All Rights Reserved © 2021

This manual is intended for BS Criminology students of Tanauan Institute, Inc. The content
of this book or any part hereof may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical including copying, recording, storage in any informational
retrieval system, or otherwise without prior permission of the author. Any unauthorized
copying, reproduction, or dissemination of any part of this note shall be prosecuted in
accordance with the law.

Author can be reached at +639275034477 or [email protected] or

fb.com/philip041187 or @philipmagtaan (IG)

First Printing, 2021

PREFACE

Research and thesis writing is one of the requirements for graduation in every
degree program in higher educational institutions. This will showcase the students critical
and logical thinking in the field of interest of criminology program that geared towards the
preparation of those students in their profession someday. This manual on research and
thesis writing with statistics will guide the students in developing their research problem,
research title and as they write the manuscript for presentation.

This manual also set the specific format, guidelines and procedures in conducting
the research to achieve the standards set by the institution. It is also important to students
to know the flow of research, the steps/protocols and the purpose of every portion of their
paper. Through this manual, students will be able to follow uniform format until the
completion of the research. This manual also promote research as one of the aspects of
Criminology profession to as part of social sciences that may solve social problems.

Dr. Philip B. Magtaan, RCrim, CSP

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author expresses his profound gratitude and appreciation to the following:

The Collantes Family and the MANCOM, for their professional support in this
endeavor to attain quality education with quality service;

Dr. Nelia P. Mananguit, the Dean of College and Mam Concepcion E. Baraquio,
the Head of College of Criminology for their guidance that make this manual possible;

To my wife, Maria Racy Alcantara-Magtaan, and Son, Luis Brian who also
support and inspire me to my endeavor and career in teaching;

Above all, to the Almighty God for wisdom and bountiful blessings.

Dr. Philip B. Magtaan, RCrim, CSP

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS Page

Copyright Page i
Preface ii
Acknowledgment iii
Table of Contents iv
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VISION

TANAUAN INSTITUTE, INC. envision itself to be a world-class institution

dedicated to higher learning and modern research. It hopes to contribute to the humane and
holistic development of the Filipino youth through top-tier quality education. TANAUAN
INSTITUTE, INC. strives to produce socially and morally upright individuals in globally
competence environment.

MISSION

TANAUAN INSTITUTE, INC. seeks to establish a culture of intellectual

competence, environmental awareness, and socio-civic responsibility. TANAUAN
INSTITUTE, INC. commits itself to the formation of disciplined and enlightened minds.
TANAUAN INSTITUTE, INC. aims to help build a nation of great men and women, who
shall be accomplished and decorated in their field.

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COURSE SPECIFICATION

Course Title: Criminological Research and Statistics

Course Code: Criminology 6 Course Duration: Two Semesters

Prerequisite: None No. of Credit Units: 3 Units
Lecture Hours: 3 hours Issue No.: 03
Laboratory Hours: None Issued Date: August 6, 2019
Medium of Instruction: English Effectivity Date: August 24, 2020

1.0 PHILOSOPHY

This subject is intended to equip the students with the necessary knowledge and
understanding of the basic concepts and principles of research and statistics. It also
provides the necessary skills in the use of various procedures and techniques in conducting,
writing and defending an undergraduate research paper.

2.0 AUDIENCE

This course is intended for fourth-year undergraduate BS Criminology students

with prior knowledge on criminal justice, criminological theories and social science aspects
of criminology leading to the writing of research paper.

3.0 RELATIONSHIP TO STUDENT OUTCOME

Students’ Outcomes
a. Ability to give importance of research and identify topics as well as
✓
research problem related to criminology.
b. Capability to write an introduction, identify theories, draft a paradigm,
state the problems, identify the significance and provide operational ✓
definition to some important terminologies.
c. Recognize literature and studies related to their research that provides
✓
framework and direction to the topics selected.
d. Gather necessary information and data that will be the basis of the
✓
conclusion of recommendation to the problem under study.
e. Ability to present the data gathered in tabular form with the use of
✓
statistical treatment.
f. Provide a conclusion and necessary recommendation based on the data
✓
presented.

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g. Present the study and write the miscellaneous parts of the thesis and
provide hard bounded copies to be submitted as partial requirements for
graduation.

