10/10/2021

IMAGE PRODUCTION
MYC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
AND EVALUATION
M E Y N A R D Y. C A ST RO, R RT, M SRTc

TOPICS OUTLINE
DEFINITION
F I L M FAC TO RS
G EO M E T R I C FAC TO RS
S U B J EC T FAC TO RS
TO O L S FO R IMP ROV I N G R A DI O GR AP H I CI M AG E Q UA L I T Y

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FR
RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE QUALITY
PRINCIPAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT SCREEN-FILM RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY

The exactness of representation of the patient’s anatomy on a radiographic image

MYC
RADIOGRAPHIC
High Quality Radiograph:
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
IMAGE QUALITY Required for accurate diagnosis
DEFINITION Affected by several factors

FUTURE RRT 2021 4

1
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FR
RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE QUALITY

RESOLUTION
NOISE
SPEED
ARTIFACTS

FUTURE RRT 2021 5

FR
RESOLUTION
Detail,sharpness,definition, resolving power
The ability to accurately image an object
Unit: lp/mm
Fast screen: 7 lp/mm
Fine-detail screen: 15 lp/mm
Direct exposure film: 50 lp/mm
Unaided eye: 10 lp/mm

FUTURE RRT 2021

FR FR
SPATIAL RESOLUTION IMPROVED SPATIAL RESOLUTION

Ability to image small objects that have high subject contrast

Bone-soft tissue interface, breast microcalcification calcified lung nodule SCREEN BLUR THIN PHOSPHOR LAYER, SMALL PHOSPHOR CRYSTAL SIZE,
Screen-film radiography: excellent in SR
MOTION BLUR PROPER INSTRUCTION, SHORTER EXPOSURE TIME,
LOW VOLTAGE RIPPLE, FAST IMAGE RECEPTOR

GEOMETRIC BLUR SMALL FSS, LONG SID, SHORT OID, SMALL PART THICKNESS
(PENUMBRA)

FUTURE RRT 2021 7 FUTURE RRT 2021 8

FR FR
IMPROVED RESOLUTION FOCAL SPOT SIZES

IMAGING MODALITY SMALL/LARGE

0.5 mm/1.0 mm
CONVENTIONAL
0.6 mm/1.2 mm
RADIOGRAPY
1.0 mm/2.0 mm
MAGNIFICATION
0.3 mm/1.0 mm
RADIOGRAPHY
FUTURE RRT 2021 9 FUTURE RRT 2021 MAMMOGRAPHY 0.1 mm/0.3 mm 10

FR FR
CONTRAST RESOLUTION IMPROVED CONTRAST RESOLUTION

HIGH MILLIAMPERE-SECOND
LOW KILOVOLTAGE PEAK SLOW INTENSIFYING SCREEN
The ability to image structures with similar subject contrast REDUCE COMPTON SCATTERING REDUCE X-RAY FIELD SIZE DECREASE PATIENT THICKNESS
NOISE
Liver-spleen, gray matter-white matter

FUTURE RRT 2021 11 FUTURE RRT 2021 12

FR
RADIOGRAPHIC NOISE

The random fluctuation in the OD of the image

Inherent in the imaging system
Components:
Film graininess (not controlled)
Structure mottle (not controlled)
Quantum mottle (controlled)
Scatter radiation (controlled)

FUTURE RRT 2021 13

FR
QUANTUM MOTTLE

FUTURE RRT 2021 14

FR FR
REDUCED RADIOGRAPHIC NOISE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE QUALITY RULES

FILM GRAININESS NOT A CONCERN

Fast image receptors: Slow Image Receptors:
STRUCTURE MOTTLE QUANTUM MOTTLE SCATTER RADIATION High noise, Low noise
NOT A CONCERN
Low spatial resolution High spatial resolution
HIGH MILLIAMPERAGE, SLOW IMAGE RECEPTORS LOW KILOVOLTAGE PEAK
Low contrast resolution High contrast resolution

FUTURE RRT 2021 15 FUTURE RRT 2021 16

FR
SPEED
Relative number that describes how efficiently x-rays are converted into light
Film Speed: the amount of density a film produces for a given amount of exposure
Screen speed: a relative number that describes how efficiently x- rays are converted into light

FR
Influences resolution and noise

FABRIKAM RESIDENCES
FUTURE RRT 2021

17

MYC
RADIOGRAPHIC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
IMAGE QUALITY
F I L M FA C T O R S

FR FR
SENSITOMETRY SENSITOMETRY
Useful to evaluate
Technical factor exposure systems
relationship between the intensity of exposure of the film and the blackness after processing Films
ntaining adequate quality control Intensifying screens
Processing equipment
Maintain technical exposure factor charts
Accomplished By:
Exposing and processing a film and then measuring and evaluating the resulting densities

FUTURE RRT 2021

FUTURE RRT 2021 19 20

FR
SENSITOMETER

An optical step wedge (step tablets) that is used to construct a characteristic curve
Consists of:
Controlled intensity light source
A piece of film with a standardized optical step wedge image

FUTURE RRT 2021 21

FR
SENSITOMETER

11-step Wedges:
Usually increase density 100% (by a factor of 2) per step
21-step Wedges:
Usually increase density 41% (by a factor of 1.41 times or √2) per step

FUTURE RRT 2021 22

FR FR
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
0-4 OD (film)
0.25-2.50 OD (useful)
3.5 OD (fine features)

& D (Hurter & Driffield) curve, D log E curve, Sensitometric curve Important Elements:
Base plus fog
he graphic relationship between optical density (OD) and radiation exposure 0.50-1.25 OD
Toe (most radiograph)

Straight line portion

Shoulder
Maximum density

B+F 0.10-0.30 OD

FUTURE RRT 2021 23 FUTURE RRT 2021 24

FR
BASE PLUS FOG

The density at no exposure

The inherent density in the film
Includes:
Density of the film base
Any fog the film has experience

FUTURE RRT 2021 25

FR
BASE DENSITY
The OD that is inherent in the base of the film
Attributable to the composition of the base
The tint added to the base
Used to make the radiograph more pleasing to the eye.
Value: 0.1

FUTURE RRT 2021 26

FR FR
FOG DENSITY TOE
The development of silver grains that contain no useful information
Other causes:
Inadvertent exposure of film during storage Region of the H&D curve where the subtle gray tones are controlled early in the development process
Undesirable chemical contamination Controlled by phenidone
Improper processing, Low radiation exposure levels
Reduces contrast Large variations of exposure results in only a small change in OD
Should not exceed 0.1

FUTURE RRT 2021 27 FUTURE RRT 2021 28

FR
STRAIGHT-LINE PORTION

Region in which a properly exposed radiographs appears

Best image contrast
Intermediate exposure levels
Small variations of exposure results in a large change in OD

FUTURE RRT 2021 29

FR
SHOULDER PORTION
The region of the characteristic curve where the heavy black tones are controlled later in the development process
Controlled by hydroquinone
High radiation exposure levels
Large variations of exposure results in only a small change in OD

FUTURE RRT 2021 30

FR FR
Dmax
ensity the film is capable of recording
t on the H&D curve
oint where all silver halides have a full complement of silver atoms and cannot accept more Exposure Beyond Dmax: less density
Because silver atoms attached to sensitivity specks will be ionized again
Solarization/Reversal:
The process of reducing the intensity of the latent image
Produces less density

BELL-SHAPED
FUTURE RRT 2021 31 FUTURE RRT 2021 32
FR
CONSTRUCTION OF H&D CURVE

Screen-Film: sensitive to <0.01 to >10 mGy a (1-1000 mR)

