos 𝜙 = cos = 0, and no power is dissipated even though a current is flowing in the circuit. This current is
2
sometimes referred to as wattless current.
Case (iii) LCR series circuit: In an LCR series circuit, power dissipated is given by the equation
( 𝑋C − 𝑋L )
P = I2 Z cos 𝜙, where 𝜙 = tan−1 . So, 𝜙 may be non-zero in a RL or RC or RCL circuit. Even in such cases,
𝑅
power is dissipated only in the resistor.
Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit: At resonance 𝑋C − 𝑋L = 0, and 𝜙 = 0.
Therefore, cos 𝜙 = 1 and P = I 2 Z = I 2 R. That is, maximum power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at resonance.
LC OSCILLATIONS:
In inductors, the energy is stored in the form of magnetic field while in capacitors; it is stored as the electric field.
Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C,
the energy oscillates back and forth between the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric field of the capacitor.
Thus the electrical oscillations of definite frequency are generated. These oscillations are called LC oscillations.

Let a capacitor be charged 𝑞𝑚 (at t = 0) and connected to an inductor as shown in the above figure. The moment the
circuit is completed, the charge on the capacitor starts decreasing, giving rise to current in the circuit.
𝑑𝑖
Let q and i be the charge and current in the circuit at time t. Since is positive, the induced emf in L will have
𝑑𝑡
polarity as shown, i.e., 𝑣𝑏 < 𝑣𝑎
According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
𝑞 𝑑𝑖
–L( )=0 (1)
C 𝑑𝑡
Since q decreases and i increases,
𝑑𝑞
the current i = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑 𝑑𝑞 𝑑2 𝑞
=− (− ) = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 d𝑡
𝑞 𝑑2 𝑞
Hence equn (1) becomes, +L 2 =0
C d𝑡
𝑞 𝑑2 𝑞
Dividing by L, + =0
LC d𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑞 1
(or)
d𝑡 2
+(
LC
) 𝑞=0 (2)

Equn (2) is a differential equation of Simple Harmonic Motion of the form

𝑑2 𝑥 2x=0
+ 𝜔0 (3)
d𝑡 2
The charge q oscillates with a natural frequency given by
1
𝜔0 = (4)
LC
The charge q varies sinusoidally with time according to the equation
q = 𝑞𝑚 cos ( 𝜔0 t + 𝜙 ) (5)
where, 𝑞𝑚 → maximum value of q
and 𝜙 → phase constant
At a time t = 0, q = 𝑞𝑚 , cos 𝜙 = 1 and hence 𝜙 = 0
If 𝜙 = 0 in equn (5), then q = 𝒒𝒎 cos 𝝎𝟎 𝐭 (6)
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
The current is given by i=− =− ( 𝑞 cos 𝜔0 t )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑
= − 𝑞𝑚 𝑑𝑡 ( cos 𝜔0 t )

= − 𝑞𝑚 − sin 𝜔0 t 𝜔0
(or) i = 𝜔0 𝑞𝑚 sin 𝜔0 t
(or) i = 𝒊𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝟎 𝐭 (7)
where, 𝑖𝑚 = 𝜔0 𝑞𝑚
Diagrammatic Representation of LC oscillations:
A capacitor of capacitance C with initial charge 𝑞𝑚 is connected to an inductor as shown below.The oscillations in an
LC circuit are analogous to the oscillations of a block at the end of a spring.

(a) At the initial stage,when the switch is opened, the energy stored in the capacitor is maximum. It is stored in the form of
‘electrostatic potential energy ( 𝑈𝐸 ).
1 𝑞𝑚 2
It is given by UE = .
2 C
As there is no current in the inductor, the energy stored in the inductor ( 𝑈𝐵 ) is equal to zero. Thus, the total energy of the
LC circuit is:
1 𝑞𝑚 2 1 𝑞𝑚 2
U = UE + UB = 2 +0=2
C C
(b) At a time t = 0, the switch is closed and the capacitor starts to discharge. As the current increases, it sets up a magnetic
field in the inductor and thereby, some energy gets stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic energy.
1
It is given by UB = L 𝑖2
2

(c) As the current reaches its maximum value 𝑖𝑚 (at t = T/4) all the energy is stored in the magnetic field.
1
It is given by UB = L 𝑖𝑚 2 . Now, the capacitor has no charge and hence no energy.
2
(d) The magnetic field collapses and the current now starts charging the capacitor so that some energy will be stored
in the capacitor and the remaining energy is stored in the inductor.