4.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this course, the students should be able to:

1. Able to understand the nature and concept of research and identify topics and
problems that can be significant in the field of criminology.
2. Able to identify and write the parts of research.
3. Gather information, literature, and studies related to the present study that will
frame and be the basis of the present research.
4. Present the data in tabular form with the application of statistical treatments.
5. Make a conclusion and recommendation based on the findings of the study and
present such to chosen beneficiaries.
6. Submit the final output as a partial requirement for graduation.

Table shown next is mapped intended learning outcomes with the student outcomes for the
course.

INTENDED APPLICABLE STUDENT OUTCOMES

LEARNING
A B C D E F G
OUTCOMES
1 ✓ ✓
2 ✓ ✓ ✓
3 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
4 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
5 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
6 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

5.0 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

TOPICS ILO1 ILO2 ILO3 ILO4 ILO5 ILO6

The Nature of Research ✓ ✓ ✓
The Research Topics and Problem ✓ ✓ ✓
Contents and Format ✓ ✓ ✓
Writing the Introduction ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Drafting of Data Gathering ✓
✓ ✓ ✓
Instrument
Writing the Methodology ✓ ✓ ✓

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Data Gathering Procedure ✓ ✓ ✓

Retrieval and Tallying of Results, ✓
and the application of statistical ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
tools.
Writhing the Result and Discussion, ✓
✓ ✓ ✓
and provide recommendations.
Writing Bibliography and ✓
✓ ✓ ✓
Appendices
Research Presentation ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

6.0 TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

1. Able to understand the nature and concept of research and identify topics and
problems that can be significant in the field of criminology.
2. Able to write the Introduction by identifying the gaps of the present study.
3. Gather information, literature, and studies related to the present study that will
frame and be the basis of the present research.
4. Present the data in tabular form with the application of statistical treatments.
5. Make a conclusion and recommendation based on the findings of the study and
present such to chosen beneficiaries.
6. Submit the final output as a partial requirement for graduation.

TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES (TLAs)

ILO No. TLAs

ILO 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 • Lecture/Presentation
All ILOs will be introduced, discussed, demonstrated, presented
through lectures and presentation. Printed lectures and reference
books will be given for out-of-school reading, learning, and
research.
ILO 3, 6 • Application and Actual
All ILOs will be performed and applied by students depending on
the nature and concept of their study.
ILO 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 • Presentation and Defense
This ILOs output of the subject will be scrutinized and presented
to the panel to refine and improve the methods and results of the
study.

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ASSESSMENT METHODS (Tasks/Activities)

ILO No. TLAs

ILO 1, 2 • Quizzes and Major Examinations

Scheduled major examinations will be given to assess the

cognitive skills of the students. Surprised and announced quizzes
will also be given to determine the acquired knowledge of
students for every topic.

Students must get at least 60% of the total items in every

examination or quiz. The transmuted percentage is computed as
follows:
Percentage = (Raw Score/Total Item) x 60 + 40

ILO 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 • Presentation and Defense

Students will be given a time frame to conduct the study and

present their final output to the panel.

7.0 COURSE POLICIES

1. Attendance
Attendance will be checked regularly. A student with four (4) absences
will be dropped from the subject. Three (3) occurrence of tardiness is equivalent
to one (1) absent. A student arriving in class after 15 minutes will be considered
absent. Three (3) consecutive absences without any valid reason are considered
dropped, and five (5) cumulative absences without justifying reason will also
be considered dropped from the subject. A student who will justify his/her
absences is required to submit explanation letter duly signed by his/her parents,
attached are the necessary documents/evident that permit justification and the
photocopy of ID of parents with signature.

2. Group Activities, Assignment, Research

These requirements were introduced to the class in order to foster study
habits and better understanding. Group activities were given in order that
members of the group participate in the writing of research and learn the
concept of thesis writing.
The assignment is also given to encourage students to read lessons to be
discussed on the next meeting and/or the leader can give an assignment to
his/her members that will contribute to the research.
The research will be the final output of the subject and it will be
presented and defended to the panel.