FUTURE RRT 2021 33

FR
LOG RELATIVE EXPOSURE
Exposure Beyond Dmax: less
density
Because silver atoms attached to sensitivity specks will be ionized again
Change in OD over each exposure interval
Used as the scale along the x-axis
Presented in increments of 0.3

FUTURE RRT 2021 34

FR FR
TICAL DENSITY OPTICAL DENSITY
degree of overall blackening form the black metallic silver deposited in the emulsion Transparent Glass
h OD: black area of the radiograph OD = 0
OD: clear area of the radiograph 100% light transmission
garithmic function
sists of a precise numeric value

FUTURE RRT 2021 35 FUTURE RRT 2021 36

FR
OPTICAL DENSITY

Unexposed Radiographic Film

OD = 0.1
79% light transmission
Processed Radiographic Film
OD = 0.3
50% light transmission

FUTURE RRT 2021 37

FR
EXPOSED RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

FUTURE RRT 2021 38

FR FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1

Answer:
The OD of a region of a lung field is 2.5 is equal to 2 of every 625 light photons that are being transmitted,
2.5. What percentage of visible light is transmitted through that region of or 0.32%
the image?

FUTURE RRT 2021 39 FUTURE RRT 2021 40

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

The light incident on the radiograph of a long bone has a relative value of
1500. If the light transmitted through radiopaque bony structures has an intensity of 480 (relatively white) and the light transmitted through radiolucent soft tissue has an intensity of 2 (re

FUTURE RRT 2021 41

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

Answer:

FUTURE RRT 2021 42

FR FR
RECIPROCITY LAW RECIPROCITY LAW FAILURE
Occurs when film is exposed to light from radiographic intensifying screen
Occurs at
hat OD on a radiograph is proportional only to the total energy imparted to the radiographic film <10 ms (Angiointerventional)
directly to x- rays (direct exposure film) >2 s (mammography)
igital imaging Reduces OD
Reduces speed
Compensation: increased mAs

FUTURE RRT 2021 43 FUTURE RRT 2021 44

FR
RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST

Degree of differences between the light & dark areas of a radiograph

OD variations
Product of subject contrast & image receptor contrast
High Contrast: high OD variations
Low Contrast: low OD variations

FUTURE RRT 2021

45

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

Screen film with an average gradient of 3.1 is used

to radiograph a long bone with subject contrast of
4.5. What is the radiographic contrast?

FUTURE RRT 2021 46

FR

IMAGE RECEPTOR CONTRAST

Range of OD that the film is capable of recording

Inherent in the screen-film combination
Type of radiographic film and intensifying screen that is being used
Expressed as the slope of H&D curve

FUTURE RRT 2021

48

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

Radiographic contrast = (3.1)(4.5) = 13.95

FUTURE RRT 2021 47

FR
IMAGE RECEPTOR CONTRAST

Usually best to standardized

Consistent film contrast
Good radiographic quality
Followmanufacturer’s
recommendations

FUTURE RRT 2021 49

FR
IMAGE RECEPTOR CONTRAST

Depends on four factors

Intensifying screen
Film density
D log E curve
Processing

FUTURE RRT 2021 50

FR FR
IMAGE RECEPTOR CONTRAST IMAGE RECEPTOR CONTRAST

(reduced contrast)
Intensifying Screen Overexposed
Provides Inherently higher-contrast than direct exposure film
Reason is unknown
Changing screen speed: no effect on contrast RT: exposed the IR properly (maximum contrast)
Correctly Exposed

Underexposed
(reduced contrast)

FUTURE RRT 2021 51 FUTURE RRT 2021 52

FR
IMAGE RECEPTOR CONTRAST
D LOG E CURVE
Steep slope
Higher contrast
Visible density range compressed at a narrow exposure range
Narrow latitude
Shallow slope
Low contrast
Visible density range expanded at a wide exposure range
Wide latitude

FUTURE RRT 2021 53

FR
AVERAGE GRADIENT

Identified by:
Average gradient
Gradient
Toe gradient
Midgradient or shoulder gradient

FUTURE RRT 2021 54

FR FR
AVERAGE GRADIENT AVERAGE GRADIENT

The most often used to numerically specify image receptor contrast Most radiographic IR: 2.5-3.5
The slope of the line drawn between the points on the characteristic curve IR acts as amplifier of contrast
At 0.25 & 2.0 above base & fog densities

FUTURE RRT 2021 55 FUTURE RRT 2021 56

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

If the ODs of 0.42 and 2.17 on the characteristic curve in the preceding
example correspond to LREs of 0.95 and 1.75, what is the average gradient?

FUTURE RRT 2021 57

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

FUTURE RRT 2021 58

FR FR
GRADIENT GRADIENT
Toe Gradient:
More important than average gradient for general radiography
The slope of the tangent at any point on the characteristic curve Many clinical ODs appear in the toe region of the characteristic curve
Types: Most important clinically
Toe Gradient Midgradient & Shoulder Gradient: more important for mammography
Midgradient
Shoulder Gradient

FUTURE RRT 2021 59 FUTURE RRT 2021 60

FR

FUTURE RRT 202061

FR FR
SENSITIVITY (Sp) IMAGE RECEPTOR SPEED
Fast IR Fast IR
Low mAs High noise Low mAs High noise
Speed 1.0 above B+F
The ability of an image receptor to respond to a low x-ray exposure OD specified (sensitometry) for IR speed
Can be identified using H&D curve Slow IR
High mAs Low noise
Formula: Slow IR
High mAs Low noise

Par Speed: 100 (standard)

Film-Screen: <1 mR
Direct Exposure: several mGya

FUTURE RRT 2021 63 FUTURE RRT 2021 64

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

How much exposure is required to produce an

OD of 1.0 above base plus fog density on a 600-speed image receptor?

FUTURE RRT 2021 65

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

FUTURE RRT 2021 66

FR FR
IMAGE RECEPTOR SPEED IMAGE RECEPTOR SPEED
Fast IR Fast IR
Low mAs High noise Low mAs High noise
Inversely proportional to mAs Inversely proportional to mAs
Speed doubled = mAs halved Formula:
Formula: Slow IR
High mAs Low noise
Slow IR
High mAs Low noise

FUTURE RRT 2021 67 FUTURE RRT 2021 68

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

A posteroanterior (PA) chest examination

requires 120 kVp/8 mAs with a 250-speed image receptor. What radiographic technique should be used with a 400-speed
FUTURE RRT 2021

69

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

FUTURE RRT 2021 70

FR FR
UDE LATITUDE

onal IR feature easily obtained from the H&D curve mAs less Inversely proportional to contrast
variable
of exposures over which the IR responds with ODs in the diagnostically useful range Wide latitude:
n of error in technical factors mAs more
variable
Long grayscale
Low-contrast IR
Narrow latitude:
Short grayscale
High-contrast IR

FUTURE RRT 2021 71 FUTURE RRT 2021 72

FR
FILM PROCESSING

Proper Film Processing: required for optimal IR contrast

Development: affects ODs

FUTURE RRT 2021 73

FR
FILM PROCESSING 90-sec automatic processor

Development Time:
Directly proportional to speed and fog

Follow recommendation manufacturer’s

Achieve maximum contrast
Beyond recommendation: decreases IR contrast
Development Temperature:
Directly proportional to speed and fog

20-22 s
33-35 oC
92-96 oF
FUTURE RRT 2021 74

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FR
GEOMETRIC FACTORS

Those associated with x-ray tube position and with the positioning of the patient
Three Principal Factors That Affects Image Quality:
MYC
RADIOGRAPHIC Magnification
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
IMAGE QUALITY Distortion
G E O M E T R I C FA C T O R S Focal-spot blur

SHADOWGRAPH
FUTURE RRT 2021 76
FR
MAGNIFICATION
Size distortion
The images on the radiograph are larger than the object they represent
Affected by distances (SID, OID)
The ratio of image size to object size
The ratio of SID to SOD

FUTURE RRT 2021 77

FR
MAGNIFICATION
Should be maintained as small as possible
Most radiograph:
1.1 MF at 100 cm SID
1.05 MF at 180 cm SID
Inversely proportional to SID
Directly proportional to OID
Application:magnification radiography and mammography

FUTURE RRT 2021 78

FR FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM SAMPLE PROBLEM

If a heart measures 12.5 cm at its maximum width

and its image on a chest radiograph measures 14.7 cm, what is the MF?

