The Ends of Human Act

INTRODUCTION
 The teacher will introduce to the students the importance of goal in our lives.

 The moral principles of ends explain how we can be more responsible with our actions

 The teacher explains:

Man does not act aimlessly. His every action is done for a purpose. The purpose of human acts is significant
because it defines the nature of an act and reveals the moral judgment of the doer.

The Meaning of End

The “end” is the purpose or goal of an act. It is either the end of the act itself or the end of the doer.

The end of the act is the natural termination or completion of an activity. The end of eating is nourishment; that
of reading is comprehension; that of the game of basketball is scoring a goal, and that of talking is communication.
Actions are identified by their natural end. The act of buying differs from the act of selling, although both involve the
exchange of a commodity. The act of stealing differs from the act of receiving a gift, although both actions put the doer
in possession of something.

The end of the doer is the motive or reason why a person performs an act. A person, for example, eats either to
appease hunger or to indulge his appetite. A housewife saves money because she wants to buy an appliance or to pay
for a vacation.

A person thinks first of a purpose before acting. When the purpose is accomplished the person ceases to act,
Hence, the motive is said to be “first in intention” but “last in execution”. Actions are the means for fulfilling a person’s
wishes or intentions.

Kinds of End

The end of the doer is either (1) proximate and remote, (2) intermediate and ultimate.

1. The proximate end is the purpose which the doer wishes to accomplish immediately. The remote end is the purpose
which the doer wishes to accomplish sometime later. The proximate end of eating is the satisfaction of hunger. Its
remote end is the promotion of one’s health.

2. The intermediate end is that which is sought as a means for obtaining another thing. The ultimate end is that which is
desired for its own sake. The intermediate end may either lead to another intermediate, or to an ultimate end. The
ultimate end completes an act and stops further activity.

A student may think of his graduation as his ultimate purpose. The series of activities which engage him in
school, like attending classes, writing reports, joining a club, and passing tests- are intermediate ends leading to the
ultimate end of obtaining an academic degree or diploma.

The ultimate end is the drive that moves a person to act and undertake even difficult and dangerous tasks. A
series of diverse actions finds meaning in relation to the ultimate end. Our routine daily activities, for instance, are
related to our ultimate desire to live.

Action and Motivation

The following principles describe human activity:

1. Every action is performed for the sake of a definite end or purpose. Man is a motivated animal. For him to act, he must
first have a motive. A motive may be instantaneous as when one stands up to answer the doorbell, or when one picks up
something from the floor. Some motives are modest and inconsequential. Some are significant and important.
An act done for a purpose is said to be deliberate or intentional. An act done without an intended purpose is said to be
accidental.

2. Every action is intended towards an ultimate end. Every action is a move to accomplish something. The concept of
action implies an ultimate end, which would satisfy the need of the doer. No sane person would take a bus without
wanting to go someplace. Every traveler has a final destination.

3. Every doer moves himself towards an end which he thinks suitable to him. Man does not wish anything except that
which is beneficial or suitable to him. Hence, every human act is a tendency towards what is good, because only what is
good is suitable to man. Nobody desires evil for its own sake. The desire for money, for example, induces a thief to steal.
Evil actions are done for the sake of attaining something good.

The End as Good

Man acts in order to obtain something good to himself. Therefore, the concept of good is synonymous to that of
end or purpose. Man does not desire evil for its own sake. Only what is good could be the end or purpose of an act,
either the ultimate end or the intermediate end.

Aristotle defines “Good” as “anything which fits or suits a function”. Food is good either because it suits one’s
taste, or the need for nourishment. Clothes are good because they fit the personality of the user, or they provide
comfort. In a higher level, actions are good when they fit the moral integrity of a person.

Those acts which fit human nature are said to be good. They are “makatao”. Those acts which are unfit to
human nature are evil. They are “hindi maka-tao”.

Aristotle teaches that because it is the soul which constitutes the essentiality of rational nature, the good that
truly fits man is that which fits the function of the soul. This means that human acts are good when they are consistent
with reason. Accordingly, we speak of actions as being in accordance or not with the “dictate of reason”.