(e) The process continues till the capacitor is fully charged (at t = T/2) . But it is charged with a polarity opposite to
its initial state in Fig.(a).
The whole process just described will now repeat itself till the system reverts to its original state. Thus, the energy
in the system oscillates between the capacitor and the inductor.

NOTE: The above discussion of LC oscillations is not realistic for two reasons:

(i) Every inductor has some resistance. The effect of this resistance is to introduce a damping effect on the charge
and current in the circuit and the oscillations finally die out.

(ii) Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would not remain constant. It is radiated away
from the system in the form of electromagnetic waves. In fact, radio and TV transmitters depend on this radiation.
TRANSFORMER:
Transformer is a device used to transform electrical power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency.
The applied alternating voltage is either increased or decreased with corresponding decrease or increase of current in
the circuit.
Principle
The principle of transformer is the mutual induction between two coils.
Construction:
A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. They are wound on a soft-iron core, either one on top
of the other as in Fig. (a) or on separate limbs of the core as in Fig. (b). One of the coils called the primary coil has Np
turns. The other coil is called the secondary coil; it has Ns turns. Often the primary coil is the input coil and the secondary
coil is the output coil of the transformer.
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current produces an alternating magnetic flux which
links the secondary and induces an emf in it. The value of this emf depends on the number of turns in the secondary. We
consider an ideal transformer in which the primary has negligible resistance and all the flux in the core links both primary
and secondary windings. Let 𝜙 be the flux in each turn in the core at time t due to current in the primary when a voltage 𝑣𝑝
is applied to it.
Then the induced emf or voltage 𝜀𝑠 in the secondary coil with Ns turns is given by
𝑑𝜙
𝜀𝑠 = − Ns (1)
𝑑𝑡
The alternating flux φ also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary. This is given by
𝑑𝜙
𝜀𝑝 = − Np 𝑑𝑡
(2)
Since the primary resistance is not zero and primary current is not infinite, 𝜀𝑝 = 𝑣𝑝 and 𝜀𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠 .
𝑑𝜙
∴ 𝑣𝑠 = − Ns (3)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜙
and 𝑣𝑝 = − Np (4)
𝑑𝑡
Dividing equn (3) by equn (4),
𝑣𝑠 Ns
= (5)
𝑣𝑝 Np
The above relation has been obtained using three assumptions:
(i) the primary resistance and current are small.
(ii) the same flux links both the primary and the secondary as very little flux escapes from the core,
(iii) the secondary current is small.
For an ideal transformer, since there is no power loss,
Input power = Output power
𝑖𝑝 𝑣𝑠
𝑖𝑝 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑠 (or) = (6)
𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑝
𝒊𝒑 𝒗𝒔 𝑵𝒔
Combining equns (5) and (6), we get = = =K (7)
𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒑 𝑵𝒑

where, K → constant known as ‘voltage transformation ratio’.

Case (i): If K > 1, Ns > Np and hence 𝑣𝑠 > 𝑣𝑝 and 𝑖𝑠 < 𝑖𝑝 .

This is the case of step-up transformer in which voltage is increased and the
corresponding current is decreased.
Case (ii): If K < 1, Ns < Np and hence 𝑣𝑠 < 𝑣𝑝 and 𝑖𝑠 > 𝑖𝑝 .
This is the case of step-down transformer in which voltage is decreased and the
corresponding current is increased.
Efficiency of a transformer:
The efficiency η of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the useful output power to the input power.
𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
η = × 100 %
𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

Note: Actual Transformers have efficiency ranging from 96% to 99% but never equal to 100%, due to various types of
energy losses taking place in it.

ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER:

1. Flux Leakage:
There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to primary passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core
or the air gaps in the core. It can be reduced bywinding the primary and secondary coils one over the other.
2. Copper loss:
Transformer windings have electrical resistance. When an electric current flows through them, someamount of energy is dissipated due to
Joule heating I2 R. This energy loss is called copper loss. In high current, low voltage windings, these are minimised by using thick wire.
3. Eddy current loss: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core and causes heating. The effect is reduced by
having a laminated core.( Ex: Stelloy )
4. Hysteresis loss: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of
energy in the core appears as heat and is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss. ( Ex: Mumetal
and Silicon Steel )
END OF PPT-2
IN
ALTERNATING CURRENT

BIBLIOGRAPHY: PREPARED BY:

I acknowledge that the contents are P.SARAVANAN
taken from NCERT Text book in PGT ( SS )
Physics for class XII ( 2020-21) AECS, MYSORE