FUTURE RRT 2021 79 FUTURE RRT 2021 80

FR
MAGNIFICATION

FUTURE RRT 2021

Note: We cannot directly measure object size 81

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1

A renal calculus measures 1.2 cm on the

radiograph. The SID is 100 cm, and the SOD is estimated at 92 cm. What is the size of the calculus?

FUTURE RRT 2021 82

FR FR
SAMPLESAMPLE
PROBLEM 1
PROBLEM 2

A lateral view of the lumbar spine taken at 100 cm SID results in the image of a vertebral body with maximum and m
4.2 cm, respectively. What is the object size if the vertebral body is 25 cm from the image receptor?

FUTURE RRT 2021 83 FUTURE RRT 2021 84

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

FUTURE RRT 2021 85

FR
MAGNIFICATION
Note:
Magnification is the same for both object on and off the central ray

SIDs
Chest imaging – 180 cm Routine examination – 100 cm Mobile & Trauma – 90 cm Mammography – 60-70 cm

Off CR Off CR

FUTURE RRT 2021 86

FR FR
SHAPE DISTORTION OBJECT THICKNESS
Directly proportional to the shape distortion
Thicker Object: greater distortion
Foreshortening and elongation OID changes across the thicker structure
Unequal magnification of different portions of the same object Thinner Object: less distortion
Irregular Object: greater distortion
When radiograph off the central axis

FUTURE RRT 2021 87 FUTURE RRT 2021 88

FR
OBJECT THICKNESS
Irregular Object: greater distortion
When radiograph off the central axis

FUTURE RRT 2021 Note: image plane & object plane must be parallel to prevent distortion 89

FR
FORESHORTENING
The image appears smaller than the object itself
Directly proportional to angle of inclination
Object on the CR: affected by angle of inclination
Object off the CR: affected by angle of inclination & its lateral position

FUTURE RRT 2021 90

FR FR
SEVERE DISTORTION SPATIAL DISTORTION

Occurs when objects of the same size are positioned at different distances from the IR
The misrepresentation in the image of the actual spatial relationships among objects
Radiographic Exam: requires 2 or more projections
Significant
SD

2 objects

1 superimposed image

FUTURE RRT 2021 91 FUTURE RRT 2021 92

FR
FOCAL SPOT BLUR
Mostimportantfactorin determining spatial resolution
Blurred region on the radiograph
Caused by the effective size of the focal spot
Occurs because the focal spot is not a point
Occurs because the focal spot has a size (0.1-1.5 mm)

Greater on
cathode side

FUTURE RRT 2021 93

FR
FOCAL SPOT BLUR
Minimized By:
Use of small focal spot size
Use of Short OID
Use of large SID (usually fixed)
Long OID: FSB > EFS
Short OID: FSB <EFS
Note: high contrast objects that are smaller than the FSB normally cannot be image

FUTURE RRT 2021 94

FR
FOCAL SPOT BLUR

Factors that increased MF will increase FSB

Greater on
cathode side
FUTURE RRT 2021 95

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Geometric Factors Effect

Decrease SID
Greater magnification
Greater FSB
An x-ray tube target with a 0.6-mm effective focal spot is
used to image a calcified nodule estimated to be 8 cm from the anterior chest wall. If the radiograph is taken in a PA projection at 180 cm SID with a tabletop to image
Increase OID
Greater magnification
Greater FSB

FUTURE RRT 2021 96

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

FUTURE RRT 2021 97

FR
HEEL EFFECT

Varying radiation intensity across the x-ray field in the anode– cathode direction
Caused by:
Attenuation of x-rays in the heel of the anode
Angling the target

Greater on
cathode side
FUTURE RRT 2021 98

FR FR
HEEL EFFECT

More Prominent:
When using extremely small target angles (12o or less) at short SIDs
When the collimator is open wide
Because of a greater portion of the peripheral beam
Minimized By:
Collimating the beam
Greater SID

FUTURE RRT 2020 99 FUTURE RRT 2021 100

FR
HEEL EFFECT

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FUTURE RRT 2021 101

MYC
RADIOGRAPHIC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
IMAGE QUALITY
S U B J E C T FA C T O R S

FR FR
SUBJECT FACTORS SUBJECT CONTRAST

iated with the selection of a radiographic techniquethatproperly compensates for the

ast The difference in the number of x- rays leaving (intensity transmitted ) the different parts of an object
ess
Directly proportional to the transmitted x-rays
ensity
mic number

ak

103 FUTURE RRT 2021 104

FR
PATIENT THICKNESS

Thick Body Part: high attenuation

Thin Body Part: low attenuation
No thickness variation: no contrast
With thickness variation: with contrast
Different anatomical thicknesses contribute to subject contrast

FUTURE RRT 2021 105

FR
TISSUE MASS DENSITY

The quantity of matter per unit volume

Units: kg/m3 or g/cm3
No thickness and mass density variation: no contrast
No thickness variation but with tissue mass density variation: with contrast

FUTURE RRT 2021 106

FR FR
TISSUE MASS DENSITY EFFECTIVE ATOMIC NUMBER

The average atomic number for a compound or mixture of materials

No effective Z variation: no contrast
With effective Z variation: with contrast
Contrast media: greatly enhances contrast

FUTURE RRT 2021 107 FUTURE RRT 2021 108

FR
OBJECT SHAPE

Contributes to subject contrast

Cannot be controlled by radiologic technologist
Maximum Subject Contrast: a structure that has a form that coincides with the x-ray beam

FUTURE RRT 2021 109

FR
OBJECT SHAPE

Reduced Subject Contrast:

A structure that has a form that does not coincides with the x-ray beam
Because of the change in thickness that they present across the x-ray beam (absorption blur)

FUTURE RRT 2021 110

FR FR
KILOVOLTAGE PEAK KILOVOLTAGE PEAK

The most important influence on subject contrast Low kVp:

Greatly controlled the absolute magnitude of the subject contrast High subject contrast
Also influences film contrast Short grayscale contrast
Black & white
Few shades of gray
Narrow latitude

FUTURE RRT 2021 111 FUTURE RRT 2021 112

FR
KILOVOLTAGE PEAK

High kVp:
Low subject contrast
Long gray scale contrast
More shades of gray
Wide latitude

FUTURE RRT 2021 113

FR
MOTION BLUR

Blurring of an image that results from

Movement of the patient during exposure
Movement of the x-ray tube during exposure