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3. Examinations
There are four major examinations (prelim, midterm, semi-finals and
finals). All major examinations will be closed book, notes, and cell phone.
These examinations will be given in the scheduled time and date set by the
institution unless otherwise specified. The scope of every exam will be the
enumerated topics and discussed in the class. It may include some related topics
given in other related subjects. Examinations are in multiple-choice type and
shading of answers on the separate sheet. Erased or overwritten answers will be
marked wrong.
A special examination will also be given to those students who failed to
take the examination on the scheduled time and date.
Since it is research, there will be one written exam. Other major exams
will be based on their output and rubrics will be used to determine their grade.

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Policies on Thesis Writing

1. Topics must be related to the field of criminology, crime causation, law enforcement,
curriculum development and other profession in the field of criminal justice.
2. The statement of the problem must cover a body of knowledge, existing phenomenon
and supported by related literature and studies.
3. The conduct of research is a group effort and they must present their manuscript at the
end of semester for pre-oral and final defense, respectively.
4. The group is composed of 6-7 members per group selected by the discretion of the
research professor.
5. The students will propose a topic and develop a topic from their chosen interest in the
field of criminology and criminal justice. They should prepare a plan or GANTT chart
so that deadline will be met and accomplish all the task.
6. The research professor will be the resident adviser in the conduct of the study. As an
adviser, he/she will manage the time for consultation in the development of the study.
He/she will align the problem to the contents of the study. The adviser ensures that the
research follow the standard format set forth by the institution. During the defense, the
adviser will help the students in answering and justifying the study. And finally, guide
the students to finish the research before the end of school year.
7. The panel of examiners must ensure the quality of research and conforms with the
standard set by the institution. They will give constructive comments on the
improvement and refinement of the study by determining the appropriate significance
in the field of criminology, statement of the problems, verify the results and evaluate
the recommendation given based on the results of the study.
8. The statistician or anyone who selected by the students is the responsible to apply the
correct statistical tools to achieve the objectives of the study.
9. The grammarian will make sure that the use of grammar is correct prior to its final
output and subsequent submission to the Dean of College and School Library.

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Thesis Contents

1. Preliminary Sections
a. Title Page
b. Approval Sheet
c. Abstract
d. Acknowledgment
e. Dedication
f. Table of Contents
g. List of Tables
h. List of Figures
i. Appendices

2. Narrative Parts
a. Introduction
i. Conceptual or Theoretical Framework
ii. Paradigm of the Study
iii. Statement of the Problem
iv. Hypotheses
v. Significance of the Study
vi. Literature Review
b. Methods
c. Results and Discussion
d. Conclusion
e. Recommendations
f. References
g. Appendices
h. Curriculum Vitae

3. Style and Format

a. Margin

Top – 1.25’
Bottom – 1.00’
Left – 1.5’
Right – 1.00’

b. Font and Spacing

Font style – Times New Roman

Font size
Paragraph – 12
Title – it depends as long as the title become inverted triangle

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Paragraph
Title – Center
Body – Justified
Indention – 0.5”
Spacing
Before and after – 0 points

c. Line Spacing

Table text – single space

Paragraph – double space
Abstract – 1.5 space

d. Page

– position of page number is Top of Page (Right Align)

– hide the page number of first page of every chapter
– pages in title page up to abstract must be (i, ii, iii, …)
– pages in chapter I onwards must be (1, 2, 3, …)

4. Title page (see sample)

5. Prepare the acceptance sheet (see sample)
6. Acknowledgment (see sample)
7. Dedication (see sample)
8. Table of contents
9. List of figures
10. List of tables
11. Content of abstract
a. Thesis Title
b. Name of Researchers
c. Adviser
d. School and its Address
e. Course
f. Date Started
g. Date Finished
h. Narration of Contents
• Title

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• Method Used, Data Gathering Instrument, Respondents of the Study

• Statistical Tools Used
• Brief Conclusion
• Recommendations

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THE NATURE AND RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH

Research has been recognized as a vital tool for solving man’s multifarious
problems and in making his life richer and fuller.

The Meaning of Research

The word research is derived from the prefix re, which means to repeat or redo, and
the root word search, which means to find or look for. From the etymology of this word,
research literally means to repeat looking for something, which had been existence before.
Let us examine how research has been defined by experts.
✓ Research is concerned with finding answers (Mason & Bramble, 1989). It is a
systematic, organized search for knowledge or answers to questions.
✓ It is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing. Schumacher (1989)
✓ It is the process of obtaining knowledge through techniques, where truth, accuracy,
validity, reliability, and other criteria can be ascertained (Genato, et al, 1993)
✓ It is critical and exhaustive investigation or experimentation, having for its aim the
discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation, the revision of accepted
conclusions, theories, or laws in the light of newly discovered facts or the practical
application of such conclusions, theories or laws (Leedy, 1993)
✓ It is systematic inquiry aimed at providing information to solve problems (Emory,
1995)
✓ It is a systematic and empirical approach to answering questions (Bieger and Gail,
1996). It is concerned with understanding a phenomenon, within the context our
theories and experiences regarding the phenomenon.
✓ It is the continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown. It entails an
investigation of new facts, leading to the discovery of new ideas, new methods, or
improvements.

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Characteristics of Research
1. Systematic – It is systematic as there are interrelated steps or procedures a
researcher has to observe in solving a problem.
2. Objective – It is not based on guesswork. This is because empirical data have to be
gathered by the researcher before making any conclusion or proposing any solution
to an identified difficulty or problem.
3. Comprehensive – If a researcher is serious about understanding a phenomenon, he
has to examine and analyze all its aspects or angles before making a generalization
or conclusion.
4. Critical – This means that procedures employed by the researcher must be able to
withstand critical security by other researchers.
5. Rigorous – It is rigorous as procedures to be followed in solving a problem should
be relevant, appropriate, justified, and strictly observed.
6. Valid – Whenever a researcher formulates conclusions, these are based on actual
findings.
7. Verifiable – Research is said to be verifiable as other researchers can check on the
correctness of its results by replicating the study, based on the methods and
procedures employed by the researcher.
8. Empirical – Research is empirical as generalization drawn by a researcher is rooted
upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life experiences
or observations.

Purpose of Research
1. To serve man
2. Good life
3. Understanding
4. Improve judgment
5. Add to his power
6. Reduce the burden of work
7. Relieve suffering

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8. Increase satisfaction

The Types of Research

There are different ways of classifying research. On the basis of who undertakes
research, research can be either academic research or a research project.
1. Academic research is one conducted by an individual in fulfilling the requirements
for the conferment of an academic title or degree. Baby theses master’s theses,
feasibility studies, and doctoral dissertation fall under this type of research.

2. Research project is type of research undertaken by an individual or group of

individuals as part of their professional work or assignment.

Types of Research based on Research Design

1. Descriptive Research. This type of research endeavors to describe systematically,
factually, accurately and objectively a situation, problem or phenomenon.
2. Correctional/associational research. In this type of research, the investigator tries
to probe the significance of relationship between two or more factors or
characteristics.
3. Explanatory research. In this type of inquiry, the researcher seeks to clarify why
and how a relationship exists between two or more aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
4. Exploratory research. This kind of study is undertaken when the investigator is
after probing or exploring areas where little is known about the research problem.
5. Experimental research. In this type of research, the researcher probes into the
cause of an effect by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more
treatments or conditions.

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6. Ex-post facto/causal-comparative research. It is this type when the investigator

delves on analyzing the possible effect of a factor which cannot be manipulated and
controlled.
7. Historical research. This research attempts to reconstruct the past objectively and
accurately or to explain an incident that happened in the past with the use of data
taken from the past.
8. Ethnographic research. This type of research is done when the researcher is
concerned with explaining or describing a phenomenon holistically, with the use of
multiple data collection techniques.

Types of Research according to Data Collection

a. Qualitative - Involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through
statistical summary or analysis.
✓ Concerned with understanding human behavior from the actor’s own frame of
reference
✓ Naturalistic and uncontrolled observation
✓ Subjective
✓ Close to the data: the ‘insider’ perspective
✓ Grounded, discovery-oriented, expansionist, descriptive, and inductive
✓ Process-oriented
✓ Valid: ‘real’, ‘rich’, and ‘deep’ data
✓ Ungeneralizable
b. Quantitative - Involves studies that make use of statistical analyses to obtain
their findings.
✓ Seeks facts or causes of social phenomenon without regard to the subjective
states of the individuals
✓ Obtrusive and controlled measurement
✓ Objective
✓ Removed from the data: the ‘outsider’ perspective

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✓ Ungrounded, verification-oriented, confirmatory, reductionist, inferential, and

hypothetical-deductive
✓ Outcome-oriented
✓ Reliable: ‘hard’ and replicable data
✓ Generalizable

Types of Criminological Research

1. Action Research (to develop new skills or new approaches and to solve problems
with direct application to the workplace or other applied setting)
2. Survey (descriptive) Research (to know of interest “what is”; typically employs
questionnaires and interviews to determine attitudes, opinions, preferences, and
perceptions of interest to the researcher)
a. Close-ended Questionnaire (pre-categorized by the researcher’s words)
b. Open-ended Questionnaire (in respondent’s words)
3. Observational Research (collecting direct information about human behavior)
4. Historical Research (investigating documents and other sources that contains facts
that existed in the past; “What was”)
5. Evaluation Research (to study processes and procedures for the improvement of
a system)

Features Common to All Researches

1. Universality – could be carried out by any competent person other than yourself.
2. Replication – Should be repeatable
3. Control – Parameters are important
4. Measured – data could be measured, evaluated or quantified.

Distinct Characteristics of Research

1. Research originates with a question.
2. Research demands a clear articulation of goals.
3. Research requires a specific plan or procedure.

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4. Research usually divides the principal problem into manageable sub-problems.

5. Research deals with facts and their meaning.
6. Research is, by its nature, circular.

Ethical Considerations in Research

1. Veracity/Accurate Analysis and Reporting (obligation to tell the truth, not to lie or
deceive others)
2. Privacy (obligation to maintain the state or condition of limited access to a person)
3. Anonymity and Confidentiality (obligation not to divulge information discovered
without the permission of the subject)
4. Fidelity (obligation to remain faithful to one’s commitments, which includes
keeping promises and maintaining confidentiality)
5. Informed consent (seeking permission to the person/guardian)
6. No Harm (obligation not to inflict harm/endanger either physical or psychological
or socially)
7. Voluntary Participation
8. Avoiding Deception (reveal real purpose of the research)

The Research Process

1. IDEA-GENERATING PHASE. Research begins with an idea in which the
researching has interest. It is in this phase wherein the researcher has to identify
topics that interest him most.
2. PROBLEM-DEFINITION PHASE. As the ideas generated in the first phase are
very general or vague, the researcher has to refine them. This is the problem
definition phase.
3. PROCEDURES-DESIGN PHASE. After identifying the problems and
hypothesis, the researcher has to decide on the methods and procedures he will use
in the collection and analysis of data.
4. DATA-COLLECTION PHASE. After preparing the research plan, the researcher
has to proceed gathering the data from the subjects of the study. It is in this phase

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where the procedures, devised in the previous step, are implemented by the
researcher rigorously.
5. DATA-ANALYSIS PHASE. In this particular phase, the researcher analyzes the
collected data from the previous step, based on his data analysis plan.
6. INTERPRETATION PHASE. Having analyzed the data, the researcher continues
to make sense out of them by interpreting the results in terms of how they aid in
responding to the research problem posed at the beginning of the study, and how
this answer contributes to knowledge in the field.
7. COMMUNICATION PHASE. After completing the data analysis and
interpretation phases, the researcher has to prepare a written or oral report of the
study conducted, either for publication or presentation to colleagues or a panel of
experts. This report has to include a description of all the above steps in the research
process.

The Research Problem

A Problem (Dewey) is any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or
artificial, the solution of which requires reflective thinking. The problem is the heart of any
research project. Without focused research problem, there is no research.
These factors are briefly discussed below:
1. NOVEL. When considering a research topic, the research has to focus on one
which has not been investigated before.
2. RELEVANT. The results of the study on a given problems should be of practical
value to the researcher and the significant others in the field.
3. INTERESTING. The research needs to consider his interest in the choice of a
research problem.
4. FEASIBLE. This means that a problem that an investigator is going to work on
can be completed without undue amount of time, money or effort.
5. RESEARCHABLE. Data can be collected to answer the problem posed by the
researcher.

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6. ETHICAL. A problem is said to be ethical when it does not involve physical or

psychological harm or damage to human beings or organizations.

Characteristics of Good Research Problem

S – specific
M – measurable
A – attainable
R – realistic
T – time bounded

Sources of Research Problem

1. Actual problem encountered.
2. Technological changes and curricular development.
3. The graduate academic experience.
4. Consultation.
5. Specialization.
6. Analysis of an area of knowledge.
7. Consideration of existing practices and needs.
8. Repetition and extension of investigation.
9. Off-shot of studies underway.

Elements of a Research Problem

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation (why)
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated (what)
3. The place or location where the research is to be conducted (where)
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered (when)
5. Population from whom the data are to be collected (who)

EXAMPLE:
✓ Topic: Dismissal of Drug Cases

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✓ Title: Factors affecting Dismissal of Drug Cases in Lipa City: Basis for Corrective
Proposal
✓ Aim or purpose: To assess
✓ Subject matter: Drug Cases
✓ Place/Locale: Lipa City
✓ Period/time frame: 2019
✓ Population: PNP Members and Court Personnel
✓ Variables of the Study: Operational Factors and Procedural Lapses
✓ Data gathering Instrument: Self-made questionnaire

Guidelines in the selection of research problem or topic:

1. The research topic or problem must be chosen by the researcher himself.
2. It must be within the interest of the researcher.
3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher.
4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.
5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance, otherwise he must be able
to find difficulty funding for his research.
6. It is researchable and manageable that is:
a. Data are available and accessible.
b. Data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability.
c. Answers to the specific questions (subproblems) can be found.
d. The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted and
rejected. Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give
valid and reliable results.
7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time.
8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation timely and
of current intent.
9. The results are practical and implementable.
10. It requires original, critical and reflective thinking to solve it.
11. There must be a consideration of the hazards involved physical, social or legal.

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THE TITLE

Characteristics of a Research Title

a. The title is formulated before the start of the research work.
b. The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the locale, the population and
the period when the data were/will be gathered.
c. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter studied or to be
studied.
d. It must be as brief and concise as possible.
e. Avoid using the terms “An Analysis of”, “An Investigation of” and the like.
f. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid,
all words in capital letter.
Determining the purpose of the study
1. Purpose or Objective – written in statement form with the infinitive to
✓ used to develop something
✓ furnishes why the study is being done
2. Problem – written in question form
✓ usually for determining differences, significance, etc.
✓ addresses what will be studied
3. Problem statement should specify the population and the variables that are being
studied.
4. A variable is a characteristic or attribute that differs among the persons, objects,
events, etc. that are being studied. To ensure objectivity in the study of an identified
problem, the researcher has to be clear as what variables are to be examined or
investigated. The most commonly used classifications of variables include
independent, dependent, intervening and moderating variables.
✓ Independent Variable. The cause supposed to be responsible for bringing
about changes/s in a phenomenon or situation.
✓ Dependent Variable. The outcome of the changes/s brought about by changes
in the independent variable.

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✓ Intervening Variable. A variable whose existence is inferred but that cannot

be manipulated or controlled.
✓ Moderator Variable. A variable that may or may not be controlled but has an
effect on the research situation.

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THE IMRAD FORMAT OF RESEARCH

IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Research [and] Discussion) is a mnemonic for

a common format used for academic ['scientific'] research papers. While used primarily in
the hard sciences, like physics and biology, it is also widely used in the social and
behavioral sciences. The IMRAD format is also known as the APA format, as the American
Psychological Association employs the IMRAD headings in its APA style sheet. IMRAD
is simply a more 'defined' version of the "IBC" [Introduction, Body, Conclusion] format
used for all academic writing.

INTRODUCTION
This section of the research must contain the following:
1. Background of the Study
2. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
3. Statement of the Problem
4. Hypotheses
5. Definition of Terms

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This section of the research must contain the following:
1. Research Design
2. Population and Sampling Techniques
3. Research Instrument
4. Data Gathