Ol

PEACTICAL GEOMETRY
AND

ENGINEERING DRAWING.

BY

GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE,

LIEUTENANT ROYAL ENGINEERS, AND INSTRUCTOR IN GEOMETRICAL DRAWING AT THE ROYAL
INDIAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE, COOPERS HILL.

LONDON:
E. & F. N. SPON, 48, CHARING CROSS.
NEW YORK: 446, BROOME STREET.
1875.
SO I
PEEFACE.

The great importance of Descriptive Geometry, not merely as

an aid to the Draughtsman but as an instrument of education,
has never yet been fully recognised in this country. And yet
there are few subjects which call so many mental forces into

action, few subjects so well calculated to form a clear, vigorous,

and logical mind. A
mathematical problem may usually be
attacked by what is termed in military parlance the method of
"
systematic approach," that is to say, its solution may be gra-
dually felt for, even though the successive steps leading to that
solution cannot be clearly foreseen. But a Descriptive Geometry
problem must be seen through and through before it can be

attempted, the entire scope of its conditions as well as each step

towards its solution must be grasped by the imagination. It
"
must be taken by assault."
The want of a text book on the subject has been much felt
by the present writer in dealing with large numbers of students.
It was found impossible to keep a class of twenty-five fully
employed. Time was inevitably lost in explaining away small
individual difficulties and in setting problems suiting individual
cases. A text book was required which explained first principles

fully and systematically, which preserved a clear and logical

sequence throughout its pages, and which furnished examples

bearing directly on the subject-matter of each chapter. The time
available for this subject was very small, the required text book
must contain all tbat a finished Engineering Draughtsman would
require and no more. Existing works did not satisfactorily
meet the wants of the case. Some supposed the student to know
a 2
iv PREFACE.

too much, others gave him credit for knowing nothing. Some
went beyond the requirements of the Engineer, others fell far
short of those requirements. Some were mere collections of
problems, observing no apparent sequence.
The present work
is an attempt to course pre-
embody the Descriptive Geometry
scribed at Coopers Hill, and to meet the requirements of young

Engineers generally. Failing a thorough knowledge of the prin-

is
ciples of the subject, intelligent draughtsmanship obviously
as they do the
impossible, and those principles constituting
theory of drawing must (like all other theory) be studied
in

the abstract before they can be applied to actual practice.

Further, it is obviously desirable that in order to enable

the Draughtsman to meet the many and varied requirements
of his work, and to prevent him from breaking down in the
of
presence of exceptional conditions, the study of this theory
drawing should be carried somewhat farther than might at first
sight appear to be needed. Thus, although the immediate prac-
tical bearing of much of the contents of the present work may

not be at first apparent, it is nevertheless believed to contain

nothing with which every Engineer should not be conversant.

The main objects of the writer have been, to bring general
principles into prominence, to illustrate those principles by a
variety of problems fully explained, pointing out at the same
time any peculiarities worthy of remark ; and finally, to append
to each chapter a considerable number of problems, with occa-
sional hints as to their solution. The whole is
prefaced by a few
remarks on the use of drawing instruments, a few general rules,
and (as a help to instructors) a large number of problems in
Plane G-eometry, classed under various heads. To render the
work more complete, and in order that the directly practical
element not be wanting, a final chapter has been added,
may
containing general rules and conventions to be observed
in all

Engineering Drawings, and also some few hints as to lining,

colouring, printing, choice of instruments, &c, which it is hoped
PREFACE. V

will be found of value. Care has been bestowed on the plates

that they may be as far as possible examples of drawing and
not mere Euclid figures. By a strange irony, illustrations to
works of the kind are too often more fitted to serve as warnings
than as guides to the student. The two elements of success in
draughtsmanship are sound theory and continued practice. No
text book can supply the place of the latter, but due attention
to written instructions will at least save time and paper.

Coopebs Hill.
CONTENTS.

PLANE GEOMETKY.
CHAPTER I.

Drawing Instruments. Miscellaneous Examples. Lines. Lines and Circles.

Plane Figures. Parabola. Ellipse. Hyperbola. Cycloidal Curves. Spirals.
Miscellaneous Curves .. .. .. .. .. ..
Page 2

PRACTICAL SOLID GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER II.

OETHOGEAPHIC PEOJEOTION.
Points and Lines. Elementary Principles and Definitions. Problems. Ex-
amples .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 13

CHAPTER III.

LINES AND PLANES.

First Principles. Planes in various Positions. Problems. Projection of Plane
Polygons. Projection of Circles. Examples ..' .. .. 21

CHAPTER IY.
THE USE OF INDICES.
Principles and Advantages of the Method. Problems. Examples .. 37

CHAPTER Y.
THE PEOJEOTION OF SOLIDS.
Eegular Solids. Definitions. Surfaces of Ee volution.
Euled Surfaces. Conical,
Cylindrical, and Helicoidal Surfaces. Projection of various Solids in various
Positions. Projection of Screw Threads. Examples .. .. 44

CHAPTER YI.
SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY PLANES.
Definition of Terms. Section and Sectional Elevation. Sections by Vertical,
Horizontal, and Oblique Planes. Sections of Curved Surfaces by Planes.
Examples .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 58
Vlll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.

INTEEPENETEATION OF SOLIDS.
Solids contained by Planes by Curved Surfaces.
; Tangents to Curves of Double
Curvature. Development. Examples .. .. ..
Page 66

CHAPTER VIII.

TANGENT PLANES TO SUEFACES.

Problems. Examples .. .. .. .. .. .. 77

CHAPTER IX.
DETEBMLNATION OF SHADOWS.
Outlines of Shadows. Conventional Direction of Eays of Light. Shaded Por-
tions of Solids of Eevolution. Examples .. .. .. .. 84

CHAPTER X.
SHADE-LINES AND SHADING.
Shade-lines. Eules. Shading. Principles. Eules .. .. .. 97

CHAPTER XI.

ISOMETEIC PEOJECTION.
General Principles. Isometric Scales .. .. .. .. .. 102

CHAPTER XII.

ENGINEEEING DEAWINGS.
General Considerations and Eules. Pencilling. Lining. Shade-lines. Colour.
Table of Conventional Colours. Flat Washes. Shading Machinery.
Colouring Sections. Printing .. .. .. .. .. 107

APPENDIX.
SELECTION OF DEAWING INSTEUMENTS, ETC.
Needle points. Bows. Dividers. Napier Compasses. Proportional Compasses.
Drawing Pens. Sharpening Drawing Pens. Dotting Pens. Parallel

Eiders .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 115
PEACTICAL GEOMETKY.

PLANE GEOMETEY.
INTRODUCTION.
Practical Plane Geometry has two main objects, viz. objects of
:

03 '
1st. The solution of problems of all kinds by graphic pkn"
Geometry.
methods, i.e. by pure construction.
2nd. The delineation of the various figures and curves
which occur in the Arts and are required in engineering drawing
generally.
Considered in the first sense Practical Plane Geometry pre-
sents a wide field of operations and one which is
being gradually
extended by French and German Geometricians so as to compre-
hend a large number of statical and dynamical problems before
treated by analytical methods solely. On the other hand, the
constant recurrence of purely geometrical forms in every branch
of engineering drawing and in that of machinery in particular,
renders a knowledge of the subject essential to the practical

draughtsman.
The present work being intended mainly as a note-book
" Practical Solid " or " "
of Descriptive Geometry, it has been
thought advisable merely to propound a considerable number of
plane geometrical problems and to leave them to be worked by
the student with the assistance and at the discretion of an
instructor. A few remarks on drawing instruments generally
and a few rules of universal application are given, as likely to
be of value to beginners.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER I.

PLANE GEOMETRY.
Instruments.
The following instruments are necessary for geometrical
drawing :

Drawing pens. Two drawing pens, one for fine and the other for thick

lines. is required in their use and treatment.

Great care They
should be held steadily and at a constant angle to the paper.
The ink must be introduced between the nibs by means of a
small brush or the feather of a quill pen, and as soon as it begins
to thicken the points should be wiped clean with blotting-paper

previous to refilling. After use drawing pens should be carefully

wiped with wash-leather.
" "
Large Two pairs of compasses, one smaller for use as dividers
compasses.

only, in transferring lengths from scales, setting off distances,

&c. the other larger, with a movable limb which can be replaced
;

at pleasure by an ink or pencil leg. These latter compasses

should have needle points. In using dividers care must be
taken not to make holes in the paper, a very slight indent being
all that is necessary to mark a point.
Small Two
small compasses, one having a fixed pencil and the
compasses.
other a fixed pen leg. These are required for drawing small
pencil and ink circles. Both should have needle points and
jointed limbs. In drawing circles the jointed limbs of the

compasses should be bent so as to stand at right angles to the

paper.
Spring bows. Spring dividers and bows will also be found useful when
small distances have to be accurately transferred to the paper or

very small pencil aud ink circles to be drawn. The distance

between the points of these spring dividers and bows is regu-
lated by a screw, which prevents them from spreading, keeps
PLANE GEOMETRY. 3

them fixed at any required radius and allows of an easier and

more exact adjustment to that radius.
Two " set
large right-angled triangles, called squares," made Set squares.

of pearwood or ebonite, one having an

angle of 60, the other of
45. These are used in drawing lines parallel, perpendicular,
and at 30, 45, and 60 to each other.
"
A T square," suited to the size of the drawing board, one T square.
" "
of 30 inches, to be used with an imperial (30" x 22") board,
will be found most generally useful.
An ivory " protractor " for setting off angles of any given Protractor,
number of degrees. The latter also combines diagonal scales of
quarter inches and half inches decimally divided, a plain scale
of chords and a variety of other useful scales.
An ivory sector, combining double scales of lines, chords, sector,
sines, tangents, secants, &c, will be found useful in facilitating a
variety of operations, by saving the trouble of construction.
Pencils of the class HH
are best suited for mechanical Pencils,

drawing generally and for geometrical drawing proper a fine

point is much to be preferred to a chisel-shaped one.

Colours, saucers, Indian ink and brushes are indispensable, colours &c.

Whatman's " cold pressed." papcr-

1. Make every
construction as large as the limits of your General Rules.

paper allow and bestow all possible care on the pencilling,

remembering that in no case is it likely that pencil errors will
be obviated in the after inking in.
2. In drawing a line through a point be sure that it does

actually pass through the point ; small errors are multiplied in

any long construction and may materially affect results.
3. Draw no more lines than are absolutely
necessary, a
large number of lines tend to confuse a drawing and lead to
mistakes in inking.
4. As a rule, ink in circles or circular arcs before straight

lines, as the latter are more easily drawn to meet the former than
vice versd.

b 2
4 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

5. When many concentric circles are required, use a horn

centre to protect the paper, otherwise those drawn last are sure
to be eccentric.

6. Avoid acute intersections whether of lines or arcs in

determining a point; i.e. if a point is to be determined on a line

by the intersection of a second line, the latter should not make a

lessangle than 30 with the former, otherwise the point deter-
mined cannot be depended upon.
Never make a heavy pencil dot to distinguish a
7.
point,
but surround it by a light pencil ring, or place a letter

it.
against
8. Use bread in preference to indiarubber in cleaning a

drawing.
9. Take the greatest pains in rubbing Indian ink. No
drawing can look well if its lines are not perfectly black. Ink
should be tried before using by drawing a line on a piece of
waste paper and smearing it with the finger if the smear pre-;

sents a brown appearance, the ink is insufficiently rubbed. After

sufficient blackness has been attained, the quality and uniformity
of the ink is
improved by working it up again with a piece
of cork kept for the purpose. Lines drawn with properly
rubbed ink have an unmistakable glaze on drying.
10. Before using a drawing pen or the pen leg of a compass,

try them on a piece of waste paper, to make sure that they are
set to the strength of line or arc required.
11. As a rule, in inking in a problem, let the data be shewn
in fine continuous lines, the construction in fine dotted lines, and
the results in continuous dark lines.
PLANE GEOMETRY. 5

>
Miscellaneous Problems.

In the following problems the data have been made as com-

plete as possible; in some cases, however, it is more desirable
that they should be assumed by the student or indicated by the
instructor.

LINES. Problems.
Lines.

1. Prom a given point draw a perpendicular to a given line.

2. Through a given point draw a line parallel to a given line.
(Point 2-3" from line.)
3. Divide a given line into any number of equal parts.
(Line 3", 7 parts.)
4. Divide a line in given proportion.
(Lines 3-75", 8 : 5 :
3.)

5. Determine a third proportional to two given lines.

(Lines 2-35", 3-15".)

6. Determine a mean proportional to two given lines.
(Lines 1-63" and 2-2".)
7. Determine the harmonic mean to two given lines.

(Lines 1-4" and 3".)

8. Determine a fourth proportional to three given lines.
(Lines 3 -92", 3", and 2 -7".)
9. Divide a line in extreme and mean ratio.

(Line 3-2".)
10. Divide a line in harmonic proportion and in a given ratio.

(Line 3-5", ratio 2-9: 1-2.)

11. Determine *J% jJZ, Jh, V6, &c, a given line being taken as unity.
12. Draw a line bisecting the angle between two lines whose intersection is

unavailable.
13. Draw a line through a given point to pass through the intersection of two

given lines.

(The unit to be assumed in the five following examples is 1".)

14. Determine the value of x in the following equations.

/2 /10 /V 8 /2V3

15. Find the angle between the two lines whose equations are x + y = 1,

y = x+ 2.
6 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

16. Find the angle between the lines x + y J 3 = 0, and x y J 3 = 2.

17. Find the length of the perpendicular from the point 1, 2, on the line
x + y
- 4 = 0.

18. Draw the lines represented by the equation f 4xy + 3 *

= 0.

Lines ami LINES AND CIECLES.

circles.

19. Draw the arc of a circle passing through three given points, without

using the centre.

(Points ^ g .

^ and 2 5 .
apart)

20. Draw
the tangent at any point to a circular arc ;
the centre being
unavailable.
supposed fts No (Ar(j b ig>)

21. Draw two tangents to a given circle from an outside point.

(Circle 1-25" rs., pt. 3" from cr.)

22. Draw tangents to two given circles.

(Circles 1-25" and -75" rii., crs. 3" apart.)

23. Between two given lines, not parallel, draw a series of circles touching
each other and the lines.
24. Draw a continuous curve formed of circular arcs, passing through any
number of given points.
25. On a given line describe the segment of a circle containing a given angle.
(Line 2", angle 55.)
26. Draw a circle touching two given circles and passing through a given

point. and
(Circles 1 25" 75" rii., crs. 2 5 apart.)

27. Draw a circle passing through a given point and touching two given lines
not parallel.
28. Draw a circle touching two given circles, one of them in a given point.

(Data as in No. 27.)

29. Draw circles touching three given unequal circles.

(Circles 1", l 25",

-
1*55" rii., centres at the angles of an equilateral triangle
of 3" side.)
30. Draw a circle touching a given circle and a given line and passing through
a given point external to both.

(Circle 1" rs., line 1-68" from cr.)

31. Draw a circle touching a given circle and line, the latter in a given point.
(Data as in No. 30.)
32. Draw a circle touching a given circle and line, the former in a given point.

(Data as in No. 30.)

33. Draw a circle passing through two given points and touching a given line.

(Points 1" and 1 5" from lino and 2" apart.)

PLANE GEOMETRY. 7

34. Draw a circle passing through two given points and cutting a given circle
in the extremities of a diameter.

(Circle 1-5" rs., pts. 1-3" and 1- 75" from cr. and 2-5" apart.)
35. Draw a series of circles touching a given line, a given circle and each
other -

(Circle 1 85" rs., line 2 85" from cr.)

Draw a circle of given radius passing through a given point and touching

^
36.
a given circle.
(Circle j 5
.

^ rg r)
37. Draw a circle of given radius touching two given circles,
/lst. Given rs. 1", circles 1-3" and -75" rii., crs. 2-6" apart. \

\2nd. 3 , J
38. Draw a circle of given radius touching a given line and a given circle.
line 2-75" from cr., given rs. 1-5".)
(Circle 1-75" rs.,
39. Inscribe within a given circle three equal semicircles having their

diameters adjacent.
^
Cirde 2 ^
40. From two given external points draw two lines meeting in a point of the
circumference of a given circle and making equal angles with the tangent at that
point. 4" and 3-5" from and 4" apart.)
(Circle 2" rs., pts. cr.

41. Chords are drawn through a given point to a given circle, and tangents
are drawn at the extremities of each chord. Show that the locus of intersection
of these tangents is a straight line.

(Circle 2" rs., pt. 3" from cr.)

42. Determine the intersection of the circle y? + a? = 16 with the lines

y + x=\,y+x= -3, 3^ + 4a; = -15 (unit -5").

PLANE FIGUEES. Plane figures.

43. Construct a triangle, given its perimeter and the ratios of its angles.
7 9" ; angles as 2 : 3 : 4.)
(Perimeter
44. Construct a triangle, given one side A
B, the altitude and the angle C.
B altitude 2-8", angle C 60)
(A 4",

45. Construct a triangle, given the radius of its inscribed circle and two
of its angles.
^ of circle 1
.

g^
o
angles 50 and 65
o
)

46. Construct a triangle, given its

perimeter, altitude, and vertical angle.

(Perimeter 7-5", altitude 2-2",

vertl. angle 65.)

47. Construct an equilateral triangle of given area.

(Area 2 4 sqre. inches.)

48. Construct a triangle, given the area and the ratio of its angles.
as 2 3
(Area 5 sqre. inches, angles
: :
4.)
8 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

49. Reduce an irregular figure to a triangle.

(Figure 8 sides, no side to be less than 1".)
50. Divide an irregular figure into any number of equal parts by lines
drawn through one of its angles.

(Figure 9 sides, no side less than 1", 10 equal parts.)

51. Divide a triangle into two equal parts by a line parallel to one side.

(Triangle 3", 2-5", 3-7" sides.)

52. Divide a triangle into two equal parts by a line perpendicular to one

(Data as in No. 51, line perpr. to longest side.)

53. Divide a triangle into two equal parts by a line passing through a given
external point.

(Triangle as in No. 51, point 1 5" from each extremity of shortest side.)
54. Inscribe any regular polygon in a given circle.
(Es. of given circle 1'75", polygon a nonagon.)
55. Construct a regular polygon of given side.

(Side 1 5", polygon a heptagon.)

56. Construct a regular polygon equal to an irregular four-sided figure.

(Sides of figure 1-75", 3-5", 2-5", 3-3", diagonal 4-25", polygon a pentagon.)
57. Inscribe a square in a trapezium having equal adjacent sides.

(Sides 1-5" and 2-5", diagonal 2-5".)

58. Construct a triangle equal to, and having its base on the same line as, a

given triangle, but with its vertex in a given pt.

(Triangle equilateral, 2 75" side.)
59. Eeduce an irregular four-sided figure to a square of equal area.
(Figure as in No. 56.)

60. Construct an octagon by cutting off the angles of a square.

(Square 2-5" side.)
61. Inscribe a square in a given triangle.

(Triangle 2", 3", and 3-6" sides.)

62. Construct a parallelogram equal to a given triangle in area and perimeter.
as in No. 61 ; parallelogram to have an angle of 60'.)
(Triangle
63. Divide a circle into any number of parts, equal in area and perimeter.

(Es. of circle 2", 5 parts.)

64. Construct a rectilinear figure, whose area shall have a given proportion
to that of a given rectilinear figure.

(The figures to be similar.)

65. Construct a square equal to a regular polygon.

(Polygon a hexagon of 2" side.)

66. Inscribe in a given circle a rectangle of maximum area.

(Circle 2" rs.)

PLANE GEOMETRY. 9

67. Inscribe three circles in a given isosceles

triangle.
(Triangle 3", 4" and 4" sides.)
68. Describe a circle two given
equal in area to the difference of circles.

(Eadii of circles 2-5" and 1".)

69. Describe a circle equal to the sum of two given circles.
(Eadii of circles -75" and -5".)
70. Construct a
regular polygon equal to a given regular polygon, but with
one side more. /T> . . " ..
, -,,
(Polygon, heptagon 1 3 side.)

THE PARABOLA. The parabola.

71. Draw a parabola, given the focus and directrix.

(Focus 2" from directrix.)

72. Draw
a parabola, given the ordinate to the axis at any point, the
tangent
and one other point on the curve.
at this point,

(Ordinate and tangent inclined at 60, point 2" from tangent and 1*5" from
ordinate.)
73. Determine a tangent and normal at any point to a parabola.

(Parabola as in No. 71.)

74. Draw a parabola touching a given circle in a given point and such that
its axis touches the circle in another given point.

(Circle 1 5" rs., pts. at the extremities of a chord 3 75" long.)

75. If a triangle be inscribed in a parabola, shew that the points in which
the sides produced cut the tangents at the opposite angles are in the same

straight line.
(Parabola as in No. 71.)

THE ELLIPSE. The ellipse.

76. Draw an ellipse, given the major and minor axes.

(Axes 4" and 2-5".)

77. Draw an given two conjugate diameters.
ellipse,

(Diameters 4" and 3", inclined at 55.)

78. Draw a tangent and normal at any point to an ellipse.

(Ellipses as in Nos. 76 and 77.)

79. Draw tangents from any external point to an ellipse.
80. Given the conjugate diameters of an ellipse, determine the axes.

(Diameters as in No. 77.)

81. Determine the centre and radius of curvature at any point of an ellipse
and draw the evolute of one quadrant.
(Ellipse as in No. 76.)
C
10 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

82. Given a diameter and one ordinate of an ellipse, determine the con-
jugate diameter.
83. Inscribe an ellipse in a given trapezium.
(Trapezium 2", 2-2", 4", and 4-5" sides, diagonal 8-5".)

84. Draw a curve formed of circular arcs with five centres, approximating to
a half ellipse. .

(gpan 4 versine j 6 }

85. Given the foci, describe an ellipse touching a given line.

(Foci 3" apart.)

86. A diameter of an ellipse, parallel to the tangent at any point, meets the
focal distances of the point. From
the points of intersection lines are drawn

perpendicular to the focal distances. Shew that these perpendiculars intersect

in the minor axis.
(Axes of ellipse 5" and 3".)

The hyperbola. THE HYPEEBOLA.

87. Draw a hyperbola, given the vertex and foci.

(Foci -75" and 2-25" from vertex.)

88. Draw a rectangular hyperbola, given the centre and the vertex.

(Vertex 2" from centre.)

89. Draw a tangent and normal at any point, to a hyperbola.

(Hyperbola as in No. 87.)

90. Draw a tangent to a hyperbola from any point outside the curve.

(Hyperbola as in No. 87.)

91. Determine the asymptotes of a hyperbola whose vertex and foci are given
and draw the conjugate hyperbola.
(Given hyperbola as in No. 87.)

Cycloidal CTCLOIDAL CURVES.

carves.
92. Draw a cycloid.
(Es. of generating circle 1".)
93. Determine the tangent and normal to a cycloid at any point.
(Cycloid as in No. 92.)
94. Draw the trochoid described by a point within the generating circle.

(Es. of generating circle 1-25", pt. *75" from its centre.)

95. Draw the trochoid described by a point without the generating circle.

(Es. of generating circle 1", pt. 1*5" from centre.)

96. Draw the epicyc'oid.

(Es. of directing circle 2 "5", rs. of generating circle 1".)

97. Draw the hypocycloid.
(Data as in No. 96.)
PLANE GEOMETRY. 11

98. Shew that the hypocycloid becomes a straight line when the diameter of
the generator is half that of the director.

(Es. of director 2".)

99. Shew that the hypotrochoid becomes an ellipse when the diameter of
the generating circle is half that of the director.

(Es. of director 2".)

SPIEALS. Spirals .

100. Draw the involute of a given circle to pass through a given point.

(Es. of circle 1-5", pt. "3-4" from cr.)

101. Draw the spiral, the distance of any point. of which from the pole is

directly proportional to the angle made by the radius with the axis. (Spiral of
Archimedes.)
cut the axis after one convolution, at a point l 5" from the
-

(The spiral to
pole.)

102. Draw
the spiral, the distance of any point of which from the pole is

proportional to the square of the angle made by the radius with the axis.
(The curve to cut the axis after one convolution at a point 75" from the

pole.)
103. Draw the spiral, the radius at any point of which varies inversely as the

angle it makes with a fixed axis. (The Eeciprocal spiral.)

(Asymptote 5" from pole.)
104. Draw the Equiangular or Logarithmic spiral.

(Greatest diameter 5", pole 3" from the extremity of the diameter.)
105. Draw the Ionic Volute.

(Greatest radius 3-25".)

MISCELLANEOUS. Miscellaneous.

106. Draw the Companion to the cycloid.

(Eadius of circle 1".)

107. Draw the Harmonic curve.

(Height 1-5".)
108. Draw the Lemniscate, given the length and height.

(Length 3", height 1".)

109. Draw the Cissoid.

(Pole 2" from asymptote.)

110. Draw
the superior and inferior Conchoid.
1" from asymptote. Portion of radius vector intercepted between the
(Pole
curve and its asymptote 1 25".)
c 2
12 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

PKACTICAL SOLID GEOMETKY.

INTRODUCTION.

D^ftive ^HE ma * n 0DJ ect of "Practical Solid" or " Descriptive" Geometry

Geometiy. j s ^ e investigation of methods by which bodies of three dimen-
sions of various forms and in various positions can be correctly
represented on paper." Of such methods two only, "Orthographic
" " Isometric
Projection and Projection," have any real value for
the engineering draughtsman these methods alone are therefore
;

treated in the following pages.

Besidesabove directly practical use, Descriptive Geometry
its

affords means of correctly representing various complex

a
curved surfaces and of "deducing and verifying a variety
of theorems resulting from their forms and relative positions."

Descriptive Geometry is in this sense the servant of Analytical

Geometry of three dimensions. The subject frequently presents
considerable difficulties to beginners; these arise chiefly from a
want of imagination. The single plane of the paper has often to
do duty for several planes variously inclined to it and it is not

easy at first to imagine the latter in their true relative positions.

The student is particularly advised to obtain a complete mastery
of first principles and to accustom his mind to the realization of
the actual positions of points and lines only, before proceeding
farther. It may be added, that a thorough knowledge of the

elements of Descriptive Geometry is absolutely essential to in-

telligent draughtsmanship. A mere unreasoning acquaintance
with a few general rules sure to prove insufficient in the pre-
is

sence of any slightly exceptional conditions. For the student's

practice each succeeding chapter is followed by problems bearing,
as far as possible, on those explained in that chapter.
POINTS AND LINES. 13

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.

CHAPTER II.

POINTS AND LINES.

The position of a point in space is determined if its situation
Theorem 1.

with respect to two fixed planes is known.

The two fixed planes are assumed horizontal and vertical
respectively and the position of any point with respect to these
planes is obtained by dropping a perpendicular on each of them
from that point.
The two planes are termed " Co-ordinate Planes," or " Planes Definition*,

of Projection." The perpendiculars dropped on them from any Planes of

"
point, Projectors," and the intersection of these perpendiculars Projectors',
" "
with the planes, of that point.
Projections Projections.