FUTURE RRT 2021 114

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FR
MINIMIZING MOTION BLUR

Carefully instructing the patient

Immobilization (for voluntary motion)
MYC
Shortexposuretime(for involuntary motion)
RADIOGRAPHIC
Low ripple power RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
IMAGE QUALITY
TOOLSFORIMRPROVED
High-speed image receptor R A D I O G R A P H I C I M A G E Q UA L I T Y

FUTURE RRT 2021 115

TOOLS TO PRODUCED HIGH-QUALITY FR
RADIOGRAPH

Proper Patient Positioning

Selection of proper imaging devices
Proper radiographic technique

FUTURE RRT 2021 117

FR
PROPER PATIENT POSITIONING

Anatomical structure under investigation should be placed as close to the IR (small OID)
Axis of the structure should lie parallel to the plane of IR
Central ray should be incident on the center of the structure

FUTURE RRT 2021 118

FR FR
PROPER PATIENT POSITIONING IMAGE RECEPTORS

nt must be immobilized effectively Fine-Detail Screen-Film

ple structures to be imaged must be positioned at the same distance from the IR Combination:forextremity
radiographs
Double Emulsion Film with Screens: most radiographs

FUTURE RRT 2021 119 FUTURE RRT 2021 120

PRINCIPLES TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN FR
PLANNING A PARTICULAR EXAMINATION
Use of intensifying screen decreases patient dose by a factor 20
Increased IR Speed:
Increases radiographic noise
Decreases spatial resolution
Low Contrast Imaging Procedure:
Wider latitude or margin of error in producing an acceptable radiograph

FUTURE RRT 2021 121

FR
SELECTION OF TECHNIQUE FACTORS
Keep exposure time as short as possible
Reduces motion blur
Improves image quality
Use three-phase & high frequency instead of single-phase
Shorter exposure time is possible
Optimum radiographic contrast and OD must be selected

FUTURE RRT 2021 122

FR

TOPICS OUTLINE
P RO DU C T IO N OF SCAT T E R R A D I AT I O N
CO N T ROLOFSCAT T E R R A D I AT I O N
GRID P E R FO R M A N C E
GRID T Y P E
GRID P RO B L E M S
GRID S E L EC T I O N

FUTURE RRT 2021 123

MYC
FR
RADIOGRAPHIC
RADIOLOGIC
FABRIKAM TECHNOLOGIST
RESIDENCES
IMAGE QUALITY
P R O D U C T I O N O F S C AT T E R R A D I AT I O N

FR
SCATTER RADIATION

The largest single factor responsible for poor radiographic image quality
Produced during Compton interaction
Not a part of the useful beam
Makes image less visible

FUTURE RRT 2021 Note: most remnant x-rays are scattered 126

FR THREE FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO FR

SCATTER RADIATION INCREASED SCATTER RADIATION

Produces noise
Reduces image contrast Increased kVp
Reduces contrast resolution Increased X-ray Field Size
Makes image less visible Increase Patient Thickness

FUTURE RRT 2021 127 FUTURE RRT 2021 128

FR FR
KILOVOLTAGE PEAK (kVp) KILOVOLTAGE PEAK (kVp)
INCREASED DECREASED
Fewer photons undergo interaction with matter
Affect the level of scatter radiation The absolute number of Compton interactions decreases
Under the direct control of the radiographer Minimum scatter radiation
The number of photoelectric interactions decreases much
more rapidly Higher image contrast

The relative number or percentage of x-rays that undergo Increases photoelectric absorption

Compton interaction increases Increases patient dose

The level of scatter radiation increases Fewer x-rays reach the image receptor

Decreased image contrast

FUTURE RRT 2021 129 FUTURE RRT 2021 130
Greater image receptor exposure

FR FR
KILOVOLTAGE PEAK (kVp) KILOVOLTAGE PEAK (kVp)

Patient Patient
kVp Scatter Contrast
Thickness Dose
High Thick High Low Low
Low Thin Low High High

FUTURE RRT 2021 132

FUTURE RRT 2021 131
FR

FUTURE RRT 2021 133

FR
X-RAY BEAM FIELD SIZE

Affect the level of scatter radiation

Under the direct control of the radiographer

FUTURE RRT 2021 134

FR
X-RAY BEAM FIELD SIZE

FUTURE RRT 2021 135

FR
X-RAY BEAM FIELD SIZE
DECREASED COLLIMATION INCREASED COLLIMATION
Larger field size Smaller field size

Increases volume of irradiated tissue Decreases volume of irradiated

Increases scatter radiation tissue

Higher radiographic OD Decreases scatter radiation

Increases dose Lower radiographic OD

Degrades contrast resolution Decreases dose

Decreases technical factor Increases contrast resolution

FUTURE RRT 2021 136

FR
PATIENT THICKNESS

Affect the level of scatter radiation

Not under the direct control of the radiographer

FUTURE RRT 2021 137

FR
PATIENT THICKNESS
3-cm-thick extremity at 70 kVp
Produces about 45% scatter radiation
30-cm-thick abdomen at 70 kVp
Produces nearly 100% of the x- rays to exit the patient as scattered x-rays
Use compression paddle
Improves spatial resolution
Reduces patient dose
Improves contrast resolution

FUTURE RRT 2021

138

FR
PATIENT THICKNESS

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FUTURE RRT 2021 139

INCREASED DECREASED

MYC
More tissue irradiation Less tissue irradiation RADIOGRAPHIC
Increases scattered radiation Decreases scattered radiation
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
IMAGE QUALITY
More x-rays undergo multiple scattering Few x-rays undergo multiple scattering C O N T R O L O F S C AT T E R R A D I AT I O N

Greater average angle of scatter in the remnant beam Less average angle of scatter in the remnant beam

Increases relative intensity of scatter radiation Decreases relative intensity of scatter radiation
EFFECT OF SCATTERED RADIATION ON FR
CONTRAST

High-Contrast Radiograph
No scattered radiation
Onlytransmitted, unatteanuated x-rays
Very sharp

FUTURE RRT 2021 141

EFFECT OF SCATTERED RADIATION ON FR

CONTRAST

No Contrast Radiograph
Only scattered radiation
No transmitted, unatteanuated x-rays
Dull gray

FUTURE RRT 2021 142

EFFECT OF SCATTERED RADIATION ON FR DEVICES THAT REDUCE THE AMOUNT FR

CONTRAST OF SCATTER RADIATION

BEAM-RESTRICTORS
RADIOGRAPHIC GRID
Moderate Contrast Radiograph
Both scattered radiation and transmitted, unatteanuated x- rays
Normal situation

FUTURE RRT 2021 143 FUTURE RRT 2021 144

THREE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF BEAM- FR
RESTRICTING DEVICES
APPERTURE DIAPHRAGM
CONES/CYLINDER
VARIABLE-APERTURE COLLIMATORS

FUTURE RRT 2021 145

FR
APERTURE DIAPHRAGM

Simplest type
A flat sheet of metal (Pb)with a hole cut in the center

Attached to the x-ray port/head tube

Rectangular/square/round size
Diaphragm opening < IR size field

FUTURE RRT 2021 146

FR FR
CYLINDERS CONES
Modification of the aperture
diaphragm
Modification of the aperture Circular aperture diaphragms with metal extensions
diaphragm Circular field size
Circular aperture diaphragms with metal extensions Extension: flares or diverges
Circular field size
Extension: Do not flare

FUTURE RRT 2021 147 FUTURE RRT 2021

Note: Cones/cylinders are routinely called cones 148
FR
VARIABLE APERTURE COLLIMATOR
Most commonly employed
Consists of sets of lead shutters at
right angles to one another
Results in some filtration of the x- ray beam