Evil which is presented to the mind a something good is called an apparent good. For example, stealing is
desired as good because it is an opportunity for the thief to have something of value for himself. Crimes are committed,
because the criminals regard their evil acts as instrumental to getting something good. Thus, a student would cheat
during an examination in order to pass the subject. A politician would wish his rival candidate murdered because he
wants to win the election.

Kinds of Good

1. Essential and Accidental. An essential good satisfies the need of a human person as a human being. Food, clothing,
shelter, tools and education are essential goods. Accidental good is that which satisfies the want of a person because of
his particular situations. Expensive clothes, big house, a flashy car are personal wants of a rich man.

2. Real and Apparent. Real good is anything which has intrinsic value. These could be things, activities, relationships, or
persons. An apparent good is an evil which is viewed subjectively as something of value, such as cigarettes, prohibited
drugs and vices.

3. Perfective and Non-perfective. Perfective good is that which contributes to integral growth or development of a
person, such as education, virtue, food, sports, and medicines. Non-perfective good is anything which merely contribute
to the external appearance or convenience of a person, such as expensive clothes, money, title, or car.

4. Perfect and Imperfect. Anything lacking in some qualities is imperfect. All material things are imperfect. A perfect is a
real good endowed with all essential qualities needed to satisfy a need.

Perfection is either absolute or relative. An absolute perfection means complete in all aspects, which is what we
mean when speaking of a perfect circle or a perfect score. A relative perfection is complete only in some aspects.

INTERACTION:

 The teacher will ask the students to watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uGQBVkcM42Y

 The students will talk amongst themselves about the things that make them happy.

 The teachers will ask them to make a hierarchy of the things that make them happy.
The Greatest Good

Every human activity is a tendency towards the attainment of something good. Not only individual actions are
tending towards the acquisition of good, but human life itself, which is the sum of all activities, is a movement towards
the possession of the greatest good. The greatest good, or the “summum bonum” in the words of Scholastic
philosophers, is that which is perfect in itself and capable of satisfying all human desires. It is also the ultimate good,
because it is the absolutely final thing which is sought for its own sake.

The purpose of human existence is the attainment of the greatest good. The greatest good, according to
Aristotle, is happiness. He writes: “By absolutely final, we mean that which is sought for its own sake, and never as a
means to something else. Happiness seems to be something of that sort. We also pursue that for its intrinsic value,
never as a means; whereas we pursue honor, pleasure, wisdom, and all the virtues, both for their own sakes (we would
want them even if they lead to nothing further) and for the sake of happiness, since we think we shall attain happiness
by means of them. But no one wants happiness as a means to these other things, or indeed as a means to anything else
at all.

The Meaning of Happiness

Happiness is either objective or subjective. Objectively, happiness refers to something having intrinsic value and
capable of satisfying a human need. Subjectively, it is the psychological state of feeling contented resulting from the
attainment of that which is good in itself. The toy (objective) makes the child happy (subjective).

Happiness contributes to the perfection of a person. Hence, happiness is not just an emotion or something of
value but a state of being. It is the state of perfection arising from the possession of what is good. Just as the possession
of wealth makes an individual a rich man, the possession of the greatest good makes a person perfectly happy.

Now, which is the greatest good that would completely fill up all of man’s longing and desires.

What People Desire

1. Some people regard money or the acquisition of wealth as the ultimate aim of their life. While the desire is legitimate,
money does not satisfy human desire completely. The inordinate desire for riches makes one avaricious and greedy.
Wealth is a cause for worry for them who fear losing it.

2. Some people regard health and physical beauty as foremost in importance. Health, of course, is necessary because it
is a prerequisite to a productive life. But health and physical beauty are easily lost to illness and age.

3. Some people indulge themselves in worldly pleasures. But pleasures in themselves are limited by our natural capacity
for them. They do not last for long and often lead to unhappiness. Eating so much causes stomachache if not unwanted
weight or obesity. Imprudent indulgence in liquor, tobacco, drugs, or sex exposes one to illness and death.

4. Some people seek fame and power. But these things are as perishable as the admired flowers in a vase. Fame and
popularity can easily be tainted by a rumor of indiscretion. Power change hands as quickly and as often as the direction
of the wind.

5. Some people would want to dedicate themselves to the cultivation of science and arts. This is a worthy pursuit which
leaves a mark in the lives of other people. But knowledge is not useful unless it becomes an instrument for helping other
people.