Further, the intersection of the xperpendicular with the hori- Plan ^

elevation.
_
"
zontal plane (i. e. the horizontal projection) is termed the Plan,"
and the intersection of the perpendicular with the vertical plane
(i.e. the vertical projection) is termed the "Elevation" of the
point.
The intersection of the planes of projection is called the
"Ground Line," or xy, and the four right angles formed by these Ground line,
" 1

intersecting planes are spoken of as Dihedral Angles." trie's

The above definitions should be clearly understood and

carefully remembered.
A clear notation is essential to render a complicated con- Notation,

struction intelligible and to prevent confusion arising between

plan and elevation. It

is usual to
designate a point in space by
a large alphabetical letter, e.g. A, denoting its plan by the corre-

sponding small letter a, and its elevation by a'. A

point given
by its projections a, a' would therefore be spoken of, either as the
14 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

point A, or as the point a a'. A

second or third elevation of the
same point -would consistently be denoted by a", a'".
L
Fig. 1, PI.
Fig. 1, PI. gives an end view of the two planes of pro-
I.,

jection; four points, A, B, C, D, are situate one in each of the

dihedral angles, and following the above notation their eleva-
tions are lettered a', b', c', d', and their plans a, b, c, d. But
inasmuch as the paper presents only one available plane, we
must suppose the vertical plane to rotate into coincidence with the
horizontal plane, carrying with it the elevations a', b', c', d'. The
arrows and arcs in Fig. 1 shew the direction in which this
rotation is
supposed to take place.
Kg. 2, PI. I. In Fig. 2 we have the accurate representation of the same
points, A, B, C, D, when the planes of projection have been
brought into coincidence. It is most important that this figure
should be clearly understood, as it forms the basis of the whole

subjectof Orthographic Projection. The student is therefore

recommended before going farther to bend up a piece of paper,
so as toform two planes at right angles and then, after marking
the projections of an imaginary point, to turn the paper down
into one plane again. Fig. 2 also shews the use of a notation
distinguishing plan and elevation in enabling us to see at a
glance in which of the four dihedral angles any given point lies.
The point A is, as may be seen by referring to Fig. 1, in the first

angle, that is to say, above the horizontal and in front of the

vertical plane the point B is in the second angle, i. e. above the
;

horizontal and behind the vertical plane while C is in the third ;

angle, i. e. below the horizontal and behind the vertical plane, and
D is in the fourth angle, i. e. below the horizontal and in front of
the vertical plane. The following important points may now be
noticed :

Theorem 2. The plan and any point must always lie in a

elevation of
line at right angles to theground line e.g. a a! (Fig. 2.) ;

Theorem 3. The distance of the plan of any point from the ground line is
always equal to the distance of the point from the vertical plane ;
POINTS AND LINES. 15
i

e.g. a a (Fig. 2) is equal to a o (Fig. 1), and therefore equal to

A a' (Fig. 1), and A a' is the distance of A from the vertical plane.
The distance of the elevation of any point from the ground Theorem 4.
line is equal to the height of the point ahove the horizontal
plane ;
e.
g. a' a (Fig. 2) is
equal to a' o (Fig. 1), and therefore to
A a, and Aa is the height of the point A
ahove the horizontal
plane.
All points in the vertical plane have their plans in the Thoorem 5.

ground line g. the point E (Fig. 2).

;
e.

All points in the horizontal plane have elevations in the Theorem 6.

ground line ; e. g. the point Gr (Fig. 2).

When a point is in the ground line the plan and elevation Theorem 7.

coincide ; e. g. the point (Fig. 2). H

If the plan and the elevation of any point on one vertical

plane is given, any number of elevations on different vertical

planes can be readily deduced.

Thus, in Fig. 2, the line z z is assumed as the ground line of
a new vertical plane, and the elevations (a", b", c", &c.) of the

original points on this second plane are determined. To effect

this it is merely draw perpendiculars from the plans

necessary to
of all the points to the new ground line and then set off the
distances a' a, b' fS, &c, from this ground line on these perpend-
iculars. These distances must of course he set off on the same side

of the ground line as the plans or not, according as the points

are below or above the horizontal plane.

Lines.
ons
The Projections of a straight line are made up of the
^jj,
projections of
all its and as the Projectors of all points on
points,
a straight line must be contained by planes passing through the
line and at right angles to the planes of projection, the inter-

section of the perpendicular planes and planes of projection must

be the projections of the line. Hence the projections of all
straight lines are straight
lines.
16 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

Projecting The perpendicular planes containing the projectors of all

plane.

points on a line are termed the projecting planes of the line. In

'
'
the case of a curved line the projecting plane is replaced by a
curved surface, termed the projecting surface of the curve.
All lines parallel to neither plane of projection must meet both.
Traces The point in which a line cuts the vertical plane of projec-
of a line.
tion is termed the vertical trace, and that in which it cuts the
horizontal plane the horizontal trace of the line.
A line parallel to one of the planes of projection has
therefore a trace on the other.
A both planes of projection has no trace.
line parallel to

A line parallel to neither plane of projection has a trace

on each.
A little thought will render the following theorems evident.
Theorem 8. A line parallel to both planes of projection has both its
projections parallel to the ground line.
Theorem 9. Aline parallel to one plane of projection has its projection
on the other plane parallel to the ground line.
Theorem 10. A line at right angles to one plane of projection has for
its projection on that plane a point and on the other a line per-
pendicular to the ground line.
Theorem 11. A
line passing through the ground line has its projections
meeting in a point of the ground line.
Theorem 12. The projection of a finite line on any parallel plane is an
equal line.
Theorem 13. The projection of a finite line on any plane oblique to its
direction is less than the line and decreases as the inclination of
the line to the plane increases in fact, if L be the length of any
;

line in space, I its projection on

any plane and 6 the inclination
of the line to the plane, then I = L cos. 6.
Theorem 14. The projection of any plane angle on a parallel plane is an
equal angle.
Theorem 15. The projections on any plane of equal parallel lines are
themselves equal and parallel.
POINTS AND LINES. 17

Fig. L, shews the projections of lines in six different

3, PI. Fig. 3, pi. 1.

positions with respect to the planes of projection.

A line parallel to both planes. case 1.

A line parallel to the vertical and inclined to the horizontal Case 11.

plane.
A line inclined to the vertical and parallel to the horizontal Case in.

plane.
A line perpendicular to the vertical and parallel to the Case iv.

horizontal plane.
A line parallel to the vertical and perpendicular to the Case v.

horizontal plane.
A line passing through the ground line and inclined to Case vi.

both planes of projection.

Figs. 4 and 5, PI. II., shew lines in two different positions Fi gs . 4, 5,

inclined to both planes of projection.

Given the projections of a line, to determine its traces. Problem 1.

The horizontal trace of a line is by definition a point in the

horizontal plane, hence itselevation must be on the ground line.
But as the horizontal trace is a point on the line itself, its eleva-
tion must be on the elevation of the line. Therefore the point in
which the elevation of the line cuts the ground line must be the
elevation of the horizontal trace ;
a line drawn from this point

perpendicular to the ground line and cutting the plan will give
this trace. By similar reasoning it is evident that the vertical
trace is determined by producing the plan to meet the ground
line,and drawing a line from this point perpendicular to the
ground line and cutting the elevation.
The horizontal and vertical traces of the lines given in Figs. 4, 5,
. pi. 11.

Figs. 4 and 5,
PI. II., are determined by this construction, and
lettered h t and v t
respectively.
Given the projections of a line, to determine the real Problem 11.
length of the segment between any two points on it, and also
its inclination to the horizontal and vertical plane.
A and B given by their projections a a', b b', are the two Fig. 6, pi. ii.
points. Now the real line A B, its plan a b, and the projectors of
D
18 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

the points A and B form a trapezium in space, of the form shewn

Fig- 7. in Fig. 7. In this trapezium the side a b is the plan of the line
A B, A a is the projector of A and therefore equal to a' a (Theor.

4), and similarly Bb is equal to b' ft (Fig. 6). Now if in this

trapezium a line Bh
be supposed to be drawn parallel to a b,
the angle 6 will evidently be the angle made by the line B A
with the horizontal plane, and the solution of the right-angled
triangle ABA will give the length A B and the angle 6. But in

this triangle the base h B is equal to a b, and the side A

A is equal
to the difference between A a and B b, or the difference between
the heights of the points A and B in This difference is
space.

equal to the line a' h' (Fig. 6). Hence if in Fig. 6 a line a isA
drawn at right angles to a b and equal to a' h', then
A and b being
joined give the angle 6 and the line b equal to in space.A AB
The trapezium A
a b B was of course merely alluded to for expla-
nation, the complete construction being given in Fig. 6. The
construction for finding the inclination of to the vertical AB
plane will be of course exactly similar, the line b'B
at right

angles to a! V being made equal to a g (the difference between

the vertical projectors of A
and B), <f> will be the inclination of
A B to the vertical plane. It is hardly necessary to notice that
a' B (or A
b) is the real length of the line B. A
The student is recommended to master the above problem

thoroughly, as it involves several important elementary

principles.

Pro- Given the length A

B of a finite line and also its inclina-
biem in.
t i 0n8 t the planes of projection, to determine its plan and
elevation.
This problem is merely the converse of Prob. II. We have
given a'B (or A b), 6 and (Fig. 6). Now a' B and determine
<f>

a'b', and aB and 6 determine ab, while b'B determines ag, and
a A determines a' h The
point a a! must be assumed, as it in
nowise enters into the conditions of the problem, for the lengths
of the plan and elevation of a line and its angles of inclination
POINTS AND LINES. 19

remain unchanged if the line is moved in any direction parallel

to itself (Theor. 15).
The sum
of the inclinations of a line to two planes at right Theorem 16.

angles to each other can never exceed 90, and it attains this
maximum when the line lies in a plane perpendicular to both
planes.
Draw a line through, a given point parallel to a given line. Pro-
The projections of the line required will be parallel to those
of the given line (Theor. 15) and must pass through those of the

given point. In Fig. 4, PI. II., a line is drawn through pp' fig. i, pi. ii.

parallel to the line A B.

Determine the angle contained between two lines. Problem v.
[N.B. If both the lines are parallel to one of the planes of pro-
jection, then the angle contained by their projections on this plane
will be the angle required (Theor. 14).] a b, a' V and c d, c'd' (Fig.

8, PI. II.) are two lines intersecting in i i'. Determine their hori-
zontal traces h *,,
h t2 (Prob. I.). Then evidently the angle h tx I, ,

h the angle required.

t2 , is To determine this angle of which the
angle h tu i, h t2 , is the plan, join h tu h t2 and suppose the tri-
,

angle h t[, I, h t2 to rotate down into the horizontal plane about

,

this line. The point I will evidently come down into the hori-
zontal plane on the prolongation of the perpendicular ip drawn
from i to the line of rotation h tx , h t2 ; to determine I therefore
we have only to determine the real length of the line of which ip
is the plan.The height of I is given by its elevation i' (Theor. 4)
and is equal to
i' a.
Making i i" at right angles to ip equal to i' a,
i"p is the real length of ip. Produce p i to I, make p I equal to
i" p, then joining I, ht u and I, ht2 the angle ht lf I, ht 2 is the
, ,

angle contained by the lines A B, CD.

d 2
20 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

EXAMPLES.
1. Determine the projections of points in the following respective positions.
a. 2" above horizontal plane ;
1 6" in front of vertical plane.
b. 1-6" below 2"
c. 2-25" above 1-75" behind
. d. 1-75" below 2-25" in front of
e. 1 75" above horizontal plane ; behind vertical plane and 3" from
ground line.

/. Below horizontal plane 1 75" in front of vertical

;
plane and 2 75"
from xy. (Theors. 2, 3, 4, and Fig. 2.)
2. Two
points are situated 2" and 1" from both planes of projection respec-
tively, their plans are3" apart. Determine the length of the line joining them
and the angles it makes with the planes of projection. (Theor. 13 and Prob. II.)
3. Assume the projections of a point 2" from the horizontal and 2 5" from

the vortical plane, and draw from this point a line 4" in length meeting the ground
line. (Theor. 13.)
4. Assume a point 2*5" from the horizontal and 2" from the vertical plane
and draw from it a line 4" long inclined at 20 and 35 to those planes
respec-
tively. (Theor. 13.)
5. A line is inclined at 25 and 40 to the horizontal and vertical planes re-

spectively, its traces are 4" apart. Determine its projections. (Theor. 13, Prob.
I.)
6. An equilateral triangle of 2" side is the plan of a triangle whose angles
are 1", 2", 3", respectively above the horizontal plane. Determine an elevation
of this triangle on a vertical plane, making 30 with the plan of one of its sides.
Determine also the real form of the triangle. (At starting draw the equilateral
triangle so that one side makes 30 with x y. Then apply Theor. 4 and Prob. II.)
7. A parallelogram (sides 2-5" and 2", shorter inclined 30 to x y) is the plan
of a square of 3" side. One angle of this square is 2" above the horizontal plane.
Draw the elevation of the square, and deduce a second elevation on a new ground
line inclined (Theors. 13 and 4.)
40 to x y.
8. Assume the
projections of any three points unequally distant from the
planes of projection and forming a triangle in space. Determine a fourth point, in
the same plane with the three assumed points and 2" and 3" from the horizontal
and vertical planes respectively. (On each of two sides, produced if necessary, of
the triangle obtained by joining the three assumed points, determine a point 2"
from the horizontal plane. Theor. 4. On the line joining the two points thus
obtained, determine a point 3" from the vertical plane. Theor. 3.)
9. Two lines inclined to the horizontal plane at angles of 20 and 35 respec-
tively are drawn from a point situated 2" from both planes of projection. The
plans of these lines are inclined at 115 to each other. Determine the real
angle included by the lines. (Prob. V.)
10. The plan and elevation and 45 respectively
of a line are inclined at 35
to x y. The horizontal trace of the line is 2" from the vertical plane. Draw a
second line inclined at 30 and making 70 with the first. (Converse of Prob. V.)
LINES AND PLANES. 21

CHAPTER III.

LINES AND PLANES.

The lines in which a plane cuts the planes of projection are
"
termed the " traces of that plane, and since evidently no two Traces

planes can have the same traces, the position of a plane in space is Theorem 17.

fully determined if its traces are known. The rotation of the

vertical plane of projection about the ground line into coincidence
with the horizontal plane is
supposed to take place as explained
in Chap. II., and illustrated by Fig. 1, PI. I.

The trace of a plane on the vertical plane of projection is called the Note.
" vertical " horizontal "
trace," and on the horizontal plane of projection the trace
of that plane. -

By bending piece of cardboard to represent the planes

a
of projection, and using a set square to represent planes in any

required position with respect to the cardboard planes, the

following important Theorems will be rendered evident :

Ahorizontal plane can have only one trace, and this trace Theorem 18.

will be parallel to the ground line.

A vertical plane parallel to the vertical plane of projection Theorem 19.

can have only one trace, and this trace also will be parallel to the
ground line.

A vertical plane not parallel to the vertical plane of projec- Theorem 20.

tion will have two traces, of which one (the vertical trace) must be
perpendicular to the ground line.

A plane perpendicular tothe vertical plane of projection but Theorem 21.

not horizontal will have two traces, of which one (the horizontal

trace) must be perpendicular to the ground line.

The two traces of a plane perpendicular to both planes of pro- Theorem 22.

jection will coincide in a line at right angles to the ground line.

All other planes will have both a vertical and a horizontal Theorem 23.
22 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

trace, and these two traces, unless both parallel to the

ground line,
must meet in a point on it. Conversely, any two lines which

meet in a point on the ground line must be the traces of some

plane.
Theorem 24. The traces of a plane contain the traces of all lines lying
in that plane.
Theorem 25. The traces of parallel planes are respectively parallel.
Theorem 26. If a plane is perpendicular to either plane of projection, its
traceon that plane of projection makes with the ground line an
angle equal to the dihedral angle contained between the plane
itselfand the other plane of projection. Thus if two lines are
drawn from any point of the ground line, one in the horizontal
plane at right angles to the ground line and the other in the
vertical plane, making 6 with the ground line, these lines will
be the traces of a plane at right angles to the vertical plane
of projection and inclined 6 to the horizontal plane of projection.

Theorem 27.
If a plane is at right angles to two other planes which are not

parallel, it will be at right angles to their intersection (Euc. XL,

19), and it will cut the two planes in two lines, one in each

plane. These two lines (both of which will be at right angles

to the intersection of the planes) contain a plane angle equal
to the dihedral angle contained by the planes themselves (Euc.

XL, defn. 6).

perpendicular to a plane, its projections will be

If a line
Theorem 28. is

at right angles to the traces of the plane, each to each i. e. the ;

elevation at right angles to the vertical, and the plan to the

horizontal trace.
Note. In future, the angle made by a plane or line with the horizontal plane of
projection will bo spoken of simply as the inclination of that plane or line.

Fig. 12, PI. Ill In Fig. 12, PI. are represented in order, the several
III.,
cases of planes referred to in Theors. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22.

Fig. 13, PI. HI, Fig. 13 shews the general case of a plane oblique to both
planes of projection, and also the projections (a b, a' b') of a line

lying in that plane (Theor. 24).

LINES AND PLANES. 23

Cases III. and IV., Fig. 12, will also serve to illustrate
Theor. 26.
If a right cone has its base on either plane of projection, the Theorem 29.

traces of all planes touching its surface must be tangent to its

base, and the inclination of these planes to that plane of pro-

all

jection will be equal to the angle at the base of the cone.

All lines which can be drawn from a fixed point to make a Theorem 30.

given angle with a fixed plane, must lie on the surface of a right
cone, of which the vertex is the fixed point, and the angle at the
base is
equal to the given angle of inclination of the lines to the
plane.
Determine a plane to contain a given point and be Problem 1.
parallel to a given plane.
The traces of the required plane will be parallel to those
of the given plane (Theor. 25), and if a horizontal line be
drawn through the point parallel to the given plane, it must lie
in the plane required ; its vertical trace will therefore be a point
on the vertical trace of the required plane. Having determined
this point, the vertical trace of the required plane must be drawn

through it and parallel to that of the given plane, and the horizontal
trace through the intersection of the vertical trace with the ground
line (Theor. 23) and parallel to the given horizontal trace.
Given the traces of two intersecting planes to determine Problem 11.
the projections of their intersection.
The traces of this intersection must lie in the traces of both
the planes (Theor. 24), since the intersection is a line common
to both.
The point vt therefore the vertical and u, pi. m.
(Fig. 14, PI. III.) is Fig.

ht the horizontal trace of the intersection, and dropping per-

pendiculars on the ground line from these points, v t, /3, is the
elevation and h t, a, the plan required.

Determine the angles made by a given plane with the Pro-

b em
plane of projection.
In Fig. 15, v' oh is the given plane, and v' vt is a vertical Fig. 15, pi. 111.
24 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

plane perpendicular to oh (Theorems

20 and 28). The plane
v' v t cuts the plane v' oh in the line v' t ; the lines t v' and t v

therefore contain an angle equal to the required inclination

of the plane v' o h, and we have merely to solve the right-angled

triangle tvv'. This is done by making vT equal to vt, and

joining T v' ;
the angle vT v' (a) is therefore the required incli-
nation. The construction for determining the lines s h', s h, and
for solving the triangle hsh' is exactly similar, and the angle
hSh' (j3) is the required inclination of the plane v'o h to the ver-
tical plane of projection.
Pro- Determine the traces of a plane that makes angles 6 and
biemiv.
^ W ith the horizontal and vertical planes of projection
respectively.
Determine two cones whose vertices are situated in the hori-
zontal and vertical planes, and bases in the vertical and horizontal

planes respectively, and whose generatrices make 6

and with <

their bases. Then the required plane must touch both these

cones, and its traces must be tangent to their bases (Theor. 29).
As a necessary condition that two cones can be touched by
the same plane, these cones must envelope a common sphere, to
which the plane will also be tangent.

Commence by assuming a sphere whose centre v

therefore

Fig. 16, pi. m. (Fig. 16) is a point in the ground line.

The circle a b c will be both plan and elevation of this

sphere. The two lines v' e, hf touching the sphere and inclined
6 and < to the ground line will be generatrices, and v' and h the
vertices of the two cones. Arcs of circles (centre v and radii v e,
vf) in the horizontal and vertical plane respectively are the half-
bases of the two cones, and the lines ho,v' o touching these bases
will be the traces of the plane required. (Theorem 29, p. 23.)

Note a. The gumof the given inclinations (6 -)- <t>) must not exceed 180, nor he less
than 90. When -f- <j>
= 180 the
plane will bo at right angles to both planes
of projection, its traces will therefore coincide in a line at right angles to x y

(Case V., Fig. 12, PL HI.). When 6 +

<f>
= 90 both traces will be parallel to x y.
Note 6. To determine a plane to contain a given point and make given angles with
LINES AND PLANES. 25

the planes of projection, it will be

necessary merely to draw any plane inclined at
the given angles, and to determine a
parallel plane containing the given point
(Prob. I.).

Determine the dihedral angle contained between two Problem v.

given planes.
This angle is determined by drawing a third plane perpen-
dicular to both the given planes the lines in which this third
;

plane cuts the given planes will then contain the required angle
(Theor. 27, p. 22).
In Fig. 17, PI. IV., */ t, v'
A
B t are the traces of the two % ", pi. iv.

given planes. Their intersection vt, v' t' is determined (Prob. II.).
The line jo q, drawn at right angles to v t the plan of this inter-
section will be the horizontal trace of some plane perpendicular
to VT(Theor. 28, p. 22), and therefore to both the given planes
(Theor. 27). Now, if I is the point in which this perpendicular
plane cuts V
T, the angle p I q in space is the angle required.
The triangle p I q is solved if we know I s the perpendicular
drawn from I on the base p q. To obtain I s, the vertical triangle
ifvt (which contains I s) is rotated into the vertical plane about
v'v, carrying with it the point s. This rotation is shewn by arcs,
S and T being the positions of s and t after rotation. Then a
perpendicular from Son'T determines S I', the length required.
The triangle p I q is solved by rotation about p q, and s I being
made equal to SI', pi q is the angle required. It may be
remarked that the angle if Tv is the inclination of the intersection
of the two given planes.
Determine the intersection of a given line and plane. Pro-
em
If any second plane containing the given line be determined,
the required point will lie on the intersection of this second plane

with the given plane.

In Fig. 18, PI. IV, v'Btis the given plane; a b, a'b' the Fig. is, pi. iv.

given line ;
for simplicity, the second or auxiliary plane is assumed
vertical, so that v' v,vb are its traces. The intersection (v t,
v' t')

of this vertical auxiliary plane with the given plane is now deter-
E
26 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

mined (Prob. II.). The required point must be common to the two
lines a' b', a b and v' t',vt\ hence i' is its elevation, and i its
plan.

Pro- Determine the angle which a given line makes with a

blem Vn.
given plane
If from any point on the line a perpendicular is drawn to the

plane (Theor. 28, p. 22), and its intersection with the plane deter-
mined (Prob. VI.) then the line joining this intersection and the
;

intersection of the given line and plane will make with the first
line theangle required (Euc. XL, defn. 5). This angle can be
determined by Prob. V., Chap. II. The problem may also be
solvedby determining the angle which the perpendicular makes
with the given line, to which the required angle is evidently

complementary.
Pro- Given the plan of a point lying in a given plane to
blemVIII.
determine:
1st. Its elevation.
The lines drawn from the point
2nd. at a given
inclination and in the given plane.
Fig. 19, pi. iv.
Suppose p to be the given plan, t'As the given plane, and
6 the given inclination (Fig. 19, PI. IV.).
1st. The required elevation of the point must lie in the
elevation of a horizontal line through the point and in the plane ;
of this line p t is the plan, t1 the vertical trace and t'p' the eleva-
tion. The required elevation of the point is therefore p'.
2nd. The height of the point P is p' tt (Theor. 4, p. 15), and
constructing the right-angled triangle p'nir with the given base-
angle 6, n it is evidently the length in plan of all lines which can
be drawn from P inclined 6 to the horizontal plane.
Since the required lines are to lie in the plane t'As, their
horizontal traces will be found by cutting the trace s by arcs A
from centre jt?
with radius mr
(Theor. 24, p. 22); / and s will
therefore be the honzontal traces of the lines required, and s'
f
the elevations of these horizontal traces. The required lines are
therefore p'f, pf, and p' s', p s.
LINES AND PLANES. 27

If the given inclination of the lines is less than that of the plane, there will Note.

always be two lines fulfilling the condition. If this given inclination is equal to
that of the plane, there will be but one line. If the given inclination is greater
than that of the plane, the problem is impossible.

Through a given point draw a line parallel to a Pro-

blemix.
given plane and having a given inclination.
Assume the projections of a point in the given plane by-
means of the first part of Prob. Till. From this point draw a line
having a given inclination and in the given plane Prob. (VIII.).
Then a line from the given point parallel to the last drawn line
(Theor. 15, p. 16) will obviously fulfil the conditions of the

problem.
Determine the plane containing three given points. Pro-

By joining the points three lines are obtained, each of which

lies in the plane required ; the traces of two of these lines will
therefore determine the required traces of the plane (Prob. L,

Chap. II., and Theor. 24, p. 22).

Determine the plane containing a given line and aPro-

. blem XI.
given point.
Draw a line through the given point parallel to the given line
(Theor. 15, p. 16). Determine the traces of this last drawn line

and of the given line (Prob. I., Chap. II.). Then the traces of

the required plane must be drawn through the traces of the lines

(Theor. 24:, p. 22).

From a given point draw a line which shall meet Pro-
biemxn.
two given lines not parallel.
The line required must evidently be common to two planes,
each of which contains the given point and one of the given lines.
Determine these two planes by Prob. XI., then their intersection
is the line required.
(Prob. II.)
Determine a plane containing one given line and Pro-
parallel to another given line.
blem xm *

If from any point in the line which is to be contained by

the plane a line is drawn parallel to the line to which the plane
e 2
28 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

is to then the required plane must contain this last

be parallel ;

drawn line. Hence it remains merely to determine a plane con-

taining two lines which meet (Prob. X., Theor. 24, p. 22).
Nou. The following problems have special reference to the projection of solids,
and should therefore be thoroughly mastered before the latter subject is
attempted.
It will be noticed that in the preceding problems given planes have been
invariably assumed as oblique to both planes of projection. This has been done to
render the problems as general as possible. In the following however, given
planes will (whenever possible) be
assumed as perpendicular to the vertical plane
of projection, in order to simplify constructions and lessen the number of lines

necessary.
This assumption must not be regarded as in any way involving merely
for it must be remembered that it is always
special cases of the problems ;
and not unfrequently desirable to change the vertical co-ordinate plane
legitimate
by assuming a new ground line. Then an elevation on this new ground line
being obtained, a second elevation on the original ground
line is readily deduced

(Chap. II., First Principles).