FUTURE RRT 2021 149

FR
VARIABLE APERTURE COLLIMATOR

Principal Parts:
First-stage shutters
Collimator lamp
Mirror (1.0 mm Al)
Second-stage long shutters (3 mm Pb)
Second-stage cross shutters (3 mm Pb)

FUTURE RRT 2021 Note: PBL is an automatic collimator 150

FR
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

FUTURE RRT 2021 152

FR

APERTURE CONES CYLINDER COLLIMATOR

DIAPHRAGM
Simple design Inexpensive Inexpensive Infinite field sizes
Low cost Simple to use Simple to use Provides a light
East of use Reduce scattered radiation Improve Reduces source Provides a
image contrast penumbra crosshair
Fixed field size
More complex
Fixed field size Difficult to handle (heavy
Increase penumbra Fixed field size More expensive
Increase off-focus Difficult when used with a horizontal
radiation beam Restricted to low kVp
radiography
Difficulty in alignment of tube, cone &
IR on the same axis
Cone cutting
FUTURE RRT 2021 151
APERTUR
EDIAPHRA CONES CYLINDER VARIABLE APERTURE
FR
GM
APPLICATIONS
TRAUMA RADIOGRAPHY DENTAL RADIOGRAPHY SKULL, SPINE,

FR
RADIOGRAPHIC GRID

Extremely effective device for reducing scattered radiation that reaches the IR
Position between the patient and the IR
300 µm 50 µm
Two Parts:
Lead strips (radiopaque)
Interspace (radiolucent)

FUTURE RRT 2021 153

FUTURE RRT 2021 Note: use of grid = >60 kVp and >10 cm body thickness 154

FR FR
RADIOGRAPHIC GRID GRID SURFACE X-RAY ABSORPTION
Absorbed: Determine the percentage of x-rays incident on the grid will be absorbed by its entrance surface
Those x-rays that scattered obliquely
Those x-rays that strike the lead strips
Transmitted: those x-rays that travels on a straight line from the x-ray tube target
High Quality Grids: absorb 80-90% of scatter radiation (good cleanup)

Note: 12.5% of x-rays transmitted through the patient are absorbed

FUTURE RRT 2021 155 FUTURE RRT 2021 156

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

A grid is constructed with 50-µm strips and a 350-

µm interspace. What percentage of x-rays incident on the grid will be absorbed by its entrance surface?

FUTURE RRT 2021 157

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

FUTURE RRT 2021 158

FR FR
GRID THREE IMPORTANT DIMENSIONS SAMPLE PROBLEM

GRID STRIP THICKNESS A grid is fabricated of 30-µm lead grid strips

INTERSPACE MATERIAL WIDTH
GRID HEIGHT
sandwiched between interspa c e m aterial that is 300 µm thick. The height of the grid is 2.4 mm
S ign ifican t

FUTURE RRT 2021 159 FUTURE RRT 2021 160

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

FUTURE RRT 2021 161

FR

FUTURE RRT 2021 162

FR FR

GRID RATIO
GRID RATIO DESCRIPTION
5:1 to 16:1 Range of grid available in general HIGH GRID RATIO LOW GRID RATIO
8:1 to 10:1 Used in general purpose x-ray imaging system HIGH SCATTER CLEANUP LOW SCATTER CLEANUP
4:1 to 5:1 Specially designed grids used for mammography LOW SCATTER RADIATION HIGH SCATTER RADIATION
Reduces approximately 85% of the scatter HIGH CONTRAST LOW CONTRAST
5:1
radiation
HIGH RADIOGRAPHIC LOWE RADIOGRAPHIC
Reduces approximately 97% of the scatter TECHNIQUE TECHNIQUE
16:1
radiation
HIGH PATIENT DOSE LOW PATIENT DOSE
LESS POSITIONING LATITUDE MORE POSITIONING LATITUDE
FUTURE RRT 2021 163 FUTURE RRT 2021 164
FR
GRID FREQUENCY

The number of grid strips per

centimeter or inch
Most grids: 25-45 lines/centimeter
Mammography:80-
lines/centimeter

FUTURE RRT 2021 165

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

What is the grid frequency of a grid that has a

grid strip width of 30 µm and an interspace width of 300 µm?

FUTURE RRT 2021 166

FR FR

SAMPLE PROBLEM GRID FREQUENCY

One line pair (T+D) = 30 µm + 300 µm = 330 µm

FUTURE RRT 2021 167 FUTURE RRT 2021 168

HIGH GRID FREQUENCY LOW GRID FREQUENCY

LESS DISTINCT GRID LINES MORE DISTINCT GRID LINES
MORE LEAD STRIPS LESS LEAD STRIPS
HIGH GRID RATIO LOW GRID RATIO
HIGH RADIOGRAPHIC LOW RADIOGRAPHIC
TECHNIQUE TECHNIQUE
HIGH PATIENT DOSE LOW PATIENT DOSE
MYC
FR
RADIOGRAPHIC
RADIOLOGIC
FABRIKAM TECHNOLOGIST
RESIDENCES
IMAGE QUALITY
GRIDPERFORMANCE

FR
CONTRAST IMPROVEMENT FACTOR
A property of the grid that specifies or reveals its ability to improve image contrast
Measures improvement in image quality when grids are used
Directly proportional to grid ratio
k = 1 (no improvement)
k = 1.5-2.5 (most grids)

Note: grid ratio does not reveal the ability of the grid to improve image contrast
FUTURE RRT 2021 170

FR FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM SAMPLE PROBLEM

An aluminum step wedge is placed on a tissue phantom

adiograph shows an average gradient (a measure of contrast) of 1.1. With a 12:1 grid, radiographic contrast is 2.8. What is the contrast improvement factor of this grid?

FUTURE RRT 2021 171 FUTURE RRT 2021 172

FR
BUCKY FACTOR
Grid factor
Used to measure how much of an increase in technique will be required compared with nongrid exposure
Directly proportional to grid ratio and kVp

FUTURE RRT 2021 173

FR

FUTURE RRT 2020 174

FR FR
BUCKY FACTOR BUCKY FACTOR

es how large an increase in patient dose will accompany the use of a particular grid
ts to measure the penetration of primary and scatter radiation through the grid PrimaryBeamPenetration:
independent of grid ratio
Scatter radiation Penetration:
dependent of grid ratio

FUTURE RRT 2021 175 FUTURE RRT 2021 176

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

A particular radiograph was produced using 12 mAs and 85 kV with a 16:1 ratio grid. The radiograph is to be repeated using an 8:1 ratio

FUTURE RRT 2021 177

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

FUTURE RRT 2021 178

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FR
GRID PATTERNS

MYC
RADIOGRAPHIC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
IMAGE QUALITY
G R I D PAT T E R N A N D T Y P E S

FUTURE RRT 2021 180

FR
GRID PATTERNS

FUTURE RRT 2021 181

FR
GRID TYPES
PARALLEL GRID
CROSSED GRID
FOCUSED GRID
MOVING GRID

FUTURE RRT 2021 182

FR FR
PARALLEL GRID PARALLEL GRID
The simplest type of grid
Can be used in moving grid
Grid Strips: parallel to one another OD decreases toward the edge of the image receptor
Advantage: easiest to manufacture A 10:1 grid used at 100 cm SID should absorb all primary x-rays farther than 10 cm from the central ray.
Disadvantages:
Grid cutoff (main)
Most pronounce at a short SID & large area IR
Cleans up scatter radiation in only one direction

FUTURE RRT 2021

183 FUTURE RRT 2021 184

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM
6:1 parallel grid6:1 parallel grid
76 cm SID61 cm SID
Decreases gridIncreases grid
cutoffcutoff

FUTURE RRT 2021 185

FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

A 16:1 parallel grid is positioned for chest

radiography at 180 cm SID . W h at is the distance from the central axis to complete grid cutoff? Will the image satisfacto
S ig if an t

× 43-cm image receptor?