6. Some people would consecrate themselves to the religious life. But the practice of religion and the cultivation of
virtues are aimed at attaining spiritual perfection.

Natural and Supernatural Happiness

Natural happiness is that which is attainable by man through the use of his natural powers. Supernatural
happiness is that which is attainable by man through his own powers aided by the infusion of grace from God.

Aristotle does not go by beyond earthly life in his dissertation on the ultimate end of man. Christian
philosophers, notably St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, teach that since man’s desire and tendency towards
happiness is unlimited, nothing short of the Absolutely Perfect Good can satisfy it fully. Therefore, only God in His
infinite goodness is the greatest good, the “summum bonum” of man. Man’s heart is restless until it rests in God, says
St. Augustine. But perfect or supernatural happiness is possible only in the afterlife.

“Natural happiness”, says Joseph Buckley, “consists in the perfection that can be attained by man through the
employment of his body and soul and the powers inherent in them: intellect, will, internal and external sensory powers,
sense appetites, locomotion, nutrition, and growth”.

The Ultimate Purpose

The ultimate purpose of human life is the possession of the absolutely greatest good. For Aristotle the object of
natural happiness is not a single good, but an aggregate of all the goods that fit the nature of man as such. The greatest
good in this earthly life consists of all values, both material and spiritual, which contribute to man’s development as a
human being. Because these goods are multiple and varied, man has to rank in a hierarchy, from the lowest to the
highest.

The highest good, according to Aristotle, pertains to the intellect. Thus, he proposes that the ultimate purpose
of man in life is the contemplation of truth. The fullness of knowledge is attainable through the practice of virtue.
Aristotle states that “Even if happiness is not sent from heaven, but comes through virtue and learning or training, it
seems that it is one of the most godlike things. The prize and end of virtue appears to be the best thing, something
godlike and blessed. Happiness will also be within the reach of everyone, since, through learning and exercise, it can be
obtained by all who are not totally corrupted as regards virtue.

It follows that perfect happiness which is absolute and lasting is not possible in this life, since man’s natural
powers are inadequate to fulfill his needs. The power of the human intellect fails to grasp the glory of God. But man may
approximate and anticipate perfect happiness by keeping faith, by loving God and by neighbor, and by practicing virtue.
Doing good is happiness in itself.

Ethical Theories

The inquiry on the ultimate purpose of human life is the central theme on Ethics. Some theories include.

1. Hidonism is based on the teachings of Epicurus who regards pleasure as the ultimate good of man. According to him,
pain is an evil to be avoided. And because some pleasures may also cause pain, one must be choosy about his pleasure.
Contrary to the popular notion, Epicurus does not recommend indulgence in sensual pleasures. But the word “hedonist”
is descriptive of a pleasure-seeking individual, “a low-life”.

2. Aristotelianism proclaims the supremacy of reason over man’s lower appetites. Thus, the highest good of man is the
contemplation of divine truths. The reasonable life is that which is in accordance with temperance, nothing by excess
and nothing by defect. This is the Golden Mean.

3. Thomism is based on the teachings of St. Thomas Aquinas. It holds that the ultimate purpose of man consists in the
Beatific Vision of God which, however, is possible only in the next life and only with the aid of supernatural grace.

4. Utilitarianism defines pleasure as that which gives the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. John
Stuart Mill, for example, says that pleasure itself is good, but even better when it is experienced by the most number of
people.

5. Evolutionism proceeds from the biological theories of Charles Darwin. According to him, the greatest good is the
rearing of the greatest number of individuals, with perfect faculties, under given circumstances. Accordingly, moral
values are factors of survival, either of the individual or that of society. Inspired by this theory, Communism looks
forward to the evolution of a “classless society”.

6. Existentialism laments the inadequacy of reason to guide man in the complexities of life. The attainment of personal
fulfillment which is the ultimate purpose of one’s life depends largely on one’s faith and personal conviction.
Existentialism is either theistic or atheistic. Notable existentialists are Blaise Pascal, Soren Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers, and
Jean Paul Sartre.

INTEGRATION

Write a reflection on the question: What will I do to attain the Summum Bonum?