Pro- Determine the projections of any polygon, having

biemxiv. ven the inclination of its plane and also that of one
gj
of its sides or diagonals.
Fig. 20, pi. v. Suppose the given figure to be a hexagon A B C D E F, the
inclination of its plane a, and of A F one of its sides /3. Having
assumed a ground line xy, draw the traces (OM, ON) of a
plane at right angles to the vertical plane, and inclined at a
(Theor. 26, p. 22). In this plane (M N) assume a' a as the
projections of the point A of the hexagon.

Xotc. It may here be noticed that if any plane is at right angles to the vertical
plane of projection, the elevations of all points in it must lie in its vertical trace.

From a' a draw a line in the plane MON and inclined at

an angle /3 (Prob. VIII.). The plan of this line will be a it equal
to t s, and its elevation will coincide with M the vertical trace
of the plane. Now suppose the plane (carrying with it MON
the point A) to rotate about its horizontal trace till it coincides

with the plane of the paper. Drop the perpendicular a r from a

to the horizontal trace of the plane, then the point A must, when
the rotation is completed, be in this perpendicular produced.
LINES AND PLANES. 29
ft

But since the real distance of A from the horizontal trace

N is a! 0, we obtain the point A turned down by setting off
this distance from r along r a produced. Now it the horizontal
trace of the line cnr, being in the line by NO, is unaffected
the rotation, hence Air is the line air turned down into the
plane of the paper. The hexagon A .... F can now be de-
scribed, AF on Av turned down, being made equal to one of its
sides. remains merely to turn the points
It .... F back into A
the plane M
N. This operation, the converse of that described
in turning the point down, A is shewn by arcs and lines.

A
second elevation a" . . . .
/" of the hexagon A .... F on a
second vertical plane y z is also shewn, and is obtained by the

application of Theor. 4, p. 15.

The above construction is applicable to any plane rectilinear figure, whether Note a.

the line whose inclination is given is a side, a diagonal, or any line whatever in
the plane of the figure ; since, the line of given inclination being first obtained
and then turned down into the plane of the paper, the figure can be constructed
of its real form on that line and then rotated back into the given inclined

plane.
This problem is of course subject to the limitation stated in the note to Note 6.

Prob. VIH.
If A is the area of any plane figure, a the area of its projection on any plane, Note c.

and 6 the inclination of its plane to the plane on which it is projected, then a =
A cos. 6. This is merely an extension ef Theor. 13, p. 16.
The process by which the plane MON
(Fig. 20) is turned down about its Note d.

horizontal trace N O should be clearly understood, as it is one which frequently

occurs both in determining the real forms of plane figures from their plans and
elevations and also in the converse problem of determining their plans from their
"
real forms. The process is sometimes spoken of as " constructing a plane, and " Constrnc-
" '

the lines or points lying in it. It should be noticed that whenever a plane is con- t in

structed or turned down about its horizontal trace, any "constructed" or turned-down or plane.

point in it, will always lie in the line drawn from the plan of that point perpen-
dicular to the horizontal trace of the constructed plane e. g. the point in the
;
A
perpendicular a r (Fig. 20). Further, the plan of any line and the same line
constructed or turned down will always meet, if produced, in the horizontal
trace of the constructed plane e. g. the lines a 6, A B
;
a c, KG; (J/,DF ;

(Fig. 20).
The symmetry of the plan and elevation of this hexagon should be noticed. Note <?.

"
This symmetry illustrates theTheorem, equal parallel lines have equal parallel
projections" (Theor. lb, p. 16).
30 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

Pro- Determine the plan of any polygon having given the

biem xv.
inclination of any two of its lines.

Suppose the polygon to be a pentagon E, one side of A . . .

which (A B) is to be inclined a and one diagonal (B E) ft.

Fig. 21, pi. v.
A . . . E
(Fig. 21, PI. Y.) is tbe pentagon supposed
turned
down into the plane of the paper. Assume the height of the
point B above the plane of the paper,
and with B as centre and
the assumed height of B as radius, describe a circle. Touching
this circle and making angles of a and /3 respectively, with BA
and BE
produced, draw the lines qs, pt, q and p being their
points of contact with the circle. Then s B q, t Bp are right-
angled triangles and B q being equal to the height of B and a
the inclination, s will be the horizontal trace of the line BA pro-
duced, and q s the length of plan of the line B s, and similarly and t

tp with respect to the line BE produced. The horizontal trace

of the plane containing B A, B E must pass through s and t
(Theor. 24, p. 22). N o is this horizontal trace, and a ground line

(x y) is assumed anywhere at right angles to it. Now since s q,

tp are the lengths of the plans of B s, B t, and s and t their

traces, arcs of radii sq, tp, with centres s and t must intersect in
b theplan of B, and if from b a perpendicular is drawn to x y,
and the produced portion it b' made equal to B q (the assumed
height of B) then b' is the elevation of B (Theors. 2 and 4, p. 14),
;

and b' o is the vertical trace of the plane of the pentagon (note to
Prob. XIV.). The points A . . . E are now turned up into the
plane J'oN and their plans a . . . e deduced, as in Prob. XIV.
A second elevation of the pentagon on an assumed ground
line (y z) is added.

Note. If be the angle contained by the two lines whose inclinations are given
(ABE, in Fig. 20), then the problem is impossible, if a -(- ft -)- 6 exceed
180.

Definition. The curve in which a curved surface is cut by a plane

.urface. of projection is termed the trace of the surface on that plane.
LINES AND PLANES. 31

A conical surface is generated by a straight line passing Definition.

through a fixed point, and subject to any other condition what- surface.

ever.
A cylindrical surface is generated by a straight line moving Definition.
parallel to a fixed straight line, and subject to any other con- surface.

dition.

If a plane touches a conical or cylindrical surface, its trace Theorem si.

on any plane must be tangent to the trace of the surface on the

same plane.
Determine the plane or planes inclined at a given Pro-

angle and making a given angle with a given plane.

M N is the given plane assumed at right angles to the Fig. 23, pi. vi.

vertical plane of projection. Then if any point v'v (assumed

external to this plane) be made the vertex of two right cones,
one of which has its base on the horizontal plane and the other
on the given plane M N ;
the generatrix of the former making
the given angle {Z with the horizontal plane, and of the latter
the other given angle a with the plane N. Then all planes M
touching these two right conical surfaces will fulfil the required
conditions (Theor. 29, p. 23), and their horizontal traces must be

tangent to the horizontal traces of the surfaces (Theor. 31). The

trace of the first conical surface is the circle of its base, and the
trace of the second surface is the section of that surface by the
horizontal plane of projection and is in this case an ellipse. The
line v' t drawn from v' at an angle /8 to the ground line deter-

mines tf the radius of the base of the first cone this base can ;

then be described with centre v. To determine the elliptic trace

of the second conical surface ;
the lines v' m, v' n are drawn from
v', making angles of a with M, and produced to meet the
ground line in a', b', then a' v' b' is the elevation of that surface.
Now a vertical plane containing the axes (v'f and v' q) of the
two conical surfaces would cut the second surface in the lines
v' ma', and the horizontal plane in the
1/ n b', line z z. The
horizontal traces a and b of the lines v' m a', v' n b' are the
32 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

extremities of the major axis of the elliptic trace and if a b

is bisected by a perpendicular o o', v' o' and o' o will be the traces

of a plane containing the minor axis. This plane cuts the

conical surface in two lines, of which v' o' is the common
elevation and whose horizontal traces are the extremities of the

minor axis of the ellipse. Now the plane v' o' o cuts the circular
base mn ofthe right cone v' mn, in a horizontal chord of which
p' (the point in which v' o' cuts M) is the elevation. Again
p' is the elevation of the point in which the line o cuts the V
plane M N, and of this latter point p on z z, and projected
from p' is the plan. Hence the required plan of the horizontal
chord of which p' is the elevation must be at right angles to z z,
and have p for its middle point. Now the length of this chord
is double that of the ordinate p' r' of the semicircle m
r' n, this

semicircle representing half the base of the right cone v' mn

rotated into a vertical position about n. Making p r, m p s on
plan each equal to p' r', we obtain s r the required plan of the
chord. Hence vr, vs are the plans of the two lines in which
the right conical surface v' a' b' is cut by the plane v' o' o, and v' o'

is their common elevation (note to Prob. XIV.). Tbe horizontal

traces d, e of these lines are the extremities of the minor axis
of the required elliptic trace. The ellipse ad be is now drawn,
and all lines which can be drawn touching it and the circle h h
will be the horizontal traces of planes fulfilling the required
conditions (Theor. 31, p. 31). The vertical traces of these planes
may be determined from the condition that the planes must all
contain the point V. Two planes only are shewn in the figure,

though four are possible.

Note a. If the circle and ellipse touch each other externally, there are three planes ; if

internally, there is ono plane. If the circle and ellipse cut each other there are
two planes. If one falls wholly within the other the problem is impossible.
Note 6. The
trace of the second conical surface may, by varying the data, be a parabola
or a hyperbola, but the principles explained are equally applicable, since either
curve can be drawn if its axis (z z), its vertex (a), and a chord (d e) are known.
LINES AND PLANES. 33

The Projection op Circles.

The projection of a circle is either an equal circle, a line Theorem 32.

equal to the diameter, or an ellipse, according as its plane is

parallel, perpendicular, or oblique to the plane of projection. In the

latter case the major axis of the ellipse is equal to the diameter

of the circle and the minor axis to that diameter multiplied by

the cosine of the angle of inclination.
Thus the projection of a circle on any plane can be deter-
mined if the inclination of its plane to the plane of projection is
known and conversely, if the major and minor axes of the
;

ellipse the projection of a circle on any plane, are known,

which is

the inclination of the plane of that circle to the plane on which

it is
projected can be obtained.
It will be noticed that the major axis of the elliptic projection of any circle Note.
is the projection of that diameter of the circle which is parallel to the plane of

projection. Further, the projections of any two diameters of a circle which are
mutually at right angles will be a pair of conjugate diameters of the elliptic
projection of that circle and this holds whatever the inclination of the projectors
to the plane of projection is, provided only that the projectors are themselves

parallel. It will frequently be best to determine the elliptic projection of a circle

from a pair of conjugate diameters thus obtained. In Fig. 22, PL V., the line a! V Fig. 22, PI. V.

is the elevation of a circle whose plane is inclined a to the horizontal plane.

Hence c c equal to a' b' and set off on the line projected from c' the elevation of the
centre of the circle, is the major axis of the latter's elliptic plan and a b drawn

bisecting c c at right angles is its minor axis. To draw a new elevation on a

plane z z it is merely necessary to obtain c" c", a" b", the elevations of c c, a b, and
to draw the ellipse of which these lines are conjugate diameters.
Thus the elevation on z z is drawn without determining the inclination of the
plane of the circle to the plane z z. A third elevation of the same circle on 1 1 is
shewn and is similarly obtained.

EXAMPLES.
1. The two
traces of a plane each make 40 with x y ; from any external point
draw a line inclined at 25 and parallel to the plane. Determine also a second
plane containing the line and at right angles to the first plane. (Prob. IX. From
any point on the line drop a perpendicular to the plane, Theor. 28, p. 22, then
determine a plane containing the line and the perpendicular.)
P
34 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

2. Assume the projections of three points, and determine the plane containing
them. (Prob. X.)
3. From a point, 2" from the vertical and 3" above the horizontal plane of

projection, draw a line making 60 with a plane whose traces make 45 with x y.
Shew the intersection of the line and plane. (Converse of Prob. VTE. An infinite

number of lines fulfil the conditions.)

4. "Three lines mutually at right angles meet in a point 2 5" from both planes

of projection. Two of them are inclined at 35 and 40 respectively. Determine

the plans of all three lines and also their elevations on a plane parallel to one of
them. (Determine the two lines whose inclinations are given by Prob. XV., draw
the third line perpendicular to the plane containing the two first, Theor. 28.)
5. Determine planes inclined at 78 and making 65 with a plane inclined
at 40. (Prob. XVI.)
6. Twoplanes at right angles to each other intersect in a line inclined at 35.
One of these planes is inclined at 55. Determine tho traces of both. (Converse
of Prob. V.)
7. Assume the projections of a line not parallel to either plane of projection.
From any external point drop a perpendicular on this line. (Determine a plane
containing the point and perpendicular to the line, Theor. 28, p. 22. Find the
intersection of the plane and line, Prob. VI. ; join this intersection and the
assumed external point.)
8. Three planes are mutually at right angles. Two of them are inclined at
30 and 75 respectively. All meet in a point 2 5" from both planes of projection.
Determine the traces of all three. (First, determine one of the planes whose
inclinations are given. Then through tho given point draw a line perpendicular
to this plane, Theor. 28, p. 22. Determine a plane containing this perpendicular
and inclined at the other given angle. Lastly, determine the intersection of these
two planes, and draw a third plane through the given point and at right angles to
this intersection.)
9. Determine the traces of a plane inclined 70 and 55 to the horizontal and
vertical planes of projection respectively. Determine also the real angle contained
by these traces. (Prob. IV.)
10. Assume a plane inclined at 60, place in it a line inclined at 30 and
determine a plane containing this line and perpendicular to the first plane.
(Prob. VIH. Then from any point on the line draw a perpendicular to the
plane, and determine a second plane containing the line and this perpendicular,
Prob. X.)
11. Tho
horizontal and vertical traces of a plane make 40 and 60 with x y

respectively. Determine the inclination of this plane to the planes of projection,

and determine a second plane parallel to and 2" from it. (Prob. III. Then
at any point in the plane raise a perpendicular 2" long, and determine a second
plane passing through the extremity of this perpendicular and parallel to the first
plane, Theor. 25, p. 22.)
LINES AND PLANES. 35

12. Assume the projections of a line not parallel to "either plane of projec-
tion. Determine the traces of a plane perpendicular to this line and cutting it in

a point 2" above the horizontal plane.

13. Four points whose heights are 2", 5", 3 5", and 1 2", have their plans at
'

the angles of an irregular four-sided figure abed; a 6 = 6 c = 2 5" ; cd = da = S" ;

b d = 4". Determine the sphere containing the four points. (Find the elevations
of the points and join them. Determine three planes at right angles to and
bisecting any three of the lines thus obtained. The intersection of these three
planes is the centre of the sphere, and the distance from this intersection to any-
one of the given points is its radius.)
14. A
plane has its horizontal and vertical traces inclined at 50 and 60 to
xy respectively. Determine a point in it, 2" from the vertical, and 2* 5" from
the horizontal plane of projection. From this point draw two lines in the plane
inclined at 25. Determine a second plane bisecting the angle contained by the
lines and perpendicular to the first plane. (Prob. VIII. Draw the line bisecting
the angle contained by the two lines, and determine the plane containing this line
and perpendicular to the given plane.)
15. Assume a plane whose traces make 45 with x y, and from any two
external points draw lines meeting in a point on this plane and equally inclined to it.

(From one of the assumed points drop a perpendicular on the given plane, find its
intersection with the plane, Prob. VI. Then produce the perpendicular, making
the produced part equal to the perpendicular. Join the extremity of the line so
obtained with the other external point, and find the intersection of the joining line
with the given plane.)
16. Draw a line inclined 30
and 40 to the vertical and horizontal planes
respectively. Draw a second line parallel to both planes of projection and 3"
from each. Determine the shortest distance between the two lines. (This shortest
distance is the line perpendicular to both lines.)
17. An equilateral triangle of 3" side has its angles at 5", 1 5", and 2 5",

respectively, above the horizontal plane. Draw its plan and also an elevation on a
plane inclined 35 to the plan of one of its sides.
18. Draw the plan of a pentagon of 1 5" side, its plane being inclined at 45
and one side at 20. Draw also elevations on planes parallel to any two sides.

(Prob. XIV.)
19. Draw the plan and elevations of the same pentagon when one diagonal is

inclined at 20. (Prob. XIV.)

20. A circle 3" diameter has its plane inclined 60. Draw its plan and also an
elevation on a plane inclined 50 to its horizontal diameter. (Note on Projection
of Circles.)
21. Two diameters of a circle are inclined at 40 and 25 ;
these diameters
make 65 with each other. The radius of the circle is 1 25". Draw itsplan and also
an elevation on a plane parallel to one of these diameters. (Determino the plane
containing the diameters, Prob. XV. Through the intersection of the diameters

f2
36 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

draw a horizontal line in this plane 2 5" long ;

this is the major axis of the plan
of the circle. The inclination of the plane containing the circle determines the

minor axis.)
22. A heptagon (side 1") has two adjacent sides inclined at 15 and 25. Draw
plan and also an elevation on a plane inclined at 40
its to the plan of any-

diagonal. (Prob. XV.)

23.. the plan of the same heptagon when one side and an adjacent
Draw
diagonal are inclined at 30 and 40 respectively.
THE USB OF INDICES. 37

CHAPTER IV.

THE USE OF INDICES.

Points, lines and planes in space may be correctly represented

on paper by a metbod differing somewbat from tbat explained
in tbe previous chapters. Tbis metbod, which is sometimes
"
termed horizontal projection," possesses considerable advantages
in simplifying constructions and has moreover several directly

practical applications. A
horizontal plane of projection only is

required, tbe regular vertical plane being dispensed with, although

elevations on vertical planes will still be occasionally necessary.
As in the preceding chapters, points, lines and planes are treated
in turn.
If to the plan of any point a number denoting in
is affixed, Points,

terms of any known unit the height of that point above tbe hori-
zontal plane of projection, then the point is fully determined and
its position in space is known. Tbe number affixed is termed tbe
index of the point ; and in order to distinguish between points ind of *

above and below tbe horizontal plane, the sign is prefixed to

the indices of the latter. It will be seen therefore, that the

index performs the function of the vertical plane of projection in

giving the heights of points.

In Fig. 24, PI. VII., a series of points (the same as in Fig. Fig. 24,
PI VII
1, PI. I.) are shewn by their plans and elevations and also by
their figured plans only, the unit assumed for their indices being
0-1 inch.
A line is fully determined plan and the indices of any
if its Lines,

two of its points are known. Thus in Fig. 25, PI. VII., a line Fig. 25,
P] VII
A B is shewn by its projections a b, a' b', and also by its figured
plan a 7, b 5.
38 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

Note a. The horizontal trace of a line will bo that point whose index is 0.
Note b. All points on a horizontal line have the same index.
Note c. If m is the distance between the figured plans of any two points on a line
w
-
and n the difference of their indices ;
then tangent of inclination of line.

and indices of any two horizontal lines lying in

If the plans
a plane- are known, the plane is fully determined in position and
inclination. Thus, in Fig. 27, PI. VII., a b and c d, two horizon-
tals whose indices are 10 and 20, determine a plane the tangent
of whose inclination is the difference of level of the two horizontals
a b, b c (10 units), divided by their distance apart on plan (b d).
Since horizontals with equidifferent indices must have equi-
distant plans, a line parallel to a b, and at a distance from it

equal to bd, will be the horizontal whose index is 0, and similarly

the horizontals whose indices are 10, 30, 40, &c, can be deter-
mined.
Note d. The horizontal whose index is is the horizontal trace of the plane.

Instead of drawing the horizontals of a plane, it is more

Scale of slope, convenient to use what is termed a scale of slope, constructed on
a line anywhere at right angles to the horizontals. The points
at which horizontals at equidifferent levels cut this line give the

divisions of the scale, each of which divisions is figured with

the index of the horizontal passing through it. To distinguish the
scale of slope from the mere figured plan of a line, a second line
is added ; and in order that the direction of the slope of a plane

may be immediately apparent from its scale of slope, one of the

lines of the latter strengthened, the stronger line being always
is

on the left side in the ascending direction of the plane. In Fig. 27

the scale of slope of the plane, of which the lines a b, c d are

horizontals, is shewn.
j; ote e
The
inclination of a plane can be at once determined from its scale of slope
since merely necessary to construct a right-angled triangle whose base is equal
it is

to the distance apart of any two horizontals, and whose height is equal to the dif-
ference of their indices. Thus, in Fig. 27, making * s' at right angles to the scale
of slope equal to 30 10 units and joining "'<, we obtain 6 the inclination of
the plane.
U0te t Lines perpendicular to a plane have plans parallel to its scale of slope.
THE USE OP INDICES. 39

In the following problems the unit assumed for the indices is

0*1 inch; thus a point whose index is 28 will be 2 8 inches -

above the horizontal plane of projection.

Given the plan of a line and the indices of any two Problem i.

points, to determine the index of any third point on the

line.

aFig. 26, PI. VII., is the given plan, the indices of a and
b, s->
b being 5 and 19 respectively, x the point whose index is to be

determined. Using a b as a ground line of level 5, b V at right

angles to a b, and in length equal to 14 units (the difference of

the indices of a and b), determines b' the elevation of b b' a is ;

the elevation of the line a b and the length of the perpendicular

x x' is the difference of the indices of a and x the real index of x ;

is therefore x x' + 5.

Since by similar triangles = r, the difference of the in-

dices of x and a is a fourth proportional to the horizontal distance

between a and b, the difference of the indices of a and b, and the
distance a x ; and generally, the difference of the indices of any
two points on a line is
proportional to the distance apart of their
plans.
Thus the index of any point on a line may be determined
without construction by means of the sector. The converse of
the above process, determining the plans (y, z) corresponding to

any assigned indices (0, 11 5), needs no explanation.

-

The above method applied to one of the scale of slope lines of a plane serves Note a.

to determine the index of any assumed horizontal, or the horizontal with any
assumed index.
The angle b' ab (a) (Fig. 26) is the inclination
of the line a b. Note 6.

The following problems should be carefully compared with

the corresponding problems of Chaps. II. and III.
It will be seen that, although the vertical co-ordinate plane

is dispensed with, it is frequently necessary to resort to elevations

made on the plans of lines or scales of slope of planes, used as

ground lines. In these cases it is frequently advisable to assume

40 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

the ground line to have some particular level ; this merely

amounts to raising or lowering the horizontal plane and does not
in any way provided that it is always remembered
affect results,

that in determining the indices of points from elevations made

on such a ground line, these indices will be the heights of the
elevations above the ground line + the index of that ground line.

Thus, in Fig. 26, the index of the point x is not xx', but x x' + 5.

Problem ii. Draw a line through a given point parallel to a given

line.

Fig. 25, In Fig. 25, PI. VII., a b the given line, p 35 the given
is
PI. VII.

point. The plan of the required line must of course be parallel

to a b ;
and as the inclinations of parallel lines are the same, the
horizontal distance (i.e. the distance on plan) corresponding to any
difference of level is the same on both lines. Thus making p q
equal to a b, we obtain a point q, whose index will be
35-12 = 23.
Pro- Determine the angle contained between two given lines.
blem III.
Fig. 28,
ab, cd (Fig. 28, PI. VIII.) are the two lines intersecting in
PI. VIII.
i, 17. Determine two points (a, x) having any the same index
(5), one on each line (Prob. I.).
remains only to turn down
It
the triangle x; i s is al drawn perpendicular to a x and pro-
duced; ii' length 12 units (the difference of the indices of i and
s) determines i' s the real length of i s, and s I equal to i! s gives
the triangle a I x turned down.
The angle a I x (6) is then the angle contained by the lines

ab,cd. (Compare Prob. V., Chap. II.)

Pro- Determine the plane containing three given points.
blem rv.
Fig. 29,
By joining the points three lines are obtained and if on any
PI. VIII. two of these lines points with the same index are determined, the
line joining them is a horizontal of the required plane a parallel ;

line from any one of the given points is a second horizontal, and

the scale of slope can therefore be drawn. (Compare Prob. X.,

Chap. III.)

Problem v. Determine the intersection of a line and plane.

THE USE OP INDICES. 41

In Fig. 30, PI. VIII., a b is the given line, S the scale of Fig. 30,
PI VIII
slope of the given plane. The fine line of the scale of slope is
taken as a ground line of level 5, and on this line elevations of
the given line and plane are made. Their intersection i' is the
elevation and therefore i the plan of the intersection of the line
and plane. (Compare Prob. VI., Chap. III.)
The index of a being 2, its elevation must be taken below the ground line, Note a.

that is to say, on the opposite side of the ground line to the elevation of 6.

The index of i is the length it 5 = 11 units.

+
'
Note b.

Determine the intersection of two planes and the Pro-

blemVl.
angle they contain.
M and N (Fig. 31, PI. VIII.) are the scales of slope of the Fig. 31.

given planes. The intersection of any two horizontals of the

same index determines a point in the intersection of the planes.
Thus a and b (the intersections of horizontals at levels 5 and 20
respectively) determine the line a b, which is the required inter-
section of planes M
and N. The remaining construction corre-
sponds exactly to that of Prob. V., Chap. II. An elevation

(a b')
of a b is made on a b used as a ground line of level 5, s r is

a horizontal (at level 5) of some plane at right angles to a b and

therefore at right angles to the planes and ;
M
i', determined
N
by a perpendicular from p on a V, is the elevation of the intersec-
tion of this perpendicular plane with a b. Then p
equal to p i'
I

and set off from p along a b, determines the turned-down triangle

sir and the angle sir (6) is the required angle contained by
the two planes.

The problem for determining the intersection of planes from their horizontals Note.

has several useful applications, thus the plans of the ridges, hips and valleys
of a complicated system of roofs may be readily obtained by drawing a couple
of horizontals on each slope. The same problem occurs frequently in military
drawings of earthworks, and in the adaptation of fortification to sloping or

irregular sites.

Determine the angle made by a given line with a Pro-

given plane.
G
42 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

Fig. 32 the given line and

In Fig. 32, PI. VIII., a & isthe scale M
of slope of the given plane. Then the angle required is that
made by the line a b, with a second line joining the point in
which a b cuts the plane M
and the foot of the perpendicular
dropped from any point of a b on the plane (Euc. XI., M
def. 5).

Elevations of a b and the plane are made on one of theM

scale of slope lines used as a ground line the intersection of these ;

elevations determines i' the elevation of the intersection of the line

and plane, and i its
plan is found by projection from i'. From a
a perpendicular is dropped on the plane of this perpendicular ;

a'p' is the elevation, and ap, parallel to the scale of slope, the plan.
The right-angled triangle API may then be solved by determin-

ing the real length of any two of its sides, and the angle AI P (6)
is the angle required. (Compare Prob. VII., Chap. III.)
It is believed that the above problems will be sufficient to

explain the use of indices; others are added, however, for the
student's own solution.
Note. In commencing any of the varied problems relating to lines and planes, and
indeed any problem of solid geometry whatever, the student is again most strongly
advised to start with a clear conception of the method he intends to pursue. By

extemporizing inclined planes of paper and using pencils or pieces of wire to re-
present lines as before suggested, it will generally be easy to arrive at a clear
notion of the best course to adopt in any particular case.

EXAMPLES.
(Unit 1".)

1. A line is inclined at plan and figure on it points whose

55, draw its

indices are 7, 0, 13, 25. Draw

the scale of slope of a plane cutting the line in
the point 13 and perpendicular to it. (Make an elevation of the lino on its plan
as ground line. Through the elevation of point 13 draw a line perpendicular to
the elevation of the line. This perpendicular will be the vertical trace of the re-
quired plane on the vertical plane containing the line. From this trace any
number of horizontals of the plane can be determined.)
2. The plans of two intersecting lines make an angle of 80 ; the lines are

inclined at 30 and 50 respectively the index of their

; intersection is 9. Deter-
mine the angle they contain (Prob. in.).
THE USB OF INDICES. 43
*
3. A fine is inclined at 40. Determine a second line inclined at 30, and
making 70 with the first line. (Converse of Prob. III.)
4. The plans of three points are situated at the angles of a triangle whose
sides are 2", 3", and 3"
;
the indices of the points are 4, 25, 8. Determine
the plane containing the given points (Prob. IV.).
5. Assume a plane inclined at 60. Draw a line in it inclined 28, from a

point whose index (Compare Prob. VIII., Chap. III.)

is 15.

6. Determine two planes perpendicular to each other and inclined at 30 and

40. Shew their intersection, and determine a third plane perpendicular to both,
and cutting this intersection in a point whose index is 13.
7. Assume a plane inclined at 50. Draw a horizontal line of level 10 ;

the plan of this line makes 30 with the horizontals of the plane. Find the in-
tersection of this horizontal line with the plane and the angle it makes with the

plane (Prob. VII.).

The horizontals of two planes make angles of 70 with each other on plan.
8.

The planes are inclined at 40 and 55. Find the intersection of the planes,
the inclination of this intersection, and the angle the planes contain (Prob. VI.).
9. Three points have plans 2 5", 3 5", and 4" apart. From any one of them
draw a line perpendicular to the line joining the other two.
(Determine a plane
containing the point selected and perpendicular to the line joining the other two.
Find the intersection of the plane and line, and join this intersection and the
selected point.)
10. Assume two lines which are not parallel and do not meet. Determine
two parallel planes each of which contains one of the assumed lines. (From any
point on one of the lines (A B) draw a line parallel to the other line (C D).
Determine a plane containing A B and the parallel, and a second plane containing
C D and parallel to the first plane.)
11. The plans of four points are situated at the angles of a rhombus of 3^"
"
side and 3f diagonal ; the indices of the points are 30, 23, 10, 17. Determine a
sphere to contain all four points. (Determine three planes at right angles to and
bisecting the lines joining three pairs of points. The intersection of these three
planes is the centre of the sphere.)

Nearly the whole of the examples appended to Chaps. II. and III. may also
be worked by the method of indices.

a 2
44 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER V.

THE PBOJECTION OF SOLIDS.

" "
The use of the term solid in geometry is somewhat peculiar.
Since geometry has nothing to do with solidity in the ordinary
" surface
sense, the term must be considered to mean merely

enclosing space." In descriptive geometry however, for the

sake of clearness and as an aid to the eye in recognising their
forms, solids are usually assumed to possess opacity.
Regular .oiids. There are only five " regular solids," that is to say, solids
contained by equal regular polygons and capable of being
inscribed in a sphere.
1. The "tetrahedron," contained by four equal equilateral

triangles.
2. The " cube," contained by six equal squares.
3. The "octahedron," contained by eight equal equilateral
triangles.
The "
4. dodecahedron," contained by twelve equal pen-
tagons.
"
5. The icosahedron," contained by twenty equal equi-
lateral triangles.

The following are also contained by plane figures, viz. :

"
1.
Pyramid," right and oblique.
"
2. Prism," right and oblique.
" "
Surfaces of Solids or surfaces of revolution are generated by the
revolution of lines, curves, or plane figures, about a fixed line
termed the axis. They have this peculiarity, that all sections by
planes perpendicular to the axis are qircles.
The following are capable of being thus generated, viz. :

" " " "

Sphere," right cone," right cylinder," annulus,"
"
spheroid."
THE PROJECTION OP SOLIDS. 45

All surfaces generated by the motion of straight lines are

termed " ruled surfaces." Of these surfaces some are capable of Ruled surfaces.

development and some are not.

the are "conical surfaces," generated by
first class conical and
Among "
"
a line passing through a fixed point, and cylindrical surfaces surfaces.

by a line parallel to a fixed line (or director), the generating

each case being subject to any other condition whatever.
line in
The generating line being considered infinite, conical surfaces
" "
will always consist of two distinct portions or sheets having
a commonvertex in the fixed point.

Among ruled surfaces incapable of development are,

" Helicoidal Heiicoidai
.1. surfaces," generated by lines passing
. r, . .
surfaces.
i

through, and making a constant angle with, a fixed line, while

moving uniformly around and along it.

" Conoidal Conoidai

2. surfaces," generated by lines moving parallel surtiiccs.

to a fixed plane passing through a fixed axis, and subject to any

other condition. Thus the "hyperbolic paraboloid" is generated

by a line moving parallel to a fixed plane and meeting two fixed
straight lines which are not parallel and do not meet.

Several of the surfaces above mentioned are capable of generation in more Note,
than one way. Thus a sphere is generated by the revolution of a semicircle about
a fixed diameter and also by the motion, parallel to itself, of a circle of varying
radius.

It is now proposed to shew how the projections of the simple

solids in various positions may be obtained. The data for the

position of such solid in space will usually be referable to one of

the five following cases, which will be considered in turn :

One face in or parallel to the horizontal plane. Case i.

One edge in or parallel to the horizontal plane, the inclina- Case n.

tion of the face containing this edge being given.

Given of one face and of a line in

the inclination its plane.
Case m.
Given the inclination of two edges, or diagonals. case iv.

Given the inclinations of two faces. case v.

46 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

Note. It is impossible to lay down any absolute rules to be followed in each of the
above cases, as different solids will require slightly different treatment. It may
be remarked however, that whenever (as in Cases I. and II.) an edge or face is

parallel to, or lies

in the horizontal plane, this edge or face having its real size in

plan can be drawn at once. To complete the plan of the solid an elevation will
generally be necessary
and for this purpose a vertical plane should be selected
on such a
either parallel or perpendicular to the base or one face, as an elevation
vertical plane can generally bo drawn without difficulty. The above remarks will

be made clear in the following examples.

Problem I. Draw the plan and elevation of a Pentagonal Right

Case I.
Pyramid lying with one triangular face on the horizontal
a with the
plane, the plan of the axis making an angle
vertical plane.
Fig. 33, The plan of the axis being taken at an angle a to the ground
PI. IX.
line, the isosceles triangle a b v on which the solid rests can
be

drawn, since this triangle will evidently be symmetrical about the

plan of the axis. The side a b is perpendicular to and bisected by
the plan of the axis and is equal to the given side of base of the

pyramid ; av,bv are equal to the slant edges and v is the vertex
of the pyramid. Now if the pyramid be supposed rotated about
the edge a b till it stands upright on the horizontal plane, its
base would coincide with the right pentagon a&CDE con-
structed on a b, and as the points E, D, 0, must evidently move in

vertical planes at right angles to the line of rotation (a b),

their

plans when the pyramid is lying on abv must be somewhere on

the lines drawn from F, D, C, at right angles to a b. (The line thus
drawn from D will of course coincide with the plan of the axis.)
Now a vertical plane parallel to the axis (and therefore per-
if

pendicular to the base) of the pyramid be assumed,

an elevation
of the solid on such a plane can be drawn at once ; z z parallel
to the plan of the axis isthe ground line of this assumed plane
and the points v, a, b, being in the horizontal plane will have
i/, a', b', as their elevations (Theor. p. 15), the two latter
6,

coinciding. The elevation of the pyramid is then completed by

making aid' equal to ~Dtt, v' d' equal to av or bv (the slant
edge) and a' e' equal to E e, then v' e' is the common
elevation of

the two edges ve,vc. The required plans e, d, c, must lie in per-
THE PROJECTION OP SOLIDS. 47
*

pendiculars drawn from e', d', c', their elevations, to the ground line
z z. We
have therefore obtained two lines containing each of
the required plans, these plans are consequently determined.

Joining them with v the plan of the vertex, we have the com-
plete plan of the solid. The elevation on xy
readily deducedis

by projecting from a, b, c, &c, and setting off the heights of these

points taken from their elevations on z z (Theor. 4, p. 15).

The
principle involved in the use of the pentagon a b C D
E should be tho- Note a.

roughly understood, as it is always applicable in determining the plan of a polygon

of which one edge is parallel to, or lies in the horizontal plane.
Having obtained the plan and one elevation of a solid, any number of eleva- Note b.

tions on any assumed vertical planes can be drawn by the application of Theor. 4,
p. 15.
In drawing the projections of a solid the spectator is always supposed to be Note c.

placed so as to look through the solid to the plane of projection. Thus the solid is
supposed to be between the spectator and the plane on which its
projection is drawn-
Certain edges will therefore be invisible these edges, a v, b v on plan and e" v" on
;

elevation in the present problem, are consequently shewn in dotted lines. If

what has been said above with regard to the supposed position of the spectator is
borne in mind, no difficulty will be found in distinguishing the invisible edges of
any view of a solid in any position.

A
Hept agonal Right Prism rests on an edge of its Problem n.
Case
base, the face containing that edge being inclined at an
angle a. Draw the plan of the solid, and also an eleva-
tion on a vertical plane, inclined /3 to the plan of its axis.

The plan of the axis being taken at an angle /8 to xy, a b Fig. 34,

the edge on which the prism rests is drawn at right angles to

and bisected by it. On a b, or (to avoid confusing the figure) on
AB parallel and equal to a b, the heptagon A Gr is de-
scribed. The lines from A G-, at right angles to a b will

g, and will coincide with the

contain the required plans a

plans of the seven parallel edges of the prism. Assuming z z as

the ground line of a vertical plane parallel to the axis of the

prism and therefore perpendicular to the plane of its base and

to the edge a b, a' b, and a' V equal to
will be the elevation of a
the given height of the prism, and making a with z z, will be
the elevation of the face containing a b. Similarly, a e , at right
48 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

angles to a' V, and equal to E c, is the elevation of the base

of the prism: a! g and a'
1

f equal to Cry, FS respectively,

determine g' and /'
the elevations of the points g, e and /, d.
Lines from g', /', and e' parallel and equal to a' l\ meeting I' m!

parallel and equal to a' e', complete

the elevation of the solid.
The planof the pentagonal base is determined by projecting
from g', /', e', on to the lines from A
Gr before mentioned.

Since the plans of the seven parallel edges are equal (Theor. 15,

p. 16), if one of them e m

determined by projection from ra',
is

its length set off from the points a g along the plans of
the edges, gives the plan of the upper heptagonal end of the

prism. It remains to draw an elevation of the solid on the

ground line xy. This elevation is shewn on the figure ;

the

construction for obtaining it needs no explanation.

Note. In the two problems the reasons for selecting the two vertical planes z z
last

for the elevations are evident. The elevations on these two planes are the simplest

possible and can be obtained merely from the known dimensions

of the solids. If

required to determine the plan of a prism of which the axis is

it is horizontal (the
inclination of one of the rectangular faces being given), it would be necessary to
assume a vertical plane at right angles to the axis. The elevation on such a plane
would be a polygon equal to that of the base or end of the prism.

Pro- Determine the plan of a Tetrahedron, one face being

cm in.' inclined at an angle a, and one edge of that face at an
angle /3.

Fig. 35, pi. x. construction for determining the plan a b c of the trian-
The
gular face A
B C is shewn, but as it is identical with that of
Prob. XIV., III., it is not explained. It remains there-
Chap.
d the plan of D the fourth angle or vertex of
fore, to determine
the tetrahedron and for this purpose it is necessary to obtain
the height or perpendicular distance of the point from the face D
Fig. 36, pi. x. ABC. ABC
(Fig. 36) is the plan of the tetrahedron
when
standing on the vertical plane D, the plan of its vertex or fourth
;

the circum-
angular point, evidently coinciding with the centre of
scribing circle of the triangle ABC.
Now the real length of
D C is that of an edge of the tetrahedron. Hence constructing a
THE PROJECTION OP SOLIDS. 49

right-angled triangle of which D C is the base and d" c equal to

A C (an edge of the solid) the hypothenuse, we have d" as the D
height of D above the plane of the triangle ABO. Returning to
Fig. 35, is the centre of the turned-down
triangle ABO, and Fig. 35, pi. x.

d and its elevation and plan when turned up into the plane
L M N, we have to erect at 0' a perpendicular to the plane
L M N equal to Dd" (Fig. 36). The projections of this perpen-
dicular are at right angles to the traces of the plane (Theor. 28,

p. 22) ; and since the perpendicular is

parallel to the vertical

plane of projection, its real length (D d") can be set off from
0'
(Theor. 12, p. 16), thus determining d', and hence by pro-
jection d.
It only remains to draw da, db, dc on plan, and d' a', d' b',

d' c' on elevation.

If the angle /? is greater than the angle a the problem is impossible. Note.

Draw the plan of an Octahedron, given the inclinations Pro-

s /3, of two adjacent edges.
Caseiv.'
The construction for determining the plan of any plane
polygon when the inclinations of two of its lines are given is

explained in Prob. XV., Chap. III.

In Fig. 37, PI. X., ab c is the plan and a' b' c' the elevation Fig. 37, pi. x.

of the face A B C, of which the edges AB and A C are inclined

at the given angles a and (3 respectively. The construction for

determining this face and the plane lorn containing it is shewn,

but needs no explanation, as it is identical with that of Fig. 21,
PI. The remaining three angles D, E, F of the
Y. solid lie in a
plane parallel to lorn. To determine this plane it necessary is

to know the height of the solid, the perpendicular distance

i. e.

between its parallel faces. Fig. 38 is a plan of the octahedron Fig. 38, pi. x.

when one face ABC is horizontal. This plan is

readily drawn,
since all its angular points lie on the circle circumscribing the

triangle ABC and form the hexagon A....F. Join DC,

cutting B A in q, and E F in p. The real length of D q is equal
H
50 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

to D p, hence if a right-angled triangle be drawn on Dq as base,

and having an hypothenuse q equal to D p, d' its perpendicular

D d' will be the vertical height of D above q, i. e. the perpendi-
cular distance apart of the parallel faces F. Eeturn- ABC, D E
Fig. 37, pi. x.
ing to Fig. 37, find (x the centre of the circumscribing circle of the
turned-down triangle ABC. Then turning Gr up into the plane

lorn, we obtain g ly g'i, its projections. From the point g g\ x

draw
a perpendicular to the plane I o m, equal in length to D d! (Fig.

38) the distance apart of the parallel faces. The projections of

this perpendicular are at right angles to the traces of the plane

(Theor. 28, p. 22) and its elevation g\g\ is equal to its real

length Bd' (Theor. 12, p. 16). Then the point g2 g\, the

extremity of this perpendicular is the centre of the circumscrib-

ing circle of the face D E F of which the plan is required. Join
g lt then a line from g2 parallel and equal to g b, but drawn in
b, x

the opposite direction, determines / one of the angles of the re-

quired face def. This face can now be

completed by joining
g a and g
x Y and proceeding as before, or by drawing lines
c,

parallel and equal to a b, be, c a, commencing at /. Join eb, ec,

a b, af, thus completing the plan. The elevations d', e',f,
b d, cf,
can be obtained by projecting from the plans d,e,f, on to a line

through g' 2 parallel to o I. (This line is of course the vertical

trace of the plane containing the face DEF.)

Note a. The symmetry of a solid will often suggest several ways of completing its
projections, but in all cases the plan of one face is determined by the given con-
ditions and must be obtained first.
Note 6. The problem is impossible if the angles B A C+a+j8 exceed 180.

Problem v. Determine the projections cf a right regular hexagonal

Case v.
prism, given the inclinations a, /?, of one face and the base
respectively.
Fig. 39, pi. xi. In Fig. 39, PI. XI., h! o t is the plane of the face of the prism
inclined a. A point vv' is assumed anywhere external to this
plane and is made the vertex of a right cone standing on the
horizontal plane and having an angle at the base equal to /8.
THE PROJECTION OP SOLIDS. 51

The elevation of this cone is the isosceles triangle v' m' n', and
the circle m n described with centre v is its plan. Then the plane
of the base must touch this cone (Theor. 29, p. 23). From the
point v' v a perpendicular is ;
drawn to the plane h' o t v' s', vs
are the projections of this perpendicular (Theor. 28, p. 22)

intersecting the plane h' o t in a a'. Then since the plane of the
base of the prism is at right angles to the plane of the face, it
must contain the perpendicular v' s', v s. Hence the horizontal
trace of the plane of the base must pass through p the horizontal
trace of this perpendicular (Theor. 24, p. 22), and must touch
the circle mn
(Theor. 29, p. 23). Thus pt is the horizontal
trace of the plane of the base, and the intersection of this plane
with the plane h! o t will be one edge of the base of the solid. The

plan of this intersection must pass through t the intersection of

the horizontal traces of the two planes (Prob. II., Chap. III.), and
must contain a the plan of the intersection of the perpendicular
v' s', v s with the plane h! o t. Thus the line a t is the plan of the
intersection of the two planes. Turning down the line whose
plan is a t about o tthe horizontal trace of the plane containing

it, we obtain A t. Produce t to B, making A A

B equal to a side
of the base of the prism ;
on AB construct the rectangle

ABGH, the sides AG, BH being made equal to the length

of the prism; turn up the rectangle and the parallel- ABGH
ogram abgh is obtained. This parallelogram is the plan of
one of the faces of the prism and a! g'b' h! obtained by projecting
on to the vertical trace of the plane containing this face is its

elevation. the plan of the prism turn down a b

To complete
about tp the horizontal trace of the plane of the base, and
on the turned-down line A' B' construct the hexagon A' .... F'.
This hexagon the base of the prism turned down about the
is

horizontal trace of the plane containing it, and therefore lines

from the points A' F' at right angles to tp determine
. . . .

the plans of the long edges of the prism (Note d, p. 29).

Making a' e' (on the elevation of the perpendicular a' s') equal to
h 2
52 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

B' D' the distance apart of the parallel sides of the hexagon and

projecting, we obtain e, which

must be one of the angles of the
base of the prism, and b d equal and parallel to a e determines
another point d. (The two points e and d must also lie on the

perpendiculars previously drawn from E' and D' to the horizontal

trace ip.) The remaining points (ef) of the plan of the base
must by the symmetry of the figure lie on the line bisecting a e
and bd, and also on the perpendiculars from E' and F' respec-
tively. The plan of the therefore complete, and it remains
base is

only to set off from each of the points c, d, e, f, distances equal to

a g or b h along the perpendiculars from C, D', E', F'. Joining
the points so determined the plan of the upper end of the prism
is obtained.
To complete the elevation, lines from a', g', b', h' parallel
and equal to a' e' determine the elevation of that face of the

prism which is parallel to abgh. The remaining four points

must, by the symmetry of the figure, lie on a line parallel to the

vertical trace o h' they can therefore be ob-
and bisecting a' e',

tained from their plans by simple projection. second elevation A

of the prism on a ground line zz is shewn, but needs no

explanation.

Not* a. Other methods of completing the projections of the prism after the determi-
nation oi abgh the plan of one face, might have heen adopted. Thus a complete
elevation on a ground line at right angles to tp might have heen readily drawn,
as in Prob. II. of this Chapter and the plan thence deduced.

Note 6. If the two planes whose inclinations are given make any angle 6 with
each other instead of being mutually at right angles, as in the above case, the
horizontal trace of the second plane must be determined by means of Prob. XVI.,

Chap. III. This horizontal trace and the intersection of the two planes being
first determined, the remaining construction is precisely similar to that above
explained.

Projections of
The determination of the projections of right cones and
cylinders should present no difficulty, since it depends on
cinders.
the

projection of circles explained in Chap. III., p. 33. It should be

noticed that in the case of a cone, the projection of its vertex and
THE PROJECTION OF SOLIDS. 53

also of its base being determined, tben if the latter is an ellipse,

tangents to that ellipse from the projection of the vertex complete

its outline.Similarly, in the case of a right cylinder, if the
projections of the two ends are determined, tangents to those

projections (if ellipses) complete the outline of the solid. Two

examples are added, but no figures are given.
The plan of the axis of a right cone makes an angle Pro-
em
a with xy, the axis itself is inclined p. Determine the pro-
jections of the solid, the base to touch the horizontal plane.
Draw making a with xy take this line as the plan of
a line ;

the axis. Parallel to this line draw a ground line z z, and on z z

draw an elevation of the cone. The vertical plane of which z z is
the ground line is
parallel to the axis of the cone, and hence per-
pendicular to its base ;
therefore the elevation of the cone on this

plane will be an isosceles triangle of which the base is equal to

the diameter of the base of the cone and the perpendicular is

equal to the axis or height of the cone. Further, one angle of this
triangle will be in z z and the perpendicular will be inclined at
/J (or the base at 90 /3), to z z. Hence this elevation can be
drawn. By projection, the plan of the vertex and the axes of
the ellipse are obtained. Draw tangents to this ellipse from the

plan of the vertex, thus completing the plan of the solid. The
elevation on x y is readily deduced. (See note on Projection of
Circles, p. 33.)

Compare this construction with that of Prob. I. of this Chapter. Note.

The plan of the axis of a right cylinder makes a with Pro-

xy, the base of the cylinder touches the horizontal plane,
and is inclined /?. Determine the projections of the solid.
As in the last problem, draw the plan of the axis, and make
an elevation on a z parallel to the axis.
vertical plane z The
elevation on this vertical plane will be a rectangle of which one
side will be equal to the diameter of the base of the cylinder, and
the other to its
height or axis. The first-named side of this rect-

angle will have one extremity in z z, and will make /? with z z. .

54 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

This elevation can therefore be drawn. Thence the equal ellipses

which are the plans of the two ends of the cylinder are obtained ;

tangents to these ellipses complete the plan of the cylinder. The

elevation on xy is then deduced. (See note on Projection of
Circles,/*. 33.)

Helices, or Screw Curves.

Helices. If a point
r moves round the surface of a cvlinder
"
with a uni-
Definition.

form circular motion and has at the same time a uniform motion
in a direction parallel to the axis of the cylinder, it will trace on
cy^ndricai ^q cylinder a curve termed a "cylindrical helix."
If a square or rectangle moves round a cylinder with a
uniform motion, one of its sides being always on the surface of
the cylinder and its plane normal to that surface and if it has at
the same time a uniform motion parallel to the axis of the cylin-

der, then each of four angular points will trace a cylindrical

its

helix and the solid generated by the square or rectangle will be

MmTthread. what is termed a " square screw thread." Similarly, an equi-

lateral or isosceles triangle moving round a cylinder generates a
" " "
Triangular
screw thread.
triangular or Y
screw thread." (In
x practice
A
of course, screw
threads are formed by cutting helical grooves round and out of a

cylinder and not by attaching threads outside it.) If there is

only one tracing square, rectangle, or triangle, the screw is said

"
to be single threaded." The distance parallel to the axis of the
cylinder traversed by a tracing point in one revolution is called
"
Pitch.
the " pitch of the screw or helix. In single-threaded square or
V screws the pitchequal to twice that side of the tracing figure
is

which is parallel to the axis of the cylinder, the groove into

"
which the corresponding or " female thread of the nut fits has
therefore, in a square-threaded screw, a breadth equal to that of

?f'acrew.
tne projecting thread. The diameter of a screw is that of the

cylinder out of which it is cut.

Pro- Draw the projection of a square-threaded screw, given

blem VIII.
its diameter and pitch.
THE PROJECTION OP SOLIDS. 55

Suppose the screw to stand with its axis vertical and the
tracing figure to be a square, the semicircle aZe (Fig. 40, PI. Fig. 40, pi. xi.

XI.), described with centre on xy, and radius equal to half the
given diameter is its half plan. Make a b set off from one
extremity of the diameter a e, equal to half the given pitch.
Then a square constructed on a b as side is the tracing figure of
the thread. Divide the semicircle a 3 e into any number of equal

parts, say six, the points of division are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

These points are therefore successive positions of the plan of the

tracing point a as it moves uniformly round the cylinder. Lines
from a and e at right angles to a e give the elevation of the

cylinder from which the thread is cut ;

on these lines set off

lengths from a and e respectively equal to the given pitch, and

divide these lengths into twelve equal parts (twice the number
of parts into which the semicircle a 3 e has been divided) by lines
1'. . . .12' parallel to a e. Then in one complete revolution the

point a moves up to the line 12'; and since the motion is uni-
form, in half a revolution a will move to 6'. Similarly, in one
twelfth of a revolution a will move up to line 1'. Hence when
the plan of a is at 1, its elevation will be on the line 1' and when
;

at 2, on line 2', and so on. Thus projecting from 1, 2, 3, &c,

on to lines1', 2', 3', &c, the elevations of successive points of the

helix are obtained. Points on the helix traced by the point b,

are obtained in the same way, a smaller semicircle being de-
scribed with radius b, and similarly divided. The helices
described by the other angular points of the square will be
exactly the same as those traced by the points a and b respec-
tively. In practice it is best to draw out the helical curves on
thin wood or cardboard, cut them carefully out, and then use the
" "
templates so formed to rule in the successive convolutions of
the thread.

In Fig. 40 the thread alone is shewn for the sake of clearness, the cylinder Note a.

on which it is traced being omitted. The figure represents therefore, a spiral

spring of square section.
The line a b describes a " helicoidal surface." (See Definition, p. 45.)
Note 6.
56 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
'

Note c. This screw thread is terminated at r 8 on plan, giving the rectangle r' in
elevation.
Note d. In drawing screw threads, the helical curves are usually denoted by straight
lines unless their size or pitch is very great.
Note e. Screw threads may also be traced by a moving circle or sphere. Instances of
and the " worm" of a still.
this are spiral springs of circular section The projec-
tion of such threads is obtained by drawing first the projection of the helix traced
by the centre of the circle or sphere, and then describing a number of circles with
centres on this helix and radius equal to that of the tracing figure curves drawn ;

to touch all these circles complete the outline of the projection of the thread.