FUTURE RRT 2021

186

FR FR
SAMPLE PROBLEM

FUTURE RRT 2020 187 FUTURE RRT 2021 188

FR
CROSSED GRID

Designed to absorb scatter radiation not only in one direction

Fabricated by sandwiching two parallel grids together
Grid Strips: two parallel lead strips that are perpendicular to one another
Parallel to the long axis
Parallel to the short axis

FUTURE RRT 2021

189

FR
CROSSED GRID

Advantages:
Not too difficult to manufacture
Not excessively expensive
More efficient in cleaning up scatter radiation
Higher contrast improvement factor than parallel grid with twice grid ratio
This advantage increases as the kVp
is increased

FUTURE RRT 2021

190

FR FR
CROSSED GRID FOCUSED GRID

Disadvantages: Designed to minimize grid cutoff

Grid cutoff (main) Grid Strips:
Restricted application in clinical radiology Lie on the imaginary radial lines of a circle centered at the focal spot
Critical grid positioning Parallel to primary x-ray path across the entire image receptor
Tilt table techniques Same properties of parallel grids but no grid cutoff
Exposure technique required is substantial
Used for moving grids

FUTURE RRT 2021

FUTURE RRT 2021 A 6:1 crossed grid (two 6:1 parallel grids) has a greater scatter cleanup than a 12:1 parallel grid 191 192
FR
FOCUSED GRID

Disadvantages:
More difficult to manufacture than parallel grids
Geometric limitations
Intended focal distance
The side of the grid should face the x-ray tube

Grid cutoff occurs in focused grid if the radiographs are taken at distances other than those intended
FUTURE RRT 2021 193

FR
MOVING GRID

Potter-Bucky diaphragm or Bucky

Most grid in diagnostic imaging
Location:
Just below the tabletop
Just behind the vertical chest board
Types:
Reciprocating (back and forth)
Oscillating (circular fashion)

FUTURE RRT 2021 194

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FR
MOVING GRID

Advantages:
Grid lines disappear

MYC
Rarely fail RADIOGRAPHIC
Image degradation rarely occurs
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
IMAGE QUALITY
Disadvantages: GRIDPROBLEMS
Increased radiographic technique
Requires bulky mechanism
Increased OID
Introduce motion into cassette-holding device

FUTURE RRT 2021

195
FR
GRID PROBLEMS

OFF LEVEL
OFF CENTER
OFF FOCUS
UPSIDE DOWN
UPSIDE CENTER, OFF FOCUS

FUTURE RRT 2021 Note: Improper positioning is the most frequent error in the use of grid 197

FR
OFF LEVEL GRID

Produced also with an improperly positioned x-ray tube

Occurs when the grid is perpendicular to the CR but is shifted laterally
A problem in focused grid

FUTURE RRT 2021 198

FR FR
OFF LEVEL GRID OFF CENTER

Grid Cutoff: occurs across the entire radiographic image Lateral decentering
CR is incident on the grid at an angle Produced also with an improperly
Effect: positioned x-ray tube
Lower OD Occurs when the grid is perpendicular to the CR but is shifted laterally
Underexposure
A problem in focused grid
Light image
Prevention: the RT must place the CR perpendicular to the grid

FUTURE RRT 2021

199 FUTURE RRT 2021 200

FR
OFF CENTER

Center of Focused Grid: must be positioned directly under the x-ray tube target
Grid Cutoff: occurs across the entire radiograph when there is any lateral shift

FUTURE RRT 2021 201

FR
OFF CENTER

Effect:
Partial grid cutoff across image
Underexposed
Light image (low OD)
Prevention: the RT must carefully line up the center of the light localized field with the center of the cassette

FUTURE RRT 2021 202

FR FR
OFF FOCUS OFF FOCUS

Grid Cutoff:
Occurs toward edge of image
Not uniform across the image receptor
Occurs when radiographs are taken at SIDs unspecified for that grid More severe at the edges
Occurs when the grid is not used at the proper focal distance Proper Focal Distance:
180 cm for chest radiographs
100 cm for all table radiographs
More important with high ratio

FUTURE RRT 2021

FUTURE RRT 2021 203 204

FR
UPSIDE DOWN

Occurs when a focused grid is positioned upside-down

A problem in focused grid
Severe/Complete Grid Cut Off:
Occurs on either side except the region of the central ray

FUTURE RRT 2021 205

FR
UPSIDE DOWN

Prevention: the RT must check the labels that indicate the

Tube side
Image receptor side
Prescribed focal distance

FUTURE RRT 2021 206

FR FR
OFF CENTER, OFF FOCUS OFF CENTER, OFF FOCUS

Grid Cut Off: occurs on one side of image

Most common improper grid position Effect:
Occurs if the grid is both off center and off focus Grid-positioning artifact
Uneven exposure
Occur easily during mobile radiography
Radiograph appears dark on one side and lighter on the other side

FUTURE RRT 2021 207 FUTURE RRT 2021 208

FR

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FUTURE RRT 2021 209

MYC
RADIOGRAPHIC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
IMAGE QUALITY
GRIDSELECTION

FR FR
GRID RATIO GRID RATIO
Proper selection depends on three interrelated factors
kVp
Degree of cleanup Also influenced by the
Patient dose Size of the anatomy
Higher Grid Ratio: Shape of the anatomy
Used for high kVp technique 16:1 Grid Ratio:
Increases the amount of scatter cleanup Not often used
Increases patient dose Used for chest radiography
Decreases faster the scatter radiation transmission High-kVp technique
FUTURE RRT 2021

211 FUTURE RRT 2021 212

FR
GRID RATIO
•
8:1 Grid Ratio
Represents good compromise between the desired levels of scatter radiation cleanup and patient dose
Satisfactory at tube potentials below 90 kVp
Above 8:1 Grid Ratio: used when kVp exceeds 90

FUTURE RRT 2021 213

FR
GRID RATIO
4:1 and 5:1 Grid Ratio:
Low ratio moving grids
Improves contrast with no
loss of spatial resolution
Increases patient dose
Twice compared to without the use of grid
Used during mammography
Low-kVp technique

FUTURE RRT 2021 214

FR FR
AIR-GAP TECHNIQUE AIR-GAP TECHNIQUE

Used as an alternative to the use of radiographic grids X-rays are directed more to the side
Not as effective with high-kVp radiography IR Distance: positioned 10-15 cm
Rationale: because the direction of the scatter x-rays is more forward from the patient

FUTURE RRT 2021 215 FUTURE RRT 2021 216

TOPICS OUTLINE
FR
R A D I O G R A PH I C F I L M
T Y P ES OF F I L M
H A N D L I N G A ND STO R AG E OF F I L M FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FO R MAT IO N OF LAT E N T I A M G E
R A DI O GR AP H I C
INTENSIFYINGSCREEN
F I L M P RO C ES S I N G

SCREEN-FILM
MYC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

FR FR
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM FILM CONSTRUCTION
An image receptor
The medium that converts the x- ray beam into a visible image
Manufactured with rigorous quality control
has a spectral response OVERCOAT
Thickness: EMULSION
150-300 µm ADHESIVE LAYER
175-300 µm BASE
0.007-0.0012 inch

FUTURE RRT 2021

219 FUTURE RRT 2021 220

FR
OVERCOAT

Supercoat
A protective covering of gelatin that enclosed the emulsion
Protects the emulsion from scratches,pressure& contamination during handling, processing and storage

FUTURE RRT 2021 221

FR
OVERCOAT

Characteristics:
Designed to be antistatic
Extremely strong
Nearly impossible to tear a radiograph if combined with the tough base material

FUTURE RRT 2021 222

FR FR
EMULSION GELATIN
The heart of the radiographic film
Interacts with x-rays or light photons
Composition: gelatin and SHC
Types: single and double Provide mechanical support for silver halide crystals
Thickness: by holding them uniformly dispersed in place
3-5 μm Distributes the crystals evenly over the surface of the film
5-10 μm
0.002-0.004 inch
Note: current emulsion has a high covering power (lesser SHC but produce same OD)
FUTURE RRT 2021

223 FUTURE RRT 2021 224

FR
GELATIN CHARACTERISTICS

CLEAR
SUFFICIENTLY POROUS
FLEXIBLE
LOW Z (7)
EXTREMELY HIGH QUALITY

FUTURE RRT 2021 225

FR
SILVER HALIDE CRYSTALS (SHC)

Silver iodobromide
The active ingredient of the radiographic emulsion
Composition:
Silver bromide (95-98%)
Silver iodide (2-5%)
Silver chloride

Tabular
FUTURE RRT 2021 226

FR FR
SHC SHAPES SHC PRODUCTION
Tabular (most common), cubic, octahedral, polyhedral or irregular, flat and triangular

Produced in total darkness

Irregular Flat, tablet-like grains Cubic grains

DISSOLVE

Ag + HNO3 WASTE PRODUCT

PRECIPITATED Tabular
FUTURE RRT 2021 Conventional New Technology 227 FUTURE RRT 2021 228
FR FR
CHARACTERISTICS OF SHC SHC SIZE AND EMULSION LAYER
Negatively charged surface
CRYSTAL SIZE EMULSION LAYER
Positively charged interiors
High atomic number (Z) SMALL LARGE THIN THICK
ZBr= 35; ZAg = 47; ZI = 53 RESOLUTION HIGH LOW HIGH LOW
Physical imperfection SPEED SLOW FAST SLOW FAST

DIRECT EXPOSURE SCREEN-FILM

THICK EMULSION THIN EMULSION
MORE SHC LESS SHC

FUTURE RRT 2021 229 FUTURE RRT 2021 230

FR

FUTURE RRT 2020 231

FR
HALATION EFFECT

Caused by light being reflected from

the air interface on the back of the base material

FUTURE RRT 2021 233

FR
SINGLE EMULSION
LL

Contains identifying notch cut in the

lower left corner.

Help identify the emulsion side of single emulsion film

FUTURE RRT 2021 234

FR FR
DUPLICATION FILM MAMMOGRAPHIC FILM
Single emulsion film
Exposed to UV or blue light in the (not x-ray)
Used in the darkroom setting
Never exposed to x-rays
SINGLE EMULSION FILM
SLOW IN SPEED
LOW NOISE
HIGH RESOLUTION

FUTURE RRT 2021 235 FUTURE RRT 2021 236

SINGLE EMULSION DOUBLE EMULSION
CHEAP EXPENSIVE FR
LOW NOISE HIGH NOISE
SINGLE VS DOUBLE EMULSION LOW CONTRAST HIGH CONTRAST
HIGH RESOLUTION LOW RESOLUTION
HIGH EXPOSURE LOW EXPOSURE
HIGH PATIENT DOSE LOW PATIENT DOUSE

FR
ADHESIVE LAYER

Substratum coating
A thin coating material
Allows emulsion & base to maintain proper contact
Prevents bubbles or other distortion
FUTURE RRT 2021 237
During processing, handling & development

FUTURE RRT 2021 238

FR FR

BASE CHARCTERISTICS OF THE BASE

Flexible and fracture resistant

The foundation of radiographic film Dimensional stability
To provide a rigid structure onto which the emulsion can be coated Uniform lucency and transparent to light
Made up of polyester (Z = 7) Semirigid or rigid
Tinted with blue dye
Coated with special absorbing dye

FUTURE RRT 2021 239 FUTURE RRT 2021 240

FR FR
CROSSOVER EFFECT TYPES OF FILM BASE
The exposure of an emulsion caused by light from the opposite radiographic intensifying screen. It causes increased blurring of image

FUTURE RRT 2021 FUTURE241

RRT 2021 242

TYPES DESCRIPTION
GLASS PLATE The original radiographic film base (WWI)
Circa 1914
CELLULOSE NITRATE The standard radiographic film base
(1920s)
Flammable
CELLOLOSE TRIACETATE The safety radiographic film base (mid-
1920s)
Same to cellulose nitrate but not as
flammable
POLYESTER The radiographic film base of choice
Superior dimensional stability

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FR
TYPES OF RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

SCREEN-FILM
MYC
DIRECT EXPOSURE FILM
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
TYPES OFRADIOGRAPHIC FILM SCREEN-FILM
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST MAMMOGRAPHIC FILM

FUTURE RRT 2021 244

FR
DIRECT EXPOSURE FILM

Nonscreen film
The type of film that is used without radiographic intensifying screens
Used to image thin body parts (e.g. extremity examinations)
Its use is severely limited for medical applications

FUTURE RRT 2021 245

FR
DIRECT EXPOSURE FILM

Characteristics:
Thicker emulsion
Higher concentration of SHC
Speed: depends on
Concentration of SHC
Total number of SHC

FUTURE RRT 2021 246

FR FR
SCREEN-FILM SCREEN-FILM
The most commonly used film

Predominant radiography in medical Advantages:

Allows reduce technique
The type of film that is used with radiographic intensifying screens Allows reduced patient dose
Emulsions: two Disadvantages: image blurring
Characteristics: blue or green sensitive Crossover effect
Parallax effect
Applications: general radiography

FUTURE RRT 2021

247 FUTURE RRT 2021 248

FR
CROSSOVER EFFECT
The exposure of an emulsion caused by light from the opposite radiographic intensifying screen. It causes increased blurring of image

Tabular grains

IS – blue or IV (short wavelength)

Light absorbing dye (base)

FUTURE RRT 2021 249

FR
PARALLAX EFFECT
Geometric distortion on outer edges

FUTURE RRT 2021 250

FR
CONTRAST

Inversely proportional to exposure latitude

Level: medium, high or higher
Depends on:
The size of the silver halide crystals
The distribution of the silver halide crystals

FUTURE RRT 2021 252

CHARACTERISTICS THAT MUST BE FR

CONSIDERED IN SELECTING SCREEN-FILM

CONTRAST
FILM SPEED
SPECTRAL MATCHING
ANTICROSSOVER
ANTIHALATION DYES
REQUIREMENT FOR SAFELIGHT
HIGH CONTRAST EMULSION LOW CONTRAST EMULSION
SMALLER SILVER GRAIN LARGE SILVER GRAIN
UNIFORM GRAIN SIZE WIDE RANGE OF GRAIN SIZES

FUTURE RRT 2021 251

FR FR
FILM SPEED FILM SPEED
Controlled by the phenidone
Depends on: LARGE GRAIN THICK EMULSION LAYER
The silver halide grain size, shape and concentration EMULSIONS
The number of sensitivity specks Received more photons Place more crystal in a given area
The thickness of the emulsion layer
HIGH FILM SPEED More sensitive Incoming photons interact with more
Higher SHG size, shape and concentration than one crystal
More sensitivity specks Darken a greater area of the film
Thicker emulsion layer More crystals stacked on top of one
Longer immersion time Faster film speed another in the same area o More film
Higher developer temperature density
High chemical activity
Faster film speed
FUTURE RRT 2021 253 FUTURE RRT 2021 254

FR
TYPES OF FILM ACCORDING TO THEIR FR
SPECTRAL MATCHING
The most important consideration in selection of modern screen film SENSITIVITY TO THE ORTHOCHROMATIC
COLOR OF LIGHT
MONOCHROMATIC PANCHROMATIC
The color of light emitted by the screen must match the response of the film Blue-sensitive film Green-sensitive film Sensitive to the entire visible light
Spectral Response: the sensitivity of film to various colors of light Sensitive also to blue light spectrum
Not sensitive to red spectrum Sensitive to all colors
Improper: Used in photography
Reduce speed Exposed only with blue- or Exposed only with green-emitting -
High patient dose ultraviolet-emitting screens screen
Requires amber-filtered safelight Requires red-filtered safelight -
Wratten 6B filter Kodak GBX Filter
FUTURE RRT 2021 Orange-brown light (>550 nm) Dark red light (>660 nm) -

Sodium Vapor: orange-yellow

NOTE:
Violet & Blue: all SH films respond
Green, Yellow, Red: may not response unless spectrally sensitized with dyes
255

256

FUTURE RRT 2021

FR
ANTI-CROSSOVER LAYER
Tabular grain
Light absorbing dye Absorbs crossover light
IS that emits short-wavelength (blue or UV) Remains as separate layer
Remove during processing

FUTURE RRT 2021 257

FR
ANTI-HALATION DYES
A special light-absorbing dye coated in the base
Used in all single-emulsion screen film
Advantage:
Improve spatial resolution
Disadvantages:
Reduce speed
Increase patient dose

FUTURE RRT 2021 258

FR FR
REQUIREMENT FOR SAFELIGHT MAMMOGRAPHIC FILM
Previous: Industrial-grade, double- emulsion, direct-exposure film
Use for nondestructive testing (NDT)
Incandescent/LED lamp Assessment of casting, weldings and etc
7-15 W Current:
Types: Green sensitive single-emulsion film
Wratten 6B Green emitting terbium doped gadolinium oxysulfides
GBX filter Consists of antihalation dyes
Sodium vapor

FUTURE RRT 2021 259 FUTURE RRT 2021 260

SCREEN-FILM
MYC
FR
RADIOLOGIC
FABRIKAM TECHNOLOGIST
RESIDENCES
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
HANDLING ANDSTORAGEOFFILM

FR
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
A sensitive radiation detector
Affected By:
Pressure
Temperature
Humidity
Light
Radiation
Age
Handling

FUTURE RRT 2021 262

FR
HEAT AND HUMIDITY

Refrigeration and Freezing arrest the aging process

FUTURE RRT 2021 Film: must be sealed in moisture-proof containers 263

FR
LIGHT
STORAGE TEMPERATURE STORAGE HUMIDITY
40-60% Can expose the film before processing
<20 oC (68 oF)
30-60% Increased Fog: occurs if low, level diffuse light exposes the film
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE (>20 oC) ELEVATED HUMIDITY (>60%) Gross Obvious Artifact: occurs if bright light exposes or partially exposes the film
Increases fog, Reduces contrast, Note: new film has a light-proof packaging
Increases fog, reduces contrast
Causes condensation
LOWER TEMPERATURE LOWER HUMIDITY (<40%)
Causes static artifacts Causes static artifacts

FUTURE RRT 2021 264

FR
RADIATION

Creates an image artifact by

Increasing fog
Reducing contrast
Film Fog:
The dull, uniform OD
Appears if the film has been exposed to light, x-rays, heat or humidity
Note: film storage should be lead-lined

FUTURE RRT 2021 265

FR
SHELL LIFE

Expiration Date: indicates the maximum shelf life of the film

Expired Film:
Reduces of speed
Reduces contrast
Increases in fog
30 Days: the maximum storage time for radiographic film

FUTURE RRT 2021 266

PROPER HANDLING AND STORAGE OF FR PROPER HANDLING AND STORAGE OFFR

FILM FILM
Handled and stored in the dark
Ensured by:
Hands should be cleaned A well-sealed darkroom
Hand lotions should be avoided A light-proof storage bin
Rough handling (e.g. bending and creasing) should be avoided Storage shelf and film bin should be lead-line
Stored in a cool, dry place Designed to keep the total exposure of unprocessed film below 0.2 mR (2 µGya)
Stored in a climate-controlled environment Storage bin should have electronic interlock
Refrigerated film must be brought to room temperature in advance of use (prevent waterspot) Film should not be stored for period longer than the stated shelf life

Film boxes should be stored on edge or end than lying them flat
er posed

FUTURE RRT 2021 267 FUTURE RRT 2021 268

PROPER HANDLING AND STORAGE OF FR
FILM

Storage of film should be is sequenced

A film, paper interleaf or cardboard insert should not be removed quickly
Film should not be stored near cleaning solutions, formaldehyde or other strong chemicals
Chemical fumes can cause film fog

FUTURE RRT 2021 269

FR
FILM IDENTIFICATION
Date of exposure
Full name of the patient
Name of the institution
Referring physician
Patient identification number
Examination ordered
Right and left identification markers

FUTURE RRT 2021 270

FR
FABRIKAM RESIDENCES

FR
LATENT IMAGE

SCREEN-FILM Invisible or potential image

The unobservable information contained in a silver halide crystals
MYC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
F O R M AT I O N O F T H E L AT E N T I M A G E
Consists of:
Radiation-activated silver halide crystals
Radiation-inactivated silver halide crystals

FUTURE RRT 2021 272

FR
LATENT IMAGE

Formed when radiation interacts with the silver and halide atoms
Through total x-ray absorption (photoelectric effect)
Through partial x-ray absorption (Compton effect)

FUTURE RRT 2021 273

FR
UNEXPOSED SILVER HALIDE CRYSTALS

FUTURE RRT 2021 274

e crystals

FR FR
GURNEY-MOTT THEORY FRENKEL DEFECT

The accepted, incomplete,

planation of latent image An inherent defect in the structure of silver halid
rmation An atom leaves the original site and occupies interstitial site
oposed by Ronald Wilfred Gurney and Nevill Francis Mott in 1938 Occurs if cations are smaller than anions
ccounts for sensitivity specks being essential to the image formation process

RE RRT 2021

275 FUTURE RRT 2021 276

FR
FRENKEL DEFECT

Consists of:
Interstitial silver ions (Ag+)
Because the silver atom is displaced from its lattice position to an interstitial site
Silver ion vacancies
Because the silver atom creates a vacancy at the original site

FUTURE RRT 2021 277

FR
GURNEY-MOTT THEORY

FUTURE RRT 2021 278

FR FR
GURNEY-MOTT THEORY GURNEY-MOTT THEORY

FUTURE RRT 2021 279 FUTURE RRT 2021 280

FR
GURNEY-MOTT THEORY

FUTURE RRT 2021 281

FR
MANIFEST IMAGE FORMATION

FUTURE RRT 2021 282

THANK YOU FUTURE

MYC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
RRTs!!!
Meynard Y. Castro RRT
Future RRT Hub