It will be necessary to recur to Fig. 40 when treating of

development.
EXAMPLES.
1. the projections of cube of 3" edge when one face is inclined at 50
Draw
and one edge of that face at 30 (Prob. III., Chap. V.).
2. Draw the plan of the same cube when two of its edges are inclined at 45

and 25. Draw also an elevation on a plane parallel to one of the diagonals
(Prob. IV., Chap. V.).
3. Draw the plan of the same cube when two of its adjacent faces are inclined
at 45 and 75 (Prob. V., Chap. V.).
4. Draw the projections of the same cube when its diagonals are inclined at
40 and 25 (Prob. IV., Chap. V.).
5. Draw the plan of the same cube when three of its angular points are at

heights of 1", 1 25", and 2" above the horizontal plane. Make an elevation on a
plane parallel to one of the diagonals.
6. A sphere
of l - 75" radius rests on the horizontal plane. Draw the pro-

jection of a cube inscribed in it. One of the angles of this cube to be at a height
of 2 5" above the horizontal plane and the plan of one of the three edges forming
this angle to make 30 with x y.
7. The plans of three edges of a cube of 4 5" diagonal meet in a point and
make angles of 120, 130, 110. Draw the plan of the cube.
8. A pentagonal right pyramid has height 4" and side of base 1 5". Draw its
plan when one face is horizontal (Prob. I., Chap. V.).
9. Draw the plan of the same pyramid when one slant edge is vertical. Make an

elevation on a plane parallel to one of the sides of the base (Prob. I., Chap. V.).
10. Draw the plan of the same pyramid when the base is inclined at 38,
and one side of the base at 20 (Prob. III., Chap. V.).
11. Draw the plan of a hexagonal right pyramid, side of base 1-25", height

4", when one edge of the base and an adjacent slant edge are inclined at 20 and
30 respectively. (Determine plan of triangular face by Prob. XV., Chap. III.
Find the point in whicL a perpendicular dropped from the centre of the base
would meet this face. Obtaining the true length of this perpendicular, the centre
of the base is determined. Complete by symmetry of hexagon.)
THE PROJECTION OP SOLIDS. 57

12. The traces of a plane make 45 and 30 with x y. Determine the projec-
tions of a tetrahedron of 3" edge resting on this plane. One of the edges in the
plane to he inclined 20. (Turn down plane about its horizontal trace. Make
also an elevation on a plane perpendicular to this horizontal trace.)
13. An oblique pyramid stands on a hexagonal base of 1* 5" side, three of its

adjacent triangular faces are inclined at 60, 50, 40. Draw its plan and an eleva-
tion on a plane making 25 with one of the sides of the base. (The intersection
of the three planes whose inclinations are given is the vertex of the
pyramid.)
14. A
pentagonal prism (side of base 1 5", height 4") has its base inclined
at 80 and one of its rectangular faces at 50. Draw its plan
(Prob. V., Chap. V.).
15. Draw the same prism when two of its adjacent rectangular faces are in-
clined at 75 and 30. (Note b, Prob. V., Chap. V.)
16. An oblique prism stands on a regular hexagonal base (side 1-25") its
length is 4" and its axis makes 60 and 20 with the horizontal and vertical
planes respectively. Draw its projections. (See Prob. III., Chap. II.)
17. Two adjacent edges (length 3") of an octahedron are inclined at 87 and
24. Draw the projections of the solid.
18. Two adjacent faces of the same octahedron are inclined at 28 and 78.
Draw its plan. (See Note 6, Prob. V., Chap. V.)
19. The plan of the axis of a right cone (height 4", diameter of base 2*5")
makes 30 with x y. The axis is inclined at 50. Draw the projections of the
cone (Prob. VI., Chap. V.).
20. Draw the projections of the same cone when the plan of the axis makes
45 with x y, and one generating line is vertical. (Make an auxiliary elevation on
a plane parallel to the axis, and then deduce the plan.)
21. A right cylinder (height 4", diameter of base 2'25") has its axis inclined
55 and 25 to the horizontal and vertical planes respectively. Determine its

projections. (See Prob. HI., Chap. U. ; and Prob. VII., Chap. V.)
22. Draw the projection of a square-threaded screw 3" diameter and 0-75"
pitch (Prob. VIDI., Chap. V.).
23. Draw the projection of a F-threaded screw 3 25" diameter and 1" pitch.

Tracing triangle isosceles with vertical angle 55.

24. Draw
the projection of a spiral spring 3" diameter and 1*5" pitch.

Tracing figure circle 0-75" diameter. (See Note d, Prob. VIII., Chap. V.)
a
58 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER VI.

SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY PLANES.

DeBnition. The section of a solid a plane figure bounded
by a plane is
Section

by the lines (straight or curved) in which that plane cuts the

surfaces (plane or curved) by which the solid is contained. The
form of the section will depend upon the containing surface or
surfaces of the solid and also upon the position of the latter with
respect to the cutting plane. Thus the section of a pyramid is

always a rectilinear figure, while the section of a right cone is

(1st) a triangle (2nd) a circle (3rd) an ellipse (4th) a parabola
; ; ; ;

(5th) a hyperbola, according as the cutting plane, (1st) passes

through the vertex ; (2nd) is at right angles to the axis ; (3rd) is
inclined to the axis at a greater angle than the generatrix;

(4th) is inclined at the same angle as the generatrix; (5th) is

inclined at a less angle than the generatrix.

Se6t
i
a
J
ation.
^e sectional elevation or sectional plan of a solid is its section
combined with a projection on the section plane of those portions
of the solid which would be visible from that plane.
To determine a section, or sectional elevation of a solid, a

plan and an elevation of the latter will usually be required.

The following problems will serve to explain the method of
obtaining sections of solids by planes in various positions.

Sections by SECTIONS BY VERTICAL PLANES.

vertical places.

Problem I. Given the projections of a dodecahedron to determine

its section by a given vertical plane.

Fig. 4i, In Fig. 41, PI. XII., the projections of a dodecahedron with
SECTIONS OP SOLIDS BY PLANES. 59

one face on the horizontal plane, are shewn ;

A B is the ground
line of the section plane.

The required section (which must of course be supposed

turned down into the plane of the paper) might be constructed
on A B,or any line parallel to A
B as ground line ; it may
however conveniently be transferred to xy. The points 1 7
are the plans of the intersections of the plane with the AB
several edges of the solid, and by projection their elevations
1' 7' are obtained. These elevations determine the heights
of the points at which the plane cuts the several edges of the
solid (Theor. 4, p. 15). Hence to construct the section required
it is merely necessary to transfer the points 1 ...... 7 to ay
(preserving of course their proper intervals) and then to raise
perpendiculars equal to their respective heights. This may
readily be effected by lines from 1', 2', &c, parallel to xy, cutting
the respective perpendiculars. The seven-sided polygon thus
"
" "
obtained is termed the section of the dodecahedron on B." A
If a sectional elevation is required, it is
merely necessary to Sectional

drop perpendiculars on A
B from those points of the solid which
would be visible from the section plane looking in the direction
shewn by the arrows, to transfer the points in which these per-
pendiculars cut AB to xy simultaneously with the points
1 7, and then to raise perpendiculars from the trans-

ferred points equal in length to the heights of the points them-

selves, obtained from their respective elevations. The manner of

joining the points thus obtained with the angles of the seven-
sided section can be at once seen by an inspection of the plan.
"
The resulting figure the " sectional elevation
is termed of the
" on
solid AB;" it is shewn in Fig. 41, the sectional part being

distinguished by cross lining.

In practice, the points should be transferred from the section line to the new Note a.

ground line by ticking them off with a fine-pointed pencil on the

clean edge of a

slip of paper.
The seven-sided polygon 1' 7' is the elevation of the section of the solid. Note 6.

i 2
60 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

" "
In Engineering Drawing the term section usually implies
"sectional elevation."

Projections of a
The method of obtaining the projections of a dodecahedron with one face on
dodecahedron.
tll0h ori zontal plane is as follows :

Draw two equal pentagons having the edge of the solid as side, inscribed in
the same circle with angles alternating and at equal distances apart these penta-
;

gons will be the plans of the upper and lower

horizontal faces of the solid. The
sides of these pentagons will be sides of tho ten other equal pentagons which com-

plete the solid, and since these ten pentagons

have one horizontal side, they will
have also a horizontal diagonal, the plan of which will be equal to its real length-

Hence surrounding each of the two pentagons first drawn by a similarly situated
pentagon whose side is equal to a diagonal of the small pentagons,
we obtain the
remaining ten angular points of the solid. To complete the plan of the solid it is
merely necessary to join the angles of tho large pentagons to those of their respective
small pentagons, as shewn in Fig. 41. To determine the elevation it is necessary
to obtain the relative heights of the planes of the four pentagons, and it is evident
from the symmetry of the figure that the distances of the planes of the upper small
pentagon from the upper large pentagon, and of the lower small pentagon from the
lower large pentagon, are equal. From a (Fig. 41) one of the angles of the lower
large pentagon drop a perpendicular a 6 on the side of the upper small pentagon.
(This perpendicular coincides with a c the plan of one of the edges of the solid.) Then
since the real lengths of a c and a 6 are known, the vertical distances of b above a and
a above c can be determined. The construction is shewn and we thus obtain 6 6' as
tho whole height of the solid, and a as the height of the lower large pentagon.
a'

Draw two lines parallel to x y and at distances above it equal to 6' 6, a, a' and a
third line at a distance below the upper of the first two lines equal to a' a. Then
the elevations of all the points of the solid are obtained by projecting from their

plans on to these three lines and x y, taking care of course to project

from the points
of the lower large pentagon on to the first line above x y, and so on. (In the figure
these three lines and the sides of the large pentagons are not shewn.)

Sections by SECTIONS BY HORIZONTAL PLANES.

horizontal . .
,
planes. The section of a solid by a horizontal plane is obtained by a
similar operation to that described in the last problem. A line

xy and
cutting the elevation of the solid will
be
parallel to
the vertical trace of the section plane, and by projecting from
the points in which this vertical trace cuts the elevations of the
several edges of the solid on to the plans of those edges re-
the horizontal section of the solid is obtained. Thus
spectively,
a horizontal section is determined by projecting from elevation
SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY PLANES. 61

to plan instead of from plan to elevation, as in the case of a

vertical section. It should be noticed that the former of these

processes always gives the true form of the horizontal section,

while the latter gives the true form of the vertical section only
when the section plane happens to be parallel to the vertical

plane of projection.
In Figr. 42, PL XII., an octahedron with one face in the Fig. 42,
PI XII
horizontal plane is shewn in plan and elevation (see Prob. IV.,

Chap. V.). This solid is cut by three horizontal planes dividing its

height into four equal parts. The lines 1' 1', 2' 2', 3' 3', are the
vertical traces of these planes, while the six-sided figures 11,
&c,
22, &c, &c, are the sections of the solid by the three planes
33,

respectively. All the points, 1, 2, and 3, can be determined by

(

projection from their elevations but since the intersections of

;

some of the projecting lines with the plans of the edges of the
solid would be very acute, these points are best determined by

dividing the plans of the six inclined edges of the solid into four
equal parts and joining the points of division all round the solid.
When a solid or surface of any form is cut by a series
"

of equidistant horizontal planes, the plans of the resulting

sections are termed
" contours " of the solid or surface. Thus Contours.
tit i tv n
the three six-sided polygons shewn in tig. 42, are contours 01 the
De6nition.

octahedron, and the contour of any solid contained by planes is

made up of horizontals of those planes. In Fig. 42, those por-
tions of the contours which are hidden by the solid are shewn in
dotted lines. If the
upper portion of the octahedron cut off by
one of the section planes (1' 1') be supposed removed the remain-
" " "
ing figure would be the sectional plan of the solid, or Sectional plan.
plan
at 1' 1'."

sections by
Sections by Oblique
^ Planes.
oblique planes.

When contained by planes, the projections of its

a solid is

section by any plane given by its traces can be obtained by

determining separately the projections of the intersections of the

62 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

plane with each edge (Prob. VI., Chap. III.). In many cases
however, it will be found simpler to assume a new ground line
at right angles to the horizontal trace of the given plane, to
draw the elevation of the solid and vertical trace of the plane on
the new
co-ordinate plane, and then to project from the points
in which the new vertical trace cuts the several lines of the new
elevation. Of this method of proceeding the following is an

example.
Problem ii. pyramid stands on an irregular five -sided
^.n oblique
base determine the projections of its section by a plane
;

inclined to both planes of projection.

f'g. A In Fig. 43, PI. XII., abcde,a'b'c' d' e' are the projections
of the base, and v', v those of the vertex of the pyramid ; hot is
the given plane. A new ground line zz is assumed anywhere
at right angles \o o t the horizontal trace of the given plane,
and cutting it in s. Determine the inclination (a) of the given
plane (Prob. III., Chap. III.) ; then a line s I from s, making a
with z z, will be the new vertical trace of the given plane
(Theor. 26, p. 22). Make a complete elevation of the pyramid
on z z.Then the point in which s I cuts the elevation of any
edge of the solid is the elevation (on z z) of one of the angular
i

points of the required section. Thus i" is the point in which

si cuts the edge v" a", and its plan i (obtained by projecting
from i" on to v a) is one of the angular points of the required
plan of the section of the pyramid by the plane hot. The
remaining points of the plan are similarly obtained, and by pro-
jection their elevations on x y are deduced.
The upper portion of the pyramid cut off by the plane hot
has been removed in the figure, and the projections of the section
are distinguished by cross lining.

Note. The true form of the section can readily be obtained by rotating it down about
o the horizontal trace of
t, its plane. (See Note d, Prob. XIV., p. 29.)
SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY PLANES. 63

Sections of Curved Surfaces by Planes. sections

or curved

Tci
It the
i> i t i i
surfaces.
surtace is a right cylinder, its section by any plane
oblique to the axis will be an ellipse. If the right cylinder be Right cylinder,

enveloped by a square prism, and the section of the prism by

the plane be determined, the resulting figure will be a parallel-

ogram circumscribing the required ellipse. Similarly, if a right Right cone,

cone be enveloped by a square pyramid, the section of this

pyramid by a plane oblique to its axis will be eithera quadri-

lateral or a figure of three lines not closed. In the former case,
the section of the right conical surface will be the ellipse in-
scribed in the quadrilateral. In the latter case, the section will
be either a parabola or a hyperbola, and the three lines will be
three tangents to the curve further, if the intersections of the
;

cutting plane with those generatrices in which the pyramid

touches the conical surface be determined, these intersections

give points on the curve, which can therefore be drawn. The

following general method applicable to any conical or cylindri-
is

cal surface, provided only that its trace (see Definition, p. 30) is

given or can be determined.

A conical surface has a circular trace this trace and Pro-
;
"hloTM TTT
the vertex are given. Determine, 1st, the projections of
the section of the surface by a plane with given traces ;

2nd, the true form of this section.

In Fig. 44, PI. XII., v v' is the vertex of the conical surface, Fi g . u,
and the circle with centre c is its horizontal trace ; mo, on are
the traces of the plane. (Lines drawn at right angles to a; y and

touching the trace of the surface determine its elevation.) Then

if the plans of the intersections of a sufficient number of genera-
trices with the plane be determined, the required plan of the

curve can be drawn through them. In the figure v' V is the

common elevation of two generatrices v 1 and v 2, the plane mon
cuts these generatrices in the points a' in elevation, and a, b
64 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

respectively in plan ; a and b are therefore points on the re-

quired plan of the section of the surface. Proceeding in this
way, a sufficient number of points can he found to enable the
.
plan of the section to be drawn.
The true form of the section is obtained by rotating it down
about the horizontal trace (o ri) of its plane. Thus making a A,
/J B, each equal to o a', we obtain A and B, points on the turned
down or true section.

Note a. plan of the section is distinguished in Fig. 44 by cross lining and the
The
upper portion of the surface cut off by the plane m on is supposed to be removed
on plan.
Note b. The cutting plane mon has been assumed perpendicular to the vertical plane
of projection ; if this were not the case, the above construction could still be
applied after taking a new ground line and making a new elevation as explained
in Prob. II. of this Chapter.
Note c. In the case of a cylindrical surface given the axis and trace, the construction
would be similar, but the generatrices would be parallel in plan and elevation re-
spectively, instead of converging.

No absolute rules can be laid down applicable to all kinds

of surfaces, but may be remarked that surfaces will usually
it

contain certain sets of lines or curves easily obtained and the

intersections of such lines or curves with the section plane deter-
mine points on the section of the surface.

EXAMPLES.
1. A right cylinder, diameter 2", axis vertical, is cut by a plane inclined at

48. The horizontal trace of the section plane touches the base of the cylinder
and makes 55 with xy. Determine the elevation of the section and also its
true form.
2. A right cone, base 3"
diameter, height 4", stands on the horizontal plane.
It is cut
by a plane whose vertical and horizontal traces make angles of 35 and
60 with x y respectively. Determine the projections and true form of the section.
3. The same cone is cut by plane parallel to a generatrix and bisecting the
axis. The horizontal trace of this plane makes 45 with x y. Determine the pro-
jections and true form of the section.
4. The same cone *s cut by a vertical plane which bisects a generatrix and has
a horizontal trace inclined 45 to x y. Determine the elevation and true form of
the section.
SECTIONS OF SOLIDS BY PLANES. 65

A
sphere (radius 1 5") resting on the horizontal plane is cut hy a plane
5.

passing throughits centre, inclined at 50 and having a horizontal trace making

60 with x y. Determine the projections of the section. Determine also tho pro-
jections of the section of the sphere by a second plane parallel to and 75" from
the first.
6. One of the faces of a tetrahedron of 2 5" edge is vertical and inclined 30
'

to the vertical plane of projection. One edge of this face is inclined at 20. The
solid is cut by a vertical plane bisecting any edge and cutting \ off an adjacent

edge. Determine the projection and true form of the section.

7. A prism, length 3 5", has an equilateral triangle of 2" side as base.
This
prism is by planes into three equal pyramids. Show the lines in which these
cut

planes would cut the prism, and draw the plan of one of the pyramids when its
plane of section is on the horizontal plane.
8. A cube of 3" edge has one diagonal inclined at 70. It is cut by equi-

distant horizontal planes dividing this diagonal into five equal parts. Show
contours.
9. A pentagon an oblique prism whose parallel edges
1 5" side is the base of
make 55 and 20 with the horizontal and vertical planes respectively. Deter-
mine the projections of its section by a plane inclined at 45, and cutting two
adjacent parallel edges in points 25" and 1" from the base.
10. An ellipse with axes 3" and 1*5" is the horizontal trace of a cylin-
drical surface whose axis is inclined at 50 and 30 to the horizontal and vertical

planes respectively. The major axis of the ellipse produced makes 35 with x y.
The surface is cut by a plane inclined at 40, whose horizontal trace touches
the elliptic trace and makes 65 with x y. Determine the projections of the
section.
11. Two horizontal lines are 1*5" and 3 5" above the horizontal plane, their
-

plans make an angle of 95 with each other, and one of them makes 40 with x y.
A surface is generated by a line moving parallel to the vertical plane and meeting
the two lines. Determine its trace.
12. An annulus is generated by a circle 2" diameter, whose centre moves on
a circle 3" in diameter. The solid rests on the horizontal plane. Determine,
1st, the projection of its section by a vertical plane touching its inner surface and
inclined 60 to the vertical plane of projection ; 2nd, the projections of its section

by a plane whose horizontal and vertical traces make 60 and 50 with x y re-

spectively,
and which also touches the inner surface of the annulus.
66 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER VII.

INTEKPENETEATION OF SOLIDS, ETC.

Solids contained by Planes.

The following is a general method for determining the inter-

section of any two such solids, in any position with respect to
each other. In many cases however, special forms or positions

of solids will suggest simpler methods of operation.

In Prob. VI., Chap. IV., the intersection of two planes is
determined by means of their horizontals. If therefore, two

interpenetrating solids are cut by a series of equidistant hori-

zontal planes, the "contours" obtained (see Definition, p. 61)
will severally intersect in points on the plans of the intersections
of the respective faces of the solids. That is to say, the inter-
sections of any two contours (produced if necessary) of a face of
one solid with the corresponding contours of a face of the other
solid, determine the plan of the intersection of the planes of
those faces. Hence, if any portion of this plan falls within the

plans of both the faces in question, that portion will be common to

both solids, and will therefore be part of their common inter-
section.
This method of using contours in determining the intersec-
tions of two bodies is of considerable importance. The following

problem will serve as an example.

Problem I. Determine the projections of the intersection of an
oblique prism having an irregular four-sided base, with
an oblique pyramid having an irregular five-sided base.

Fig. 45, In Fig. 45, PL XIII., the projections of tbe two solids are
shown : abode is the base of the pyramid f g h k that of the
;

prism. The lines are the vertical traces of two hori-

l'l', 2' 2'
zontal planes cutting both solids. The contours obtained will
INTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS, ETC. 67

be, on the prism four-sided polygons with sides

respectively
parallel and equal to those of the base fg h k, and on the pyramid
five-sided figures similar to abode, and with sides
respectively
parallel. Thus one point on each contour being obtained by
projection, the contours can be completed by drawing lines
parallel to the sides of the bases, and terminated at the plans
of the edges of the solids. The contours thus determined are
figured 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, and 2, 2, 2, 2, the same figure being used for

the contours of similar level on both solids. Now the contours

of face bvc of the pyramid and gh of the prism respectively
intersect in the points p and q the line ft e therefore drawn
;

through jo and q, and terminated by the plans of the edges of the

face bvc, is the intersection of faces bvc and gh. Similarly,
the contours of face bvc of the pyramid and fk of the prism

respectively intersect in s and t; the line Sy therefore drawn

through s and t,
and terminated by the plans of the edges of
the faces in question, is the intersection of those faces. Proceed-

ing in this way, the complete plan of the intersection of the two
solids is obtained. The elevation of this intersection is deduced by

projection ; thus {$' e' is the elevation of ft e, 8' y' of 8 y, and so on.

In the present instance two contours of each solid are sufficient a larger ;
Note a.

number is however sometimes required, as will be seen in the case of curved

surfaces.
In Fig. 45 the contours are shewn in fine continuous lines where they would Note 6.

be and in fine dotted lines where they would be hidden.

visible,
The form of the intersection of these two solids should be noticed. The Note c.

pyramid passes completely through the prism, and hence the intersection consists of
two separate polygons. One of those polygons is a plane figure, since it lies

wholly in the face g h of the prism ;

the other is not plane, and can therefore be

represented on paper only by its projections or development. If a portion of the

pyramid (the edge v b, for instance) had fallen outside the prism, there would have
been only one polygon, and this not plane.
In determining the intersection of two solids by cutting both by a system of Note d.

parallel planes, it is not necessary that the latter should be horizontal. Any

parallel planes may be used, but those whose intersections with the solids can be
most readily determined, should of course be selected. For this reason vertical
or horizontal planes are usually preferable.

K 2
68 practical geometry.

Curved Surfaces.
The two curved surfaces may be either, 1st,
intersection of
a straight line, as in the case of two cylinders with parallel axes ;

or, 2nd, a plane curve, as in the case of a sphere and

a right cone
whose axis passes through its centre ; or, 3rd, a curve of double
curvature, as in the case of two unequal cylinders whose axes are
not parallel.
Theorem 33. The lines (straight or curved) in which two interpenetrating
surfaces are cut by a plane or a third surface, will themselves
intersect in points on the common intersection of the two
surfaces.

Hence, if everything is known with respect to the relative

positions and modes of generation of two surfaces, points on
their common intersection can always be obtained by cutting
both surfaces by a system of planes or of surfaces. That par-
ticular system of planes or surfaces whose intersection with the

solids is most easily determined, should of course be for the

selected

operation. Thus, two surfaces of revolution whose axes are

vertical, should be cut by a system of horizontal planes. Two
conical surfaces with oblique axes and any bases, should be cut

by a system of planes passing through both vertices. Two

surfaces of revolution whose axes intersect, should be cut by a

system of concentric spheres, whose common centre is the point

of intersection of the axes.
Problem n. Determine the projections of the intersection of a right
cone and right cylinder having axes respectively vertical
and horizontal.
Fig. 46, The projections of the solids are shewn in Fig. 46, PI. XIV.,
and it will be seen that a system of horizontal planes will cut
the cone in a series of circles concentric on plan with its base,
and the cylinder in a series of pairs of generatrices. To save
construction the cutting planes are taken, not vertically equi-

distant, but so as to cut the cylinder in equidistant generatrices.

INTERPENETRATION" OP SOLIDS, ETC. 69

Thus, the semicircular half end of the cylinder being revolved

parallel to the vertical plane about 1' 1' the major axis of its

elliptic projection, is divided into six equal parts in the points

2', 3', 4', 3', 2'. Horizontal lines through these points are the
elevations of the sections of the cylinder by the system of hori-
zontal planes. The plans of these lines are found by turning
down the half end of the cylinder, dividing it into six equal

parts as before, and drawing lines

through the points of division
parallel to the axis of the cylinder. The centre line is numbered
1, and the remaining lines are numbered 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4 out- ;

wardly from it. It will be seen, therefore, that each line in

elevation, except those numbered
corresponds to two lines on
1',

plan ; and similarly each line on plan, except those numbered 4,

corresponds to two lines in elevation. Now, the plane which
cuts the cylinder in the lines 4'; 4, 4, will cut the cone in a circle
of which d! d' is Hence, if with v (the centre of
the diameter.
the base of the cone) as centre and d' d! as diameter, or d' o' as

radius, a circle is described, the points e, e, e u e u in which this

circle cuts the lines 4, 4, will be points on the required plan of

the intersection of the solids. Points on the lines 1, 2, and 3
are similarly obtained, and tbe plan of the intersection is drawn
to pass through them. The elevations of the points thus deter-
mined on plan are obtained by projection. Thus e', e\, e', e\, on
line 4', are the elevations of e, eu e, ex . An
inspection of the plan
shews which of the points of the curves are on the lower half of
the cylinder, and the elevations of these points must be on the
lower lines similarly numbered.

The curves of intersection obtained in this case are of " double curvature ;" Note a.

that is to say, they partake of the curvature of both solids, and cannot be repre-
sented on paper except by their projections. They are however, capable of
development in two ways, as will be seen hereafter.
Since the cylinder passes completely through the cone, these are two separate Note b.

curves of intersection. If the cylinder were partially outside the cone, there
would be but one curve. If the cylinder were to touch the cone, the curve of
intersection would have two coincident cusps.
70 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

Note c. It should be noticed that the bounding lines of the solids touch the curves of
intersection both in plan and elevation.
Note d. In the figure the unseen portions of the curves are dotted, and the bounding
lines of the one solid are not shewn where they are cut away by the other solid.

The above a good example of the simple intersections

is

which occur in drawing out machine details.

Pro- Determine the projections of the intersection of two
cylindrical surfaces whose axes are oblique to both planes
of projection, and do not meet.

Fig. 49, In Fig. 49, PL XV., the projections of two right cylindrical
surfaces are shewn. The traces of these surfaces are ellipses
which, not given, must first be determined.
if Then if the two
surfaces are cut by a system of planes parallel to both axes, these

planes will cut the surfaces in generatrices whose intersections

will give points on the common intersection of the surfaces.
A point pp' is assumed on the axis of one cylinder, and
from a line is drawn axis of the other cylinder.
it parallel to the
Then ht x,
ht2 being the horizontal traces of this line and the
axis of the former cylinder respectively, zz is the horizontal
trace of the plane containing them (Theor. 24, p. 22), and ss, vv

parallel to z z will be the horizontal traces of planes parallel to

the axes of both cylinders. The three lines z z, ss, vv, cut the
elliptical traces of the cylinders in the points 1, 1, 1, 1 2, 2, 2, 2 ; ;

3, 3, 3, 3 respectively these points are therefore the horizontal

;

traces of the generatrices, in which the three planes cut the two

surfaces. The plans of these generatrices are obtained by draw-

ing lines through their horizontal traces 1..1, 2.. 2, 3.. 3, parallel
to the axes of the respective cylinders. The intersections of
these plans, the points a, a, a; b, b,b,b; c, c, c, are points on
the plan of the common intersection of the surfaces. Similarly
the intersections of the elevations of these generating lines give
the points a', a', a' ; b', b', b', b' ; c', c', c', on the elevation of the
required intersection. By taking more traces parallel to z z,
and repeating the above construction, sufficient points are ob-
tained to enable the required curves to be drawn.
INTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS, ETC. 71

Since one of the cylinders passes completely through the other, there will be Note a.

two curves of intersection, one of which will be a closed curve, while the other
will terminate at i x and i 2 , the points in which the elliptical traces intersect,

unless the cylinders are supposed to be produced through and below the hori-
zontal plane of projection.
The cylinders shewn in Fig. 49 are right cylinders, the method explained for Note 6.

determining their intersections is however applicable to any cylindrical surfaces

whatever, provided only that their traces can be obtained.
When the axes of both cylinders are oblique to the planes of projection, as in Note c.

this instance, it will usually be impossible at first to see what form the inter-
section will assume. This form will however become apparent when a sufficient

number of points have been determined.

Tangents to Curves of Double Curvature.

The limits of the present work do not allow of a full treat-

ment of the methods of determining tangents to curves of double
curvature. Two
points in connection with the subject may, how-
ever, be briefly noticed.
1st. The tangent to a curve of double curvature must be Theorem 34.

also a tangent to both the containing surfaces. Hence, if at any

point on such a curve a tangent plane to each surface is deter-
mined, the projections of the intersection of these two tangent
of a tangent at that point to the
planes will be the projections
curve of double curvature.
Tangents at any point to the projections of a curve of
2nd. Theorem 35.

double curvature are the projections of the tangent to the curve

itself at that point.

Development.

If a surface can be folded out on to a plane, it is said to Definition of

" "
be developable," or capable of development," and the plane
geometrical figure obtained by thus folding out a surface is
termed its " development."
All surfaces generated by the motion of a straight line are General rule.

developable if the generatrix in two successive positions always

lies in one plane. Thus conical and cylindrical surfaces are always
72 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

developable, while spherical, spheroidal, helicoidal and conoidal

surfaces are incapable of development.
Twisted Surfaces generated by the motion of a straight line and
" twisted surfaces."
Definition.
incapable of development are termed
Development The helix, whether cylindrical or conical, is
developable,
since" it is a curve of double curvature lying on a cylindrical or
Fig. 40, pi. xi. conical surface. Thus, referring to Fig. 40, PI. XI., if ad is

made equal to the perimeter of the semicircle a 3 e and d q (at

right angles to a a) to half the pitch of the helix, then q repre-

sents the point b' when the curve a b' is developed or folded out
on which xy is ground line. Further,
to the vertical plane of
since the helix has a uniform twist, the ratio existing between
the ordinates of the developed curve is constant, and the deve-

loped helix is thus the straight line joining a and q. The angle
"
q a d is called the inclination of the thread." Similarly bp is
the development of the inner helix, and the angle p b c its
inclination.

Note. is not uniform but has an increasing twist, as is the case of the
If the helix

rifling of some heavy guns, the ratio between the ordinates of the developed curve
is not constant, and the latter therefore becomes a curve.

The curves of double curvature represented by their projec-

Fi g . 46, tions in Fig. 46, PI. XIV., lie on two surfaces a right cylinder
and a right cone these curves are therefore capable of develop-
ment in two ways.
Fig. 47, First. If cf, Fig. 47, PI. made equal to the
XIV., is
pi xiv . . . .

Development perimeter of the circular end of the cylinder shewn in Fig. 46,
cylinder.
and divided into twelve equal parts, then ordinates drawn
from all the points of division at right angles to cf represent
the generatrices of the cylinder when developed or folded
out on to the horizontal plane. Hence, if these developed
generatrices (Fig. 47) are made equal to their
respectively
corresponding plans (Fig. 46), from the end of the cylinder
to the points where those plans meet the plan of the curve of
INTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS, ETC. 73

intersection, points on the development of the latter are obtained.

Thus, the two lines 1" 6" (Fig. 47) are both made equal to 1 6
(Fig. 46) (since these lines will coincide if the developed cylin-
der be supposed reconstructed) and each successiye generatrix is

made equal to its corresponding plan working completely round

the cylinder, 2" 8" equal to 2 8 ;
3" 9" equal to 3 9, and so on. ,

It is only because the cylinder (Fig. 46) is horizontal that the developed Note a.

generatrices can be made equal to their plans (see Theor. 12, p. 16) ;
if the

cylinder were inclined, the real lengths of these generatrices must be deter-
mined.
As drawn in Fig. 47, the cylinder has been supposed ripped up along the Note 6.

line 1 6 and then folded flat ;

it is obvious however, that any other line might
have been taken instead.

Second. If the cone be supposed cut in half by a vertical Development

i i i /
_of right cone.

plane z Y z 2 passing through its axis, the development of one ot

the halves would be a sector of a circle having a radius equal to
the slant height of the cone and an arc equal to half the peri-
meter of its base. V
Zt Z 2 Fig. 48, is thus the development of Fig.
, 48,

the half cone, the length of arc Z v Z2 being obtained either by

dividing up *, z 2 into small arcs, and setting off the chords of

these arcs along the arc Z t Z 2 (thus assuming the chord of a small
,

arc whose radius v zu to be equal to the chord of an equal arc

is

V
whose radius is Z, a sufficiently close approximation,) or else by
calculating the angle Zj V
Z 2 To place in this sector the deve-
.

lopment of one of the curves of intersection of cylinder and cone.

Draw va,vb (Fig. 46) touching the plan of the curve, make the
arcs Zj a' and Z 2 b' (Fig. 48) equal to z x a and z 2 b respectively,
then the lines V a', V b' will touch the developed curve. Divide
the arcs a b and a! b' into any number of equal parts, say six, and
draw lines from v to all the points of division (3, 4, 5, 6, 7) of
the arc a b, and from V to all the corresponding points (3', 4', 5',

6', 7') of the arc a' V. The former lines cut the plan of the curve
of intersection in points whose real distances from the vertex
of the cone set off along the corresponding lines of Fig. 48,
L
74 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

give points on the required development. Thus the line v 4

(Fig. 46) cuts the plan of the curve in the points r and s, deter-
mine the real lengths of which v r and v s are the plans, and set
off these real lengths on the line V 4'
(Fig. 48) from V, thus
obtaining S and E points on the development required. Points
on the lines V3' Vs', &c, can be determined in a similar
manner.

Note. The real lengths of v r &c. may conveniently be found as follows. Make
op equal to vr, and draw pp' from p at right angles to xy and meetings' n', the
the real length of v r, and V E must
'

bounding line of the cone in p',

then p is

be made equal to v' p'.

Solids The bounding any solid contained by planes is of

surface of

by planes. course always developable, and if two such solids intersect, the

development of the lines of intersection can be obtained on the

development of each. Thus, the prism and pyramid shewn in
Fig. 45, PI. XIII., can both be developed together with the
polygons (one plane and the other not) in which they intersect.
The determination of such development needs no explanation,
since it is
merely necessary to find the real lengths of certain
lines whose projections on two planes have been previously
obtained. (See Prob. II., Chap. II.)
Definition. The bounding line of the projection of a solid, i. e. the
latter's
apparent sometimes spoken of as its " contour."
outline, is
The term contour used in this sense must not be confounded
with the section of a solid by a horizontal plane. (Definition,

p. 61.)

EXAMPLES.
1.An octagonal and a heptagonal right pyramid stand on the horizontal
plane, the former has height 4" and side of base 1 5", the latter 5" and 1 25"
respectively. One angle of the base of the former is at the centre of the base of
the latter. Determine the projections of the intersection of the two solids.
2. A vertical prismon an irregular five-sided base (no side less than
1 25") '

stands on the horizontal plane, a horizontal prism with square base (1-75" side)
passes partially through the vertical prism. The lengths
of both prisms aro 4 5" ;
INTERPENETRATION OP SOLIDS, ETC. 75
I

the long edges of the latter make 35 with the vertical plane, and one of these
is outside the former
edges prism and 5" from its nearest vertical edge. Deter-
mine the projections and development of the intersection of the
prisms.
3. A vertical right pyramid and a horizontal The
right prism intersect.
former has a pentagonal base of 1 5" side, the latter a square base 1 5" side the
;

height of the former is 4 5". The axis of the prism makes 40 with the vertical
plane and cuts the axis of the pyramid at a height of 2" above its base. Deter-
mine the projections of the intersection of the solids, and obtain the
development
of the pyramid.
4. A
dodecahedron of 1*25" edge (one face horizontal) is penetrated by
a vertical pentagonal right pyramid, height 5", side of base 1 5". The axis of
the pyramid cuts the horizontal faces of the dodecahedron at '5" from their

centres, and the lower of these faces is 1" above the base of the pyramid. Deter-
mine the projections of the intersection of the solids.
5. A vertical pentagonal right prism, side of base 1*5",
passes completely
through a sphere of 2" radius. The axis of the prism passes at a distance of
25" from the centre of the sphere. Obtain the elevation of the intersection of
the solids on a vertical plane making 30 with one face of the prism.
6. A vertical hexagonal right pyramid, side of base
1 5", pierces a
sphere of
2" radius. The height
of the pyramid is 4-5", its axis passes at 25" from the centre
of the sphere, and this centre is 2 5" above the base of the pyramid. Determine
the projections of the intersection.
7. A vertical right cylinder, radius of base 1 25", is cut by a plane inclined
at 50. Obtain the development of the curve of section. (This development is
the projection of a cylindrical helix of long pitch.)
8. A
hollow sphere, external radius 2", thickness 5", has a cylindrical hole
bored through it. The diameter of the latter is 1 5", its axis is inclined 40 to
the vertical plane, and is 75" above the centre of the sphere. The boring
-

cylinder touches the internal spherical surface. Determine the projections of the
sphere.
9. A vertical right cone,
radius of base 1*5", height 4*5", penetrates a sphere
of 1*75" radius. The
centre of the sphere is 2" above the base of the cone, and
the latter touches the surface of the sphere. Determine the projections of the
intersection, and obtain the development of the cone.
10. Two hollow spheres, external radii 2" and 1 5", thickness 5", intersect.
The surface of the larger sphere passes through the centre of the smaller, the

plans of their centres are 1 25" apart. Determine the plan of the intersection.
'

11. Two
equal cylinders intersect ; their diameters are 1 25", and their axes
are horizontal and vertical respectively. Tho axis of the former cylinder makes
35 with the vertical plane, and its bounding generatrix on plan passes outside the
circular plan of the vertical cylinder and 25" from it. Determine the elevation
'

of the resulting intersection and develop either of the cylinders.

12. A hollow vertical
right cylinder, external diameter 2 5", thickness 5",
is pierced by a horizontal right cone, diameter of base 2 25", height 4-5".
-
The
L 2
76 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

axis of the cone makes 40 with the vertical plane, and the cone itself touches the

internal cylindrical surface. Determine the projections of the intersection, the

cone being supposed removed.
13. The horizontal traces of two right cones are ellipses whoso axes are

4", 2-
5" and 3 "5", 2 "5" respectively; the major axis of the former makes 25,
and of the latter 35 with x y. These elliptical traces touch each other. Deter-
mine the projections of the intersections of the cones.
14. Two equal right cones intersect, their heights are 4 -5", diameters of
bases 3 "5", and axes respectively horizontal and vertical. The height of the
horizontal axis is 2", it is inclined at 40 to the vertical plane and passes at a
distance of 25" from the vertical axis. The former axis would be bisected on
plan by a perpendicular dropped from the plan of the latter. Determine the
projections of the intersection of the cones.
15. A circular annulus, or anchor ring, is traced by a circle of 1*5"
diameter whose centre moves on a circle of 3" diameter. The plane of the latter
circle is horizontal. The annulus is penetrated by a vertical right cylinder of
1" diameter, which touches the annular surface. Determine the projections of
the intersection.
16. The same annulus is cut by a vertical right cone, diameter of base
1 5", height 3". The plane containing the path of the centre of the tracing
circle of the annulus bisects the axis of the cone, and the plan of this axis is

situated 5" within the bounding circle of the plan of the annulus. The vertical
plane containing the axes of the two solids makes 50 with the vertical plane of
projection. Determine the projections of the intersection,
and obtain the develop-
ment of the cone.
TANGENT PLANES TO SURFACES. 77

CHAPTER VIII.

TANGENT PLANES TO SUEFACES.

A plane is said to touch a surface at any point when it contains Definition,

alltangents to the surface at that point.

If therefore, the point on a surface at which a plane is to

touch that surface is given, the plane cannot he made to fulfil

any other condition.

A tangentplane to a sphere or spheroid and to all surfaces
of revolution generated by curved lines, can, if the point of con-
tact is not given, be made to fulfil two other conditions. In
the case of a ruled surface however, since a tangent plane
must, from the nature of the surface, contain one of the genera-
trices, it can only be made to fulfil one other condition.

It should be remarked however, that in the case of a twisted surface, Note.

although the tangent plane at any point must contain the generatrix passing
through that point, this plane will nevertheless be tangent to the surface at
that point only. At all other points along the generatrix the plane will be a
secant plane.

Thus, a plane can be determined to contain two given

points and touch a given sphere or spheroid, while a plane to
touch a given cone or cylinder can be made to contain only one

given point.
The following are examples of the determination of tangent

planes to the sphere, right cone, and right cylinder. Since a

representation on one plane of projection sufiices to determine
these surfaces, the method of indices or figured plans explained
in Chap. IV". is adopted.

Determine planes to touch two given spheres and con- Problem I.

tain a given point.

78 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

If the spheres are external to each other there will be four planes fulfilling
the required conditions ;
if they touch each other externally, three planes ; if they

cut, two planes ; if they touch internally, one plane ;

while if one sphere includes
the other the problem is impossible.

Fig. so, In Fig. 50, PI. XVI., a 30, b 10 are the centres of the given
spheres, p 30 is the given point, the unit of height being taken
as 01".
If a cone determined enveloping the two spheres, the
is

required planes must touch this cone. Similarly, if a second

cone is determined with p 30 as vertex, and enveloping either
of the spheres, the required planes must touch this cone also.
If then, the circles of contact of these two cones with the sphere
are determined, the intersections of these circles of contact will
be the points of contact of the required planes and the sphere.
A plane therefore, containing the vertices of the two cones and
also one of these points of intersection of the circles of contact,

will fulfil the required conditions.

In Fig. 50, PI. XVI., lines tangent to the circular plans of
the spheres determine the plan of their enveloping cone, and
v, the meeting-point of these tangents, will be the plan of its
vertex. Since v lies on the line a 30, b 10 its index ( 2) can
be determined. (Prob. I., Chap. IV.)
To determine the plan of the circle of contact of this

enveloping cone an elevation of the latter will be necessary.

Using the line a v as a ground line of level 30, the elevation of
the sphere on a v will coincide with its plan, and v' (obtained

by making vv' equal to 32 units, the difference of level of v and

the ground line) will be the elevation of v. Tangents from v'
to the circular plan (now elevation) of the larger sphere deter-

mine the elevation of the enveloping cone, and ml n' the chord
of contact of these tangents, will be the elevation of the circle
of contact of the cone and sphere. Hence, an ellipse described
with m n, the
plan of ml n' as minor axis, and with major axis
equal to m'n', will be the plan of the circle of contact of the
first enveloping cone and the larger sphere.
TANGENT PLANES TO SURFACES. 79

Again, since p the given point and a the centre of the larger
sphere have the same index, the axis of the second enveloping
cone will be horizontal, and its circle of contact vertical ; hence
st,
the chord of contact of tangents from p, will be the plan
of this circle of contact and x and y, the points in which s t cuts
the elliptic plan of the first circle of contact will be the points
in which the tangent planes required will touch the sphere.
The indices of the points x and y can be obtained as follows :

Suppose a great circle of the sphere passing through one of the

points (y) to be rotated about its horizontal diameter till its
plane is horizontal. This great circle will then coincide with
the plan of the sphere, and y' (determined by drawing a per-

pendicular to ay from the point y turned down or con-

y) is

structed. The distance y y' is therefore the difference of level of

a and y ;
and since y is below a, the index of y is 30 yy'
22 units. Similarly, the index of x is 30 + xx' k\. units.

remains merely to determine two planes, one contain-

It

ing the points v, p, x, the other the points v, p, y (Prob. IV.,

"
Chap. IT .). The " scales of slope of both these planes are
shewn.

There is another right conical surface which will envelope both spheres. Note a.

This surface will have a vertex between the two spheres, and will envelope one of
the latter in each of its sheets. By proceeding in exactly the same way with this
second surface two more tangent planes to the two spheres are obtained, completing
the total number possible. The plan of this second surface and of o its vertex
are shewn in Fig. 50, but the planes are not determined.
If the index of p had not been the same as that of a, the circle of contact of Note 6.

the second enveloping cone would have had an ellipse for its plan. The two
ellipses would intersect in four points, but an inspection of the figure shews which
are the points in which the circles of contact really intersect.
The construction above explained could of course have been made on the Note c.

smaller sphere.

Determine planes to contain a given point and touch a Pro-

T.J. blem II.
given right cone.
If the given point is within the conical surface the problem is impossible ; if Note,

it is on the surface there will be one plane fulfilling the condition ; if without the
surface two planes.
80 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

Fig. 51, In Fig. 51, PI. XVI., v 7, c 37 is the plan of the axis of the
pi xvi

given cone, and using this line as ground line of level 37, v' e
a
is the elevation of the axis, and a' V at right angles to v' c and

equal to the given diameter of the base of the cone, is the

elevation of that base on v c. From this elevation the elliptic

plan of the base is obtained. (See Projection of Circles, p. 33.)

Now the required planes must pass through v v', and if a
line drawn through vv' and pl9 (the given external point),
is

they must contain this line. Further, if from the point in which
the line through v v' and p 19 cuts the plane of the base of the

given cone, tangents are drawn to that base, the required planes
must contain these tangents, and must touch the cone in
generatrices drawn through their points of contact. Determine
p' the elevation on vc oip 19 and join v'p'.
Then v' p\ produced, cuts the plane of the base in i' ;

hence by projection, i 41*4 isthe plan of the point in which the

line through v 7 and p 19 cuts the plane of the base. Lines
from i tangent to the plan of the base of the cone are
elliptic
the plans of tangents to that base from the real point in which
the line through the vertex and the given point cuts its plane.
These tangents touch the base of the cone in points of which tt tt
(the points of contact of their plans, with the plan of the base)
are the plans. The elevations t\ t' 2 of t and t2 (obtained by pro- t

jection) determine the indices 46 and 31 of ^ and t 2 respectively.

It remains merely to determine two planes, one containing

v 7, i 41 "4, and ^ 46, and the other containing v 7, i 41 4, and ^31

-

(Prob. XV., Chap. IV.).

The scales of slope of these planes are shewn in the figure.

Note a. The points t

Y
and t
2 should be determined by one of the constructions of
Plane Geometry.
Note b. The problem may be solved in another way without using the base of the given
cone. If a sphere of any radius is inscribed in the given cone, and a second cone,
with the given external point as vertex, is determined, also enveloping this sphere.
Then, the required planes must touch both cones and can be determined
as

in Prob. I. of this chapter.

TANGENT PLANES TO SURFACES. 81

Determine planes to touch, a given cylinder and be

parallel to a given line.
Pro-
blem m "

If the given line is parallel to the axis of the given cylinder the
problem is Not*,
indeterminate. In all other cases there will be two planes fulfilling the
required
conditions, but if the given line touches the cylinder one of the planes must
contain it.

In Fig. 52, PI. XVI., a 27, b 5 is the plan of the axis of the Fig. 52,
. . PI. XVI.

given cylinder. On the line a b, taken as a ground line of level

5, an elevation (d', l',g', h') of the cylinder is made s-%% t 50*3 ;

is the plan of the given line, and s' t' is its elevation on a b.

Now, all planes tangent to the cylinder must be parallel to

its axis ;
hence if a plane is determined containing S T the
given line and parallel to AB the axis of the cylinder, the

required planes will be parallel to this plane, and must therefore

cut the plane of the base of the cylinder in lines parallel to
that in which the plane containing and parallel to ST AB
cuts it (Euc. XL, 16). Further, the lines in which the required
planes cut the plane of the base must be tangent to the circle
of that base (Theor. 31, p. 31) the plans of these lines will
;

therefore be tangents to the elliptic plan of the latter.

From T on the given parallel to
line, a line
B, is drawn A
the axis of the cylinder (see Prob. XIIL, Chap. III.) ; t' i\ is the
elevation and t i2 the plan "of this line, which cuts the plane of
the base of the cylinder in i'2 i2 The given line (S T) cuts the
.

plane of the base in i\ ix The indices of ix and i2 (determined

.

from their elevations) are l 5 and 14*7 respectively.

-

Then the
line joining i x and the plan of the intersection of the plane
i2 is

containing S T and parallel to A

B with the plane of the base
of the cylinder. Parallel to draw two
mm,nn, touching
i x i2 lines

the elliptic plan of the base of the cylinder in c and e respec-

tively. Then the required planes will touch the given cylinder
in generatrices, whose plans c d and ef are drawn from c and e

respectively. It remains therefore to determine two planes, one

of which contains the lines c d and to to, and the other the lines ef
M
82 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

and n n (Prob. IV., Chap. IV.). The index of c (determined from

its elevation c') is 11*8, and the indices of d and of any point

on the line in m can be obtained, since cd is parallel to a b and

mm Chap. IV.). The indices of e, of/,
to iii, (see Prob. II.,

and of any point on the line n n can be similarly obtained.

The scale of slope of the plane which touches the given
cylinder in c d shewn the other tangent plane
is in the figure ;
is

not determined.

Note a. In the construction above explained the plane of the base (i. e. of one end)
of the given cylinder has beenmade use of, and upon this plane the traces of the
required planes have been determined. The construction is however, applicable
to any other plane cutting the cylinder: thus the horizontal trace of the given
cylinder might have been obtained, and the horizontal traces of the required planes
thence determined.
Note 6. The points c and e,
m m, n n touch the ellipse, should be
in which the lines
determined by Plane Geometry. These points may however, be obtained as
follows :

rotate about its horizontal

Suppose the circular base of the cylinder to
" Construct " the
diameter till its plane is horizontal. points t t i 2 which lie in
that plane (Note d, p. 29). Draw lines parallel to the line joining these con-

structed points and touching the turned-down circle of the base. Finally, turn up
the points of contact of these tangents into the plane of the base again.

EXAMPLES.
(Unit 0-1".)
1. radius of a sphere is 1 5", the index of its centre 30. Determine the
The
scales of slope of planes tangent to this sphere at points whose indices are 39 and 20,
and whose plans are 1 5" apart.
2. Determine two planes touching the same sphere and inclined 50 and 40.

The horizontals of these planes to make 60 with each other.

3. A sphere, radius 1-75", rests on the horizontal plane. A line whose
inclination is 55 passes through its centre. Determine a plane touching the
index is 10 and whose
sphere, parallel to the line, and containing a point whose
plan is 2 25" from that of the centre of the sphere.
4. The index of the centre of a sphere is 35, and its radius is 1 5". A line
whose inclination 35 passes through a point whose plan coincides with that of the
is

centre of tho sphere, and whose index is 65. Determine planes containing the line
and touching the sphere.
5. Three points whose plans are at the angles of a triangle of 3", 3 5", and
TANGENT PLANES TO SURFACES. 83

4" sides, and indices 5, 20, 35 are the centres of spheres of 1", 1 75", and 2"
radii respectively. Determine two planes touching all three spheres. (Eight such
planes are possible.)
6. The plans of three points (indices 35, 45, 55) are at the angles of an

equilateral triangle of 2 75" side. Determine a sphere to contain the points and
touch the horizontal plane.
7. A
right cone (radius of base 1"5", height 4*5") lies on the horizontal
plane. The plan of the centre of a sphere of 2" radius is 3" from the vertex of
the cone. The plan of this sphere touches that of the cone, and the index of its
centre is 40. Determine planes touching sphere and cone. (Four such planes
are possible.)
8. The same cone stands upright on the horizontal plane. A
sphere of 1 5"
radius has its centre on a level with the vertex of the cone, and at a distance from
it on plan of 3". Determine planes touching sphere and cone. (Four such planes
are possible.)
9. The radius of the base of a right cone is 1 5", its height is 4". The index

of the vertex is 52, and of the centre of the base 30. Draw a line through the
vertex inclined 50, and making 50 on plan with the plan of the axis of the cone.
Determine the two planes which contain the line and touch the cone.
10. Obtain the scales of slope of all planes tangent to the same cone and
inclined 45. (Four planes are possible.)
11. One extremity of the axis of a right cylinder
(radius of base 1 5", height
4 5") in the horizontal plane, the index of the other extremity is 33. The plan
is

of the centre of a sphere of 1-75" radius is distant 4" from the plans of the
extremities of the axis of the cylinder. The index of the centre of this sphere is
20. Determine two planes touching cylinder and sphere. (Four planes are
possible.)
12. Determine two planes touching the same cylinder and inclined 65.
(Four planes are possible.)
13. A
line inclined 48 touches the same cylinder, its plan makes 45 with
and bisects that of the axis of the cylinder. Determine the point of contact of the
line and obtain' the scale of slope of a plane containing it and touching the cylinder.
14. A spheroid is generated by the rotation of an ellipse about its major axis,
which is vertical. The axes are 4" and 3", and the solid rests on the horizontal

plane. Assume a point on the surface whose index is 37 and determine a tangent
plane at this point.
15. Through a point (index 60) on the produced axis of the same spheroid
draw a line inclined 30. Determine two planes containing the line and touching
the spheroid.
16. An "Anchor
ring," axis vertical, rests on the horizontal plane. The
diameter of tracing circle is 2", and the centre of this tracing circle moves on
its

a circle of 2" radius. Through a point (index 50) on the produced axis of the
ring draw a line inclined 45. Determine planes containing the line and touching
the Anchor ring. (Four planes are possible.)
M 2
84 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER IX.

THE DETEKMINATION OF SHADOWS.

Use of
shadows.
A orthographic projection of an object is seldom sufficient
single
to determine its real form. Two such projections on planes
mutually at right angles, are required, and by comparing them
a practised eye can form a true estimate of the form and relative
dimensions of the object.
Suppose however that an object, of which one projection
has been obtained, is illuminated by rays of light proceeding in
some known direction, and that the illuminated portions of the
object and the shadows various parts upon each other
cast by its

and upon the planes of projection are determined and distin-

guished. Then, from the form and extent of these shadows the
eye will far more readily recognise the form and relative dimen-
sions of the object even though there is but one view of the
latter. two orthographic views of an object are
Similarly, if
constructed, each with shadows properly determined and dis-
tinguished, it will be still more easy to realize its true form.
be evident that in drawings required solely
It will therefore

for descriptive purposes, and especially in drawings intended for

eyes unpractised in reading and comparing orthographic views,

the aid afforded by correctly delineated shadows is of great value.

Outline op Shadows.

General The rays of light are assumed to be all parallel, and if a

solid in space is supposed to be illuminated and surrounded by
these parallel rays, a certain portion of the latter will be inter-

cepted. These intercepted rays will form either a prism or a

THE DETERMINATION OP SHADOWS. 85

cylindrical surface enveloping the solid. The former, if the

solid is containedby planes the latter, if by a curved surface.
;

If then this prism or cylinder of intercepted rays meets any

surface whatever, it will trace on that surface the outline of the
shadow cast by the solid.

The of contact of this imaginary prism or cylinder with

line

the solid which it envelopes is the line separating the illuminated

and unilluminated portions of that solid. If therefore the solid
itself is removed, the line of separation (supposed to have a
sensible breadth) alone remaining, the outline of the shadow cast

by the latter on any surface would be identical with that of the

shadow cast by the original solid. In the case of a solid con-
tained by planes, the line of separation of light and shade is
made up of those edges of the solid in which illuminated and
unilluminated faces meet, and can usually be distinguished by

inspection. In the case of solids contained by curved surfaces,

the line of separation is more difficult to determine. On the cone
or cylinder however, the lines of separation will be generatrices,
and on the sphere a great circle.
From the above it follows :

1st. That the outline of the shadow cast by any plane figure

(supposed opaque) on a plane parallel to itself is an equal figure.

2nd. That the outline of the shadow cast by any solid on

any surface whatever must be continuous.

3rd. That the problem of delineating the outline of the
shadow cast by any solid on any surface, reduces itself in general
to the determination of the intersection of certain lines or planes
with that surface.

If it appears uncertain whether of two plane faces of a solid both are in Note a.

light or in shade, or one is in light and the other in shade, draw a ray through

any point on their intersection, then if this ray passes between the two faces, both
arc in light or shade ;
if otherwise, one is in light and the other in shade.
Throughout this Chapter, and in Engineering Drawings generally, the rays of Note. 6.

If however they are supposed instead to proceed

light are supposed parallel.
from a fixed point, the form then assumed by the intercepted portion of rays is
86 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

that of a pyramid or conical surface. The principles of construction will how-

ever remain unaltered.

Problem i. Determine the shadow cast by a vertical truncated

right hexagonal pyramid on the horizontal plane of pro-
jection.

Fig. 53, In Fig. 53, PI. XVII., A .... F the base of the pyramid,
is

and a .... / the plan of its top. If then r and r' are the pro-

jections of a ray, the plans of all other rays will be parallel to r

and their elevations to r' (Theor. 15, p. 16). The faces bC, cD,
rfE, evidently form the illuminated portion of the solid. Hence
if the intersection with the horizontal plane (i. e. the horizontal

traces) of rays passing through the points a, b, c, d, is deter-

mined, the outline of the required shadow is obtained. The

points , y, 8, e, are these horizontal traces. It remains there-
fore merely to join B /3, fiy, y 8, 8 e, e E.

Note a. Since the plane of the polygon a .... /is horizontal, /Jy is equal and
parallel to b c, and so on.
Note 6. If the shadow of the complete pyramid had been required it would have been
t of the ray
necessary merely to determine the horizontal trace through its vertex
and to join t B, t E.

Pro- A truncated right cone stands on the horizontal plane

blem II.
of projection. Determine its shadow upon that plane.

Fig. 54, In Fig. 54, PI. XVII., h is the horizontal trace of the ray
pi XVII .

through the vertex v v' of the cone. Then, if q and p are the
points of contact of tangents drawn from h to the base of the
cone, planes of rays touching the cone will cut the horizontal
plane in hq and hp, while vq, v' q' and vp, v' p' will be the pro-

jections of their respective lines of contact with the cone. Hence

qabp is the shaded portion of the cone on plan, and p' b' is the
line separating light and shade in elevation. If then a circle
with radius equal to that of the circular top of the truncated
cone is described, 'with s (the horizontal trace of the ray through
the centre of this circular top) as centre, this circle would touch
THE DETERMINATION OP SHADOWS. 87

h q and hp, and would complete the outline of the shadow cast

by the truncated cone on the horizontal plane.

q hp is the outline of the shadow which would be cast by the entire cone. Note.

A right cone has a horizontal axis inclined to the Pro-

vertical plane. Determine its shadow on the horizontal blem II1-

plane.

If a, /3, XVII., are the horizontal traces

y, S, Fig. 55, PI. Fig. 55,
. PI XVII
of rays passing through the extremities of the vertical and hori-
zontal diameters of the circular base of the cone, and t is the
horizontal trace of the ray through the vertex v v' ; then, an
ellipse with a/3, yS as conjugate diameters being described,
tangents to this ellipse from t complete the outline of the shadow
cast by the cone on the horizontal
plane. (See note, js>. 33.)
To determine the lines of separation of light and shade on
the cone necessary to obtain, as in Prob. II., the lines of
it is

contact of planes of rays touching the cone. The plane of the

base of the cone is vertical, and i is the point in which the plan
of the ray through the vertex v intersects this plane. Hence i' .

(obtained by projecting from i on to the elevation of the ray

through the elevation of the intersection of this ray with
v') is
the plane of the base of the cone. Therefore, if from i' tangents
i'p', i'
q' are drawn to the elliptic elevation of the base of the

cone, these tangents will be the elevations of the intersections of

planes of rays touching the cone with the plane of its base
(see Theors. 29, p. 23 ;
and 31, p. 31). Hence lines drawn
from v' to p' and
q' (the points of contact
of the tangents from

i')
will be the elevations of the lines of contact of the planes of

rays, and are therefore the separating light and shade

lines

in elevation. The plans (p and q) of p' and q' are obtained by

projection, and vp, v q will be the lines of separation on plan.
The points of contact p, q of the tangents from i' to the elliptic elevation of Note a.

the base of the cone should be determined by construction (Plane Geometry).

The lines of separation of light and shade can be obtained in another way. Note 6.
88 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

If 8 is the point of contact of the tangent drawn from t to the ellipse o y /? 8,

then a ray through a will cut the plan of the base of the cone in p, and p' can bo
1
determined by projection ; q and q can be similarly obtained.

Pro- A
right cone (axis vertical) and a sphere rest on the
blem rv. horizontal plane. Determine the shadow cast by the cone
on the sphere the shadows cast by both solids on the
;

planes of projection ; and the shaded portions of the solids

themselves.

Fig. 56,
In Fig. 56, the projections of both solids and of
PI. XVIIL,
PI. XVIII.
the ray of light are shewn. The required operations are as
follows :

1st. Suppose planes of

rays to touch the cone, and determine
the projections of the lines of contact of these planes, their hori-
zontal traces and the projections of their intersections with the

sphere.
2nd. Suppose a cylinder of rays enveloping the sphere and
determine the traces of this cylinder and the projections of its
circle of contact with the sphere.
The necessary constructions are explained below.

The shadow cast by the cone on the horizontal plane and the shaded portions
of the cone are first determined, as in Prob. II. of this Chapter. Lines drawn
from h t
(the horizontal trace of the ray through the vertex) to touch the circular
base of the cone in a and 6 determine the shadow of the cone on the horizontal
plane, and the shaded portion (a v b) of the cone on plan. The shaded portion
of the cone in elevation is obtained by drawing lines from v' to a' and V, the
elevations of a and b respectively.
A portion of the shadow of the cone does not fall on the horizontal plane,
but is intercepted by the sphere. This portion will be now determined.
Todetermine the outline of the shadow cast by the cone on the sphere it is
necessary to cut the latter solid by planes of rays touching the former. These
planes will have h t, a and h t, b for their horizontal traces, they will touch the cone
in the generatrices v a, v b, they will be both inclined at an
angle a equal to the
anglo at the base of tho cone (Theor. 29, p. 23), and they will cut the sphere in
circleswhose projections will bo ellipses. If a ground line z z be drawn at right
angles to ht, b, cutting it in / and touching the circular plan of tho sphere, this

plan will then become ;.n elevation of the sphere on z z and fe', making a with
z z will be tho vertical trace
(on the plane z z) of the plane of rays touching the
cone in vb (Theor. 26, p. 22). Thus e'e' is the elevation on zz of the circle
THE DETERMINATION OP SHADOWS. 89

in which the plane e'fb cuts the sphere, and ee (drawn through c, the plan of the
centre of the sphere, parallel to z z and terminated by perpendiculars dropped
from e', e') is the minor axis of the ellipse into which this circle is projected on
plan. The major axis of this ellipse is equal to e' e' and bisects e e in p (see

p. 33). A
portion of this ellipse is now drawn and its elevation on xy
deduced. a precisely similar construction the section of the sphere by the
By
other plane of rays which touches the cone in v a, and has h t, a for its horizontal

trace, is determined. The projections of this section also are ellipses, and these
ellipses must respectively cut the two ellipses first obtained in i and i', the
projections of a point on the ray through the vertex of the cone. This affords a
check on the previous construction.
To determine the shaded portion of the sphere and the shadow cast by it on
the planes of projection.
The rays intercepted by a sphere form a right cylinder, and the outline of
the shadow cast by the sphere on the planes of projection is that of the section of
the cylinder by those planes. This outline is therefore made up of two ellipses,
one of which is the vertical and the other the horizontal trace of the cylinder of

intercepted rays. These two ellipses must intersect on x y, or the outline of the
shadow would not be continuous. Further, half the sphere will be in shade, and
since the great circle which separates the light and dark halves is the circle of
contact of the cylinder and sphere, its plane is at right angles to the direction of
the rays, and its projections are both
ellipses.
An elevation of the cylinder of intercepted rays is made on a ground line w w
taken parallel to the plans of the rays and touching the plan of the sphere. (Thus
this plan becomes an elevation of the sphere on w Draw m" s', m" s' touching
w.)
the plan (now elevation) of the sphere, and making with w w an angle ft equal to the
true inclination of the rays of light. The construction (Prob. II., Chap. II.) for
determining fi is not shewn. Then m" m" s' is the elevation of the cylinder
'

on w w, and c o' parallel to m" s" is the elevation of its axis. Thus m" m" is the
elevation (on w w) of the circle of contact of cylinder and sphere. Now lines
parallel to the rays on plan and touching the plan of the sphere in n, n determine
the plan of the cylinder. Hence n n is the plan of the horizontal diameter of the

great circle of contact, and is therefore the major axis of the required ellipse.
By projecting from m" m" the minor axis (m m) is obtained. This ellipse is drawn
and the elevation on x y is deduced (see p. 33). ,

It remains to determine the intersection of the cylinder of intercepted rays

with the planes of the projection.
The point o (obtained by projecting from o') is the horizontal trace of the axis
of this cylinder, and is therefore the centre of the ellipse in which the latter cuts
the horizontal plane. The major axis of this ellipse will coincide with the plan
of the axis of the cylinder, and s (obtained by projecting from ') is one of its
extremities. The minor axis is of course equal to the diameter of the sphere.
The ellipse thus determined cuts xy in two points, and that portion of it which
is above xy need not be drawn. The intersection of the cylinder with the
N
90 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

vertical plane is another ellipse, the axes of which can be determined in the
same way as those of the last ellipse ; or, since only a small portion of the new
on this portion can be obtained by drawing rays through
ellipse is required, points
a portion of the circumference of the great circle whose projections have been

determined, and finding their vertical traces.

In the figure the outlines of both cast shadows and shaded portions are
dotted -where they would be invisible. The outlines of both shadows and shaded
portions are not continued beyond the points
where they cut. Thus the outline
of the shadow of the cone on the horizontal plane is not continued beyond the
point in which it meets the outline of the shadow of the sphere, and similarly
with respect to the shadow cast by the cone on the sphere and the shaded portions
of the latter solid.

Note . The above use of the plan of a sphere as its elevation should be noticed. The

ground lines of the two auxiliary planes z z and w w could

have been assumed in
former was at to h t, b, and the latter
any position, provided that the right angles
parallel to the plans of the rays ; but by taking these ground lines touching the
own and a saving of
plan of the sphere, the latter can be used as its elevation,
construction is therefore effected.

Conventional Direction op the Eats.

In the preceding problems the direction of the rays has

been assumed at pleasure, and differs in each case. It is, how-
ever, evidently important that in Engineering Drawings some
convention should be adopted, so that the rays of light may
have a known and invariable direction.

conventional direction of the rays is taken to be

This
parallel to one of the diagonals of a cube standing
on the hori-
zontal plane, and having one face parallel to the vertical plane.

Fig. 57, Thus, in Fig. 57, PI. XIX., a b is the plan, and a' b' the elevation,
PI. XIX.
of one of the diagonals of a cube, and it is to this diagonal that the
conventional rays of light are supposed parallel. The projections
of the latter will therefore invariably make 45 with the ground
line. The real inclination of these rays, the construction for

determining which is shewn in the figure, is 35 16' very nearly.

Kote. French draughtsmen usually assume the rays to be parallel to the other
diagonal of the cube.
THE DETERMINATION OF SHADOWS. 91

Two
problems are added, in both of which the rays of light
are assumed to have the conventional direction above explained.

Determine on plan the shadow cast into the concave Problem v.

surface of a hemisphere resting on the horizontal plane,
and also the shaded part of its section by a vertical passing
through the centre and parallel to the ground line.
In Fig. 58, PI. XIX., to and n, the points in which the plans Fig. 58,

of rays touch the plan of the hemisphere, are evidently the com-

mencing points of the required curve, since it is at these points

that the hemispherical surface begins to be illumined. Further,
the outline of the shadow required is traced by the intersections
with the hemisphere of all rays passing through the semicircular
edge msn. Make a hemisphere on sp the
section of the
diameter parallel to the plans of the rays. This section is con-
structed on z z parallel to sp. Then since the rays of light are
parallel to the section plane, their elevations will make with z z
an angle equal to their real inclination (Theor. 14, p. 16).
Now a line from s'
(the elevation of s), making 35 16' with zz,

cuts the semicircular section of the hemisphere in t'. Hence t,

obtained by projecting from t', is the plan of the point in

which a ray through s strikes the hemispherical surface, and is
therefore a point on the outline of the required shadow.

Similarly, the semicircle a' j3' d' is the common elevation on

z z of imaginary sections of the hemisphere on a b and c d,

parallel to sp. From a', the common elevation of a and c, draw

a' ft'
then by projection
parallel to s' t\ and y are the plans of
the intersections with the hemisphere, of rays through a and'c,
and are therefore points on the outline of the required shadow.
By taking more imaginary sections on lines parallel to sp, and
proceeding in the same way, any number of points on the
required curve are obtained.
The angle t s' d = the
angle /3' a' d, but the angle ( s' d = half the angle Note.

( o'p', and y8'

a' d = half /3' d d' (Euc. III., 20). Hence the angle t o' p' = the
angle /3' dp' ; or, in other words, the point ft is on the radius t' d. Similarly, the
N 2
92 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

elevation of any other point on the outline of the shadow cast into tho hemisphere
can be proved to lie on t' o'. Hence the real outline of this shadow is a plane
curve, and all plane curves lying on a spherical surface are circles. Therefore,
the curve m jityn is an ellipse whose semi-axes are m o_ and o t. Hence the
points m, n and t
being obtained, the required outline of the shadow can be drawn
at once.

remains to determine the shaded part of the section of

It

the hemisphere by a plane through o parallel to xy. This

section (the semicircle a" d") is shewn in Fig. 58, and is con-
structed on xy.
Draw
the elevation of a ray touching the semicircular outline
of the section of the hemisphere in e', and determine e the plan of

e', and m" the elevation of m. Then the portion of the outline
of the section which casts the required shadow is a" m", a on m
the horizontal, and a" e', ae on the vertical great circle. Deter-
mine )8" the elevation of j8 on z y, then a cusp on the
/8" is

required outline of the shadow. Further, the portion of outline

of this shadow between )8" and m" is
obviously the elevation of
a portion of the previously determined ellipse mfin; this portion
can therefore be obtained. To find points on the remaining
portion of the outline between /8" and e', take a section of the

hemisphere through q (any point between a and e) by a vertical

plane parallel to the plans of the rays. The elevation of this

section on z z is the semicircle q' r', and since q' on this semi-
circle is the elevation of q, the line q'i' parallel to the real
and cutting the semicircle, determines i'
direction of the rays,

the elevation of a point in which a ray through q cuts the

hemispherical surface. By projection i the plan of i' is obtained,

and i", the elevation of i on xy, is a point on the required
"
outline of the shadow between and e'. Similarly other
points on the outline of this portion of the shadow can be
obtained.

Note. The true inclination of the rays which has been made use of in this problem
should be obtained by construction, as in Fig. 57.
THE DETERMINATION OP SHADOWS. 93

A cylindrical bolt having a cylindrical head stands Pro-

em
vertical on the horizontal plane. Determine the shadow
cast on the shank by the projecting head.

An elevation and half plan

r of the bolt are shewn in Fig. 59,' Kg-
PI.
59 .
XIX.
t

PI. XIX. Then since the plans of rays will touch the plans of
the head and shank in b and a respectively, generatrices at these .

points will be the bounding lines of their unilluminated portions.

Now it is the lower edge c' d' of the head which casts a shadow,
hence it is necessary to draw rays through this edge and deter-
mine their intersections with the bolt. Thus //', hh! are the
projections of two points on the lower edge of the head, through
/ and h draw the plans, and through / and h! draw the elevations
'

of rays. The former cut the plan of the bolt in 1 and 2 re-

spectively ;
hence 1', 2'(the elevations of 1 and 2 obtained by
projection) are points on the required outline of the shadow.
Similarly, other points can be determined.
The commencing point of the visible outline of the shadow will evidently be Note a.

the point obtained by the intersection with the bolt of the ray e 3,_e' 3', which
3'

passes through the bounding generatrix 3 I' of the bolt.

The curve 3', 1', 2', &c, need not be drawn beyond the point where it meets Note i>.

the outline of the unilluminated portion of the bolt. The outline of the invisible

portion of the shadow is not shewn.

Shaded Portions op Solids op Revolution.

The outline of the shaded portion of a solid of revolution

can always be determined in the following way :

Suppose the solid to be cut by a series of planes passing

through its axis, obtain the projection of the ray on each of
these planes, and in each plane draw a line tangent to the
section of the solid and parallel to the projection of the ray on
that plane. Then the points of contact of these tangents are
points on the required outline of the unilluminated portion.
Thus, in the case of an annulus generated by a circle, and
94 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
"
having a vertical axis the " torus round the capital of a
(e. g.

column), planes through the axis will be vertical, and will cut
the solid in circles whose plans are straight lines. Then the
true inclination of the projection of the ray on one of these
section by that plane is rotated
planes being determined, the
about the axis of the solid into a vertical plane parallel to xy.
The elevation of this section will then be a circle, coinciding with
the elevation of the annulus. Tangents to this circle, making
with xy the previously obtained angle, must now be drawn, and
the points of contact of these tangents must be rotated back
into the original position of the section plane, thus determining

points on the required outline of the unilluminated portion of the

solid on plan. The elevations of the points thus obtained can be

readily deduced. By making use of several section planes in

the way above indicated, other points on the required outline
can be determined.

Note. If tangents are drawn to the plan of any solid of revolution parallel to
the plans of the rays, the points of contact of those tangents will be the extremities
of the visible outline of the dark portion of this view of the solid, and similarly
with respect to the elevation of the solid and of the rays.

EXAMPLES.

(N.B. In the following examples the rays of light are supposed conventional,
unless otherwise specified.)
1. The vertex of an inverted right hexagonal pyramid (height 4", side of base

1*25") is in the horizontal plane. One edge is in the vertical plane, and the axis
is vertical. Determine the dark portion of the pyramid and the shadow cast on
both planes of projection.
2. A
pentagonal right prism (side of base 1*6", height 4") has one edge of its
base in the horizontal plane; the corresponding edge of its opposite end is in
the vertical plane, and the axis is inclined at 50. Determine the dark portion
and the shadow cast on both planes of projection. (The rays are inclined at 40,
and their plans make 45 with the plan of the axis of the prism.)
3. An octahedron (2-6" edge) has its lowest face parallel to, and 1" above

the horizontal plane. The centre of this face is 2" from the vertical plane, and
THE DETERMINATION OP SHADOWS. 95

one of its edges makes 30 with that plane. Determine the shadow cast on the
planes of projection.
4. An inverted right cone (height 3-5", radius of base T25") has its vertex

in the horizontal plane, and axis vertical. The base touches the vertical plane.
Determine the dark portion in plan and elevation, and the shadow cast on the
plane of projection.
5. A hollow inverted right cone (radius of base 1-5", height 2'75") has its
axis vertical. It is truncated at a distance of "75" from the vertex by a plane

parallel to its base. Determine the shadow cast on its interior surface.

6. The centre of a sphere of 1-25" radius is 1:6" and 2" from the horizontal
and vertical planes respectively. Determine its shaded portion in plan and eleva-
and the shadow cast on both planes of projection.
tion,
Determine the shadow of the same sphere on a plane inclined 40,
7.

and having a horizontal trace touching the plan of the sphere and making 45
with xy.
8. An ellipse (axes 3" and 2") generates a spheroid by rotation about its
major axis, which is vertical. Determine the dark portions of its projections and
the shadow cast on the horizontal plane.
9. A
vertical cylindrical bolt (diameter 2") has a hexagonal head (side 1-5'').

Determine the shadow cast by the head on the shank.

10. An annulus is generated by a circle of 2" diameter whose centre moves
in a circle of 3" diameter. The axis of the annulus is vertical. Determine its
shaded portion in plan and elevation, and the shadow cast on the horizontal
plane.
11. A square-threaded screw (diameter 3", pitch 1") stands vertical. Deter-
mine the shaded portion of its elevation.
12. Determine the shaded portion of the section of the corresponding female
screw by a vertical plane through the axis.
13. Determine the shaded portion in elevation of a vertical V-thread screw,
diameter 3", pitch 1", angle of thread 55.

In the following examples it is intended that the data as to dimensions Note.

of the solids and direction of the ray should be assumed by the student or indi-
cated by the instructor. The shadows cast on the planes of projection should
be determined in each case :

14. Determine the shadow cast by a vertical cone on a horizontal

cylinder.
15. Two
equal intersecting right octagonal prisms each
have one edge of
the base in the horizontal plane, the axes bisecting each other at right angles.

Determine the shadow cast by one prism on the other and by the compound solid
on the horizontal plane.
16. Determine the shadow of a vertical pyramid on a vertical prism.
17. Determine the shadow of a vertical cone on a vertical prism.
96 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
>

18. Determine the shadow of a sphere on a vertical cone.

19. Dotermine the shadow of a sphere on a vertical cylinder.
20. Determine the shadow of a sphere on a horizontal prism.
21. Determine the shadow of a vertical cone on an Anchor ring resting on
the horizontal plane.
22. Determine the shaded portion of the vertical section of a vertical

cylinder with a piston fitting into it. (The piston to be in elevation.)

23. Determine the shaded portion of a horizontal section of a cylindrical
boiler with hemispherical ends.
SHADE-LINES AND SHADING. 97
I

CHAPTER X.

SHADE-LINES AND SHADINGS

Shade-lines.

Shade-lines are now very extensively employed in Engineer- shade-iin.

ing Drawings. When properly placed they render a single

view of an object more intelligible by giving the appearance of
relief to its parts.
In shade-lining a drawing the following rules should be
strictly observed :

Shade-lines denote the intersection of two surfaces, one of Rule l.

which is illuminated, the other in shade, and the latter invisible.

Shade-lines should therefore never be placed at the junction of

two surfaces, both of which are visible up to their line of
intersection.

If the visible surface has a curved outline, the shade-line would begin at the Note.

points at which the rays touch this outline, and its full strength should be
gradually gained, starting at those points.

Shade-lines should never be drawn to indicate the outline or Rule 2.

" "
contour of a curved surface.

Thus the elevation of a vertical right cylinder would be a rectangle, and the Note.

only shade-line in this elevation would be the line representing the base of the
cylinder. On the other hand, the elevation of a vertical square prism, with one
face parallel to the vertical plane, would be a rectangle also, but one of the sides
as well as the base would be a shade-line.

In shade-lining a drawing, the rays of light are supposed to Rule 3.

take the conventional direction explained in page 90. Thus, if

a plan and one elevation of an object are to be shade-lined, the

rays in the former will come from the left-hand bottom

corner of
o
98 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

the paper, and in the latter from the left-hand top corner, making
45 with the edges of the 'paper in each case. The direction of
the rays in the case of other elevations will be understood by
Fig. 60, referring to Fig. 60, PI. XIX. In this figure the plan of a cube
PI. XIX.
resting on the horizontal plane is shewn, and also the elevations
of its four vertical faces. Then in the elevation of the
Front face, a c, that drawn on x y the ray proceeds from the
;

left top corner.

Left-side face, a d, that drawn on 22 ; the ray proceeds from

the right top corner.

Right-side face, b c, that drawn on 44 ; the ray proceeds from

the top corner.
left
Rear face,d b, that drawn on 33 ; the ray proceeds from the

right top corner.

Note a. The above directions of the rays are of coarse those which would be
apparent to a spectator facing the respective planes on which the elevations
are made.
Note 6. The four elevations might have been all constructed on x y, but the direction
of the ray with respect to each elevation would be unaltered.
Note c. In the figure each of the four vertical faces of the cube is distinguished by
a projection or a recess. Thus the face a c has a circular recess, ad a square
recess, 6 c a square projection, and d b a circular projection. These projections
and recesses are correctly shade-lined in their respective elevations.

Rule 4. It is better never to use shade-lines to a drawing on which

shading is
employed, or cast shadows are distinguished.
Rule 5. Always place shade-lines so that their breadth is outside the
outline of the object.
Shade-lines Shade-lines to sections follow the above rules, the direction
to sections.
of the ray in any particular section depending upon the position
of the cutting plane.
Fig. 61,
PI. XIX.
In Fig. 61, PI. XIX., a side elevation of the endmost joint
of the lower boom of a girder bridge is given, shewing the two
cast-iron saddles by means of which an articulated bearing is

secured, and also the rollers supporting the lower saddle and
providing for the expansion and contraction of the girder. This
SHADE-LINES AND SHADING. 99

figure well exemplifies the value of shade-lines, and should be

carefully studied.
It will be noticed that shade-lines are shewn half round the rivet-heads, Note.

which would strictly indicate that the latter were of cylindrical instead of
spherical form. This treatment of rivets is however, a recognised convention,
and one from which no mistake would be likely to arise.

Shading.

Shading is
employed to render the true form of an object
intelligible in a single view. Thus, a vertical cylinder in eleva-
tion requires a plan in order that its true form may be recognised,
while a shaded elevation of the same cylinder explains itself.

Shading in Engineering Drawings is but little used, on

account of the time and labour it requires : a knowledge of its

rules however, very desirable, since a few properly disposed

is,

shades can frequently be made to add considerably to the clear-

ness and general effect of the view of an object.
The following rules should be strictly observed :

Illuminated plane surfaces parallel to the plane of projection Rule l.

receive flat tints. The nearer the surface is to the eye, the
lighter such tints should be.
Illuminated plane surfaces inclined to the plane of projection Rule 2.

receive graduated tints, becoming darker as such surfaces

recede from the eye. Of two such surfaces unequally inclined>
that which receives the rays most directly is lightest.
Unilluminated plane surfaces parallel to the plane of projection Rule 3.

receive flat tints. The nearer the surface is to the eye, the
darker such tints should be.
Unilluminated plane surfaces inclined to the plane of projec- Rule 4.

tion receive graduated tints, becoming lighter as such surfaces

recede from the eye.

The tint of the darkest portion of an illuminated surface should be approxi- Note.

mately equal in depth to that of the lightest portion of an unilluminated surface.

o 2
100 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

For shading, two brushes (which may conveniently be placed

at opposite ends of the same holder) are required one for laying
:

on the tint, the other for softening off its edges with clean water.
The two brushes should be of good size, and blotting paper
should be at hand for emptying either at pleasure. The shading
tints- should be laid on in narrow strips, beginning always with

the darkest portions of the object. Before the edges of these

strips have time they should be softened off with the

to dry,

clean brush, which should be only just moistened for the purpose.
When the first strip is quite dry, the next should be laid over
and beyond it, and softenedthe same way.
off in It is better

not to try to attain the required depth of shade too quickly.

The greater the number of tints, the softer the general appear-
ance, and the more delicate the gradation will be.

Shading Shading by strips alone, without softening off, is sometimes

by strips.
practised, especially by French draughtsmen.
Bold and striking
obtained by this method.
effects are

Figs. 62 and In Figs. 62 and 63, PI. XIX., thee levations of two equal
63, PI. XIX.
vertical hexagonal prisms are shewn, and shaded respectively

by and by softened washes.

strips
Curved Curved surfaces are shaded in accordance with the above
surfaces.

rules; they require however some further explanation. In

Fig. 64,
PI. XIX. Fig. 64, PI. XIX., the elevation and half plan of a vertical right

cylinder is shewn. A
line parallel to the plans of the rays

touches the plan of the base of the cylinder in d, hence the por-
tion of the cylinder a to d in plan a a' to d' d' in elevation, is

illuminated, the remaining portion (cl to e in plan d' d' to e e' in

elevation) being in shade. Now
the light falls on this cylinder
most directly at the generatrix I,
I' I', this should therefore (Rule

2) be the lightest portion. But from I' I' to do' succeeding

generatrices approach the eye, the surface about these genera-

trices ought, therefore, to be continually lighter (Rule 2). To
comply with the above considerations, bisect the angle lo' o by
o' r, and make the portion I r in plan V V r' r' in elevation the
SHADE-LINES AND SHADING. 101

lightest portion. This portion need, in fact, receive no shading

tint, and may remain white. Again, the darkest portion of the
cylinder is evidently about the generatrix d' d'. Thus, from r' r'

to d' d' the shade will increase in depth, and from d' d' to e e' it

will diminish.
In accordance with the above considerations, the cylinders
shewn in Figs. 64 and 65 are shaded ; the former by r > the
* strips, Figs. 64 and
, , p , , 65, PI. XIX.
latterby sottened washes.
The cylinder has been selected as an example of shading on
account of its very frequent recurrence in machine drawing ;
other curved surfaces, as the cone and sphere, require merely the

intelligent application of the principles above laid down.

Cast shadows, i. e. shadows cast by one portion of an object cast shadows.

upon another, are treated according to Rules 3 and 4; their

darkest portions are those on which the rays, if not inter-

cepted, would fall most directly.

In Topographical Drawing shading is employed inde- Topographical
pendently of any supposed condition with regard to the rays of
light. In such drawings a shading tint merely signifies inclina- .

tion to the
plane of projection. The greater this inclination, the
darker the shade is made. It is on this principle that shaded

plans of hill districts are tinted.

102 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER XL
ISOMETKIC PROJECTION.
Isometric Projection seldom used in Engineering Drawings.
is

It is, however, sometimes valuable in explaining small compli-

cated details, and a knowledge of its principles affords some

aid in making rough explanatory sketches.
Theorem 36. If three straight lines, meeting in a point and mutually at

right angles, are equally inclined to the horizontal plane, their plans
willmake equal angles with each other ; three equal segments of
the original lines will be represented in plan by three lengths

equal to each other; and generally, any distances set off any-
where on the three original lines, or on any lines parallel to
them, will have lengths in plan bearing always a fixed relation
to the respective original distances.
For example, imagine a cube resting with one angular point
on the horizontal plane, the diagonal through that point being
vertical. Then the three edges of the cube meeting in either

extremity of the vertical diagonal are equally inclined to the hori-

zontal plane and the planes of the three faces bounded by these
;

edges also make equal angles withthe horizontal plane. Hence

the plans of these three edges will be three lines making 120
with each other, and the outline of the complete projection of
the cube will be a hexagon. This bounding hexagon, together
with the plans of the edges which meet in the extremities of
the vertical diagonal, constitutes the " isometric projection," or
" isometric
view," of the cube.
It will be evident therefore, that isometric projection is simply
the orthographic projection of an object specially situated with

respect to the planes of projection, this special position being such

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION. 103

that all lines parallel to the length, breadth, or height of the

object make equal angles with the horizontal plane. Isometric

projection is therefore in no sense perspective, since parallel lines

of an object are represented by parallel lines in its isometric view.
The three imaginary lines parallel to which in an isometric
view the length, breadth, and height of the various portions of
an object are taken, are called " isometric axes," and any lines isometric aies.
parallel to these axes are termed "isometric lines." The iso- isometric lines,

metric axes therefore, always make 120 with each other, while
all right angles contained by isometric lines are represented by

angles of 60 or 120.
In Fig. 66, PL XX., the three lines ox, oy, oz, meeting in Fig. 66,

o and making 120 with each other, are the isometric axes equal ;

lengths, oa, ob, oc are set off on each and from a, b, and c, lines
are drawn parallel to the other two axes, determining the points

d, e, and /. The resulting figure evidently a hex-

adbecf is

agon, and is the isometric projection of the cube before referred

to. It will be recognised as the orthographic plan of a cube, one

diagonal of which is vertical. Thus, ao,bo,co are the plans of

the three edges meeting in the upper extremity of this diagonal,
while do,eo, fo are the plans of the three invisible edges meeting
in its lower extremity.

Thus, by the simplest possible construction, a projection of

the cube is obtained, in which three faces (adeo, be co, cfao)
are visible. This then
the advantage of isometric projection
is : Advantage of

it affords a perfectly simple method of obtaining an oblique view projection.

of an object in such a position that several faces are simul-

taneously presented to the eye. Thus an isometric view can be

made to do duty for a plan and two orthographic elevations of
an object. At the same time it is evident that isometric projec-
tion is
only adapted to objects in which all or most of the prin-

cipal lines are mutually at right angles.

In the figure, the points a and b being equally distant from Fig. 66,

the horizontal plane, the diagonal a b is horizontal. Hence a b

104 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

isthe length of the real diagonal of a face of the cube. If a

square is constructed on a b as diagonal, its side will be equal to

the real length of the edge of the cube ; a D b is half this square,
and if r is the middle point of the diagonal a b, thus :

ar = ad cos. L dar = a D cos. z. Dar;

but z dar = 30, and L D ar = 45.

Therefore, ad .-* = a D. ;
or
2 V2
ad: a D = >/2 : /3.

This, then, is the invariable relation between the isometric pro-

jections and true lengths of lines.

isometric The inclination of the isometric axes is cos. r'/i = 35.

scale. V
Thus a scale be constructed for isometric drawings, the divi-
may
sions of which bear to those of the true scale of the drawing the
ratio */ 2 ./ 3, and a scale so constructed will give the length to
:

be set off on any isometric line to represent any given real dimen-
sion. In practice however, an isometric scale is never used,
dimensions taken off the true along the
scale being set off

isometric lines. Provided this is remembered, no mistake can

arise from representing lines isometrically longer than they really
should be, since all lines are increased in the same ratio.

In Fig. 66, an elevation of the isometrically situated cube is

p^xx*
drawn on a vertical plane gg parallel to four of its edges, and
perpendicular to two of its faces. The lowest extremity of the
vertical diagonal is
supposed to be in the horizontal plane.
Note -
On the face c o b e of the isometric cube (Fig. 66, PI. a square block is
XX.)
shewn projecting from, and symmetrically situated with respect to, that face. The
t of this block has been made
height equal to one third of the edge of the cube.
Similarly on the face fco a of the same cube a square recess is shewn, having a
dopth equal to one fourth of the edge of the cube.
Isometric The isometric projection of a circle will of course be an ellipse (see p. 33),
of circles. an ^ the latter can always be obtained by determining the isometric projections of
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION. 105

any two diameters of the original circle which are at right angles to each other,
and constructing the ellipse on these lines as conjugate diameters. If however,
the isometric projection of a small arc of a circle only is required, it will be
simpler to draw the chord and a few ordinates of the arc, and then place the chord
and ordinates in isometric projection. In Fig. 66, PI. XX., the lines p p, qq,
parallel to ox and o y respectively, are the isometric projections of two diameters
at right angles to each other of the circle inscribed in face o a d b of the cube ;

an ellipse described with pp and q q as conjugate diameters will therefore be the

isometric projection of that circle.

Again, m m
is the diameter of the circle described in the
square a b, and is D
therefore the plan of the horizontal diameter of the circle described in the face
oa d b of the cube. Hence m m is the major axis of the elliptic plan of this circle
(Note, p. 33). The minor axis n n, of this elliptic plan can be obtained by
making n' n' in elevation equal to mm and projecting. But mm is equal to the
real edge of the cube, and

nr ro 1
= = = tan. 30 = nr
mm mr ra y3

This therefore, is the ratio between the axes of an isometric ellipse.

Fig. 67, PI. XX., shews an isometric view of the top or Fig. 67,
PI XX
capital of one of the columns supporting the roof of a railway
station. Two cast-iron facia girders serve to connect the tops

of adjacent columns, and are bolted right through those tops,

as shewn. The top of the column has a hollow projecting
bracket, which supports a cast-iron bowl (not shewn in the

figure) ; the gutters (also of cast iron) hook into this bowl, and
discharge their rain-water into it. The latter passes down
through the bowl and the hollow bracket into the interior of the
column, finally entering a drain laid parallel to the line of
columns. On the back portion of the top of the column rests a
cast-iron bed-plate, and
bed-plate and the wrought-iron
this

brackets, to which the extremity of the T-iron principal rafter

is riveted, are bolted down on to the top of the column by two

|" bolts. The holes for these bolts are shewn in the figure, but
the cast-iron bed-plate has been removed.
The drawing of this isometric view presents no difficulty,
P
106 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

but requires care, on account of the many different planes which

contain the various surfaces.
The curves with which the lower flanges terminate are
obtained from their elevations by ordinates.
. The scale shewn is the true scale of the drawing, and has
been used for the isometric view.
ENGINEERING DRAWINGS. 107

CHAPTER XII.

ENGINEEEING DEAWINGS.

Engineering Drawings may, roughly speaking, be divided Reference

t . i
an<^ working
into two classes, requiring somewhat dmerent treatment, viz. drawings.
" finished " or " reference " " "
drawings, and working drawings.
The former are usually drawn to comparatively small scales, and
are often highly coloured and shaded, serving thus as explanatory

drawings, giving a fair idea of the appearance an object may be

expected to present after construction, and also forming a valuable
record of work executed. The latter, on the other hand, are
drawn to the largest convenient scale, often full size, or even
still larger, and serve as guides to the workmen during
construction.
The drawings required for a complete design of an engineer-
ing work would therefore consist of,
General views, i. e. plans, elevations, and sections, all of
1st.

which should be drawn to the same scale, and should be large

enough to explain clearly the general arrangement of the work.
2nd. Details, i. e. plans, sections, and occasionally develop-
ments of such individual portions of the work as need further
explanation as regards form and dimensions. The scales of these
detaildrawings should be as large as can conveniently be
managed, and from them tracings are prepared for the use of the
workmen.
The following general rules should be observed in all General rules.
Engineering Drawings :

A good drawing should have a well-adjusted balance in all Buie l.

its parts. Thus the thickness of the lines should be proportioned
to the scale, and the general depth of colour should suit the lines,

while the printing should be of such size and boldness as to

p 2
108 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

harmonize with the lines and colour, neither overpowering

the latter, nor being thrown into shade by them. It will be
evident therefore, that in making a really good drawing a con-
siderable amount of artistic feeling and good taste is called into

play.
Rule 2. . "In drawing out views of each object will be
details, three

generally necessary, and more views will be required when its

opposite sides present any differences of appearance. Sections
should also be made on all centre lines or lines of
symmetry,
whether horizontal or vertical.the object is absolutely
If

symmetrical about any line, a half section and half elevation may
be drawn and combined.
Rule 3. All views and sections should be correctly drawn so as to

agree exactly, and in arranging such views on the paper, care

should be taken that where possible, elevations, plans, and sections
should be projected from each other, so that their connection and

correspondence may be readily traced.

Rule 4. In commencing a drawing, the " centre lines " of each
part,
i. e. the lines about which that
part is symmetrical, should be laid
down on paper each view or section being afterwards com-
first,

pleted by building on to its centre line. In thus laying down

centre lines which are to fix upon the paper the position of each
view, care should be taken that this position is
properly chosen,
both with regard to Eule 3, and also in order that the whole
sheet of views when complete may, as far as
possible, have a
symmetrical and well-balanced appearance.
Rule 5. A scale should be shewn with each drawing. Where different

portions are of different scales, these scales should be all drawn,

and the views to which they refer noted.
Rule 6. In working drawings, every part should have its dimension
clearly figured, small arrow heads being used to indicate the
extent of the dimension. When many dimensions cross each
other, dotted black lines or fine continuous red lines should be
drawn connecting the arrow heads, the written dimension being
inserte d in a small
gap left at or near the centre of the lines.
ENGINEERING DRAWINGS. 109

The following general hints will also be found useful.

The pencilling should be very carefully made ; all mistakes Pencilling,

should be corrected, and all superfluous lines or portions of lines

removed by indiarubber or soft eraser before inking in. The
pencils used should have fine points, but should not be too
hard. Chisel-pointed pencils are not desirable for general draw-'
ing. In setting off dimensions it is better, if possible, to use
a scale reading to the edge ; such a scale can always be drawn
on paper, and a clean edge ensured by cutting it off with a
sharp knife. When dividers are used, their points should not
be forced through the paper, but gently pressed so as to leave
merely a slight mark, which can be made more conspicuous if
required, by a pencil circle round it.

whole of a drawing before ink

It is generally best to pencil the lines.

inking it in, as uniformity of the ink lines is more likely to be

obtained and moreover, since all the parts of a drawing are
;

mutually dependent, corrections in its earlier portions are

frequently necessary as the more advanced are constructed.
In fact, no view can be considered as absolutely correct till all

the others are complete.

All ink lines should be firm and perfectly black no line :

should be so fine as to become ragged after the drawing has

been cleaned with bread or indiarubber. As ink lines lose

much of their brightness when rubbed in cleaning up, it is

sometimes advisable, where time is not an object, to ink in a

drawing, clean it with bread, sponge it over with clean water,
then lay on the colours, and lastly, go over all the lines again.
The sponging removes superfluous ink and prevents the
all

lines from running, while it at the same time prepares the

paper to receive colour; and the lines being redrawn after

the cleaning up, will be quite bright and distinct.
It is best to add the shade-lines after colouring, for the reasons shade-lines.

above stated. They should always have their thickness on the

outside of the true outline of the shade-lined portion. Thus if a
" be
drawing is to be afterwards scaled," the dimensions would
110 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

taken to the inner edges of the shade-lines. In shade-lining a

drawing the rules laid down in Chapter X. should he rigidly
adhered Shade-lines which do not strictly follow recognised
to.

rules are worse than useless. It should also be remembered that

shade-lines are used to render a drawing more intelligible, and

not to hide defects in its execution.
Colour. Colour is a serviceable ally, but a dangerous enemy to the

draughtsman ; unless therefore he has a natural eye for its

harmony and some artistic taste, it is far better that it should be

only sparingly employed.

Conventional Conventional colours, serving to distinguish the different
colours.

materials, vary considerably drawing ; offices frequently following

tradition in the matter. Drawings for Government purposes
however, are usually coloured according to fixed colour tables.
The following colours are recommended for the more
common materials, viz. :

1. Cast iron! Payne's grey.

2. Wrought iron .. .. Prussian blue.
3. Steel Prussian blue and crimson lake.
. -d (Elevation ..
Gamboge.
(Section .. .. Dark Indian yellow.
5. Copper Gamboge and crimson lake.
6. Ordinary building stone Sepia and yellow ochre.
7 B'k J
Elevation ..
Light red, with a little carmine.
I Section .. .. Lake, or carmine.
8 Wood J
Elevation .. Yellow ochre, or raw-sienna.
I Section .. .. Burnt-Sienna.
9. Earth Burnt-Umber.
10 Lines J^6^ Carmine, or lake.
IBlue .. .. French Ultramarine.

Flat washes. To lay on a flat wash requires some

practice ; failure is little

generally the result of neglecting the following rules : 1st. Take

care that the brush and saucer are perfectly clean. The
former should be a large red sable with a fine point. 2nd. Slope
the drawing board slightly. 3rd. Lay on enough colour just
to cover the paper, and never leave small pools of colour on any
ENGINEERING DRAWINGS. Ill

portion. Take care not to have too much or too little colour
in the brush. 4th. Some earthy colours form a sediment when
mixed with water ; this sediment should be allowed to and
settle,
the amount of colour required in the brush should be skimmed
off the surfacewithout stirring the contents of the saucer. 5th.
On finishing off a wash remove any superfluous colour with the
brush, having first emptied the latter by means of a piece of
blotting paper. 6th. Always try colours on a piece of waste

paper before commencing, but remember that the general effect

of a large wash cannot be judged from that of a mere strip.
Cast shadows and shading should be laid on in a neutral cast shadows

tint before colouring, and the colours afterwards glazed over

them. This gives softness to the general effect. Indian ink

answers very well for shading, though other neutral tints may
be used.
In shading details of machinery a good striking effect is shading

produced by slightly shading the darkest portions only, in the

colour proper to the material. In this way with very little
trouble the appearance of roundness can be obtained and the
nature of the material at the same time indicated. Cast shadows, i.e.
the shadows of one part on another, may be altogether omitted.
Coloured sections should always be made either decidedly colouring

darker, or decidedly lighter than either plans or elevations. The

former effect, which is the most usual, may be produced either by

merely darkening the wash or by diagonal cross lining laid on

either with a brush or ruling pen. These cross lines should be
in the colour proper to the section they should be uniform and
;

at equal distances apart, and should be inclined at 45 to the

edges of the paper. When no colour is employed, varied cross

lining in ink serves to distinguish materials.
In colouring Light edges,

sections, the wash should not be carried quite to the bounding

edges which are toward the light (see Chapter X.),
line of those

but a narrow strip, say about jj", should be left white. This,
with the aid of shade-lines to the opposite edges, gives consider-
112 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

able relief to the sections, making them appear to stand up from

the paper. When a complete section consists of several contiguous
sectional parts,it will not
usually be necessary to leave lights on
the edges of each part. But in a case in which it is particularly
desirable that each sectional part should be clearly distinguished
from those in contact with it, light strips should be left on the
proper light edges of each part. Of the latter case, the section of
a joint of a wrought-iron bridge or roof affords an excellent

example. In this instance light strips to every light edge are

most valuable, showing at a glance the extent and form of each
portion. It will usually be best, if the strip to be left white is a

long one, to rule a line parallel to the edge of the section mark-
ing the edge of the wash. Such a line may be ruled in pencil,
or better still, in the colour of the wash which is to follow. When
the sectional part is very narrow, as will frequently occur in the
case of wrought-iron plates, &c, the colour may be ruled in with
a single broad line, the light strip being left at the same time.

Sections When a section is made by a plane passing through the axis

through the
axis of a bolt of a rivet, bolt shaft, spindle, or any kind of rod of a circular
or rod.
section, the latter is not considered to be cut by the section plane,
but istreated as a plan or elevation.

Working
In working drawings, as a rule, sections only need be
drawings.
coloured. Cases will, however, arise in which colour on plans and
elevations is desirable. In drawings of this class clearness as
to arrangement, form, dimensions, and material is of the first

importance. Where any explanation needed,is should be it

appended as a note, written on or by the side of the part

referred to.

Printing. The printing should be so arranged that it can all be read

without altering the position of the drawing. Printing requires
considerable practice, and it will be better usually to adopt two

styles only, viz. upright block capitals and sloping italic capitals

and small letters.

ENGINEERING DRAWINGS. 113

Alphabet No. I., PI. XX., consists of large upright block ^ s

DIOCK
r e
Is.
t Ci1plt.fi

capitals: these shouldbe used for the principal headings of No - ! xx -

drawings. Tbe form and dimensions shewn should be preserved,

but in accordance with Rule l,j>. 107, the letters may be varied
in several ways, to suit the general effect of the
drawing. Thus
the strokes may be all black, as shewn in PI. XX. They may be
put in with light indian ink, or they may be left in outline without

filling in, and in this latter case they should be shade-lined as if

in elevation. Again, the fine lines may be omitted altogether,
the shade-lines alone being retained. Eoman numerals should
be used with this alphabet.

Alphabet No. II., PI. XX., consists of small block capitals ;

small

theirform should be exactly the same as that of Alphabet No. I. no. ii., pi. xx.

These small block letters should be used for minor headings, i. e.

for headings applying only to some particular part of a drawing,

as for instance,
"
Section on "
A
B," Side elevation," &c. Ordinary
or Arabic numerals should be used with these letters.

Alphabet No. III., PI. XX., consists of sloping or italic Italic letters,

capitals, small letters, and numerals. These should be used on pi. xx.'

drawings for explanatory notes, for the names of the different

parts of a structure, and for dimensions. The
size of these letters

may vary somewhat according to the purpose for which they are
used. The tall small letters, such as d and I,
and all numerals
used with them, should have heights equal to that of the

capitals.

hoped that the hints contained in the preceding pages

It is

will be found useful. No written instructions can in a subject

like drawing take the place of practice and experience, but atten-
tion to the former will at least help to lessen the number of those
vexatious and often needless failures which so frequently dis-

courage beginners.
( 115 )

APPENDIX

Selection op Instruments, Etc.

Needle-pointed Instbtjments are now in general use. They are much to be Needle points,

preferred to ordinary instruments, but they require more careful treatment and a
lighter hand.
"
In choosing needle-pointed instruments be sure that the " shoulder from
which the needle projects is sufficiently large. This shoulder has to rest on the
paper when the instrument is in use, and if it is too small it is apt to make a
hole.
In choosing all instruments look well to the workmanship. See that the
movable limbs of the compasses fit properly, and that all joints work smoothly.
The " bows," both pen and pencil, should be double jointed, so that when in Bows,
use both limbs may be bent so as to stand at right angles to the plane of the paper.
If this cannot be done, enlargement of the hole takes place, and the pen-bow cannot
be made to give an even arc.
" "
See that the springs of the spring bows are sufficiently strong. If this is
not the case the pen or pencil leg will draw in to the centre, and a crooked spiral

instead of a circle will result. This is especially likely to occur when very
small circles are being drawn. The spring pen-bow should, if possible, have
a joint in the pen-leg, the adjusting screw being attached below the joint. This
arrangement enables the leg in question to be kept approximately at right angles
to the plane of the paper.
"
The spring of the adjustable limb of the " hair dividers should be strong, Hair dividers.

as it is this springalone which prevents the points from spreading. That form of
hair dividers in which the adjustable limb is rendered immovable in any position
is to be preferred. In this instrument the milled head of the adjusting screw
works in a guard attached outside the limb, and gives the motion in both
directions.

Napier compasses, from their extreme portability, are very useful ; they form Napier
com P asses
a set of instruments in themselves. Those in which the limbs can be lengthened -

by a telescopic arrangement are to be preferred. The latter should be strong

enough to be perfectly rigid without being inconveniently heavy.
Eigidity in all instruments of this class is an important qualification loose-
;

ness of joints, &c, is fatal.

Proportional compasses are occasionally useful, but their graduation cannot Proportional
com P asses -

always be depended upon. Those in which the points are turned up at right
116 APPENDIX.

angles are best, as they are not affected by the shortening which often takes
place when the instrument is sharpened.
Drawing pens. The choice of a drawing pen requires some experience. Drawing pens are
made either with two spring nibs, or with one of the nibs hinged and pressed
outwards by a small spring. The former pens are best, but the latter are easier
to clean and sharpen. In either case the spring should be a strong one. Pens in
which the nibs are much bowed, i. e. curve in much, should be rejected. A .good pen
should have broad, thick, and somewhat short nibs, containing plenty of metal,
which can always be worked down to any extent in sharpening. The nibs should
be of exactly the same length and form, and with a gradual and nearly straight
taper. The points should be rounded off, so as to present no sharp angle. They
should not be too sharp, or they will cut the surface of the paper, and are apt to
run away from the straight-edge ; nor too blunt, or they will not give a decently
fine line.

Sharpening A drawing pen should be sharpened as follows : Screw up till the nibs are in
drawing pens. contact. Work
the pen gently on a stone with a little oil, holding it so as to be
always in a plane at right angles to that of the store. Proceeding in this way the
proper form is given to the points, and they are moreover kept alike and of equal
length. The points should bo looked at (through a magnifying glass, if required)
at short intervals. When the proper form has been obtained, open the points a
little and proceed to sharpen each nib separately, taking the greatest care not to
spoil the previously imparted shape, and endeavouring to give exactly the same
degree of sharpness to both nibs. It remains merely to remove the "burr" left
by the previous operations. This should be done very carefully and with very fine
emery paper. When using the latter between the nibs, be particularly careful to
remove the burr only, and not any of the metal of the points, as if an outward
splay is given to the latter, the pen will not work at all.
If the above directions are followed, it should be possible with a little practice
to succeed in obtaining a pen which will give a firm, smooth, and uniform line.
Every draughtsman should be able to sharpen his own pens, as it is seldom the
latter leave the maker's hands fit for use ;
and in any case, if a pen is in constant
use it will require frequent attention.
In using a drawing pen, avoid pressing it too hard against the straight-edge,
and keep the second finger on the milled head of the screw, and not on the outer
nib itself,

Dotting pens. Dotting pens are not recommended they give a great deal of trouble, and are
:

very uncertain in their action.

Parallel Parallel rulers should be of the "rolling" class, not less than 15" in size ;

rulers. made of metal, and the heavier the better. Light rolling rulers, whether of wood
or metal, are very untrustworthy.- Jointed parallel rulers should not be used.

LONDON : PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
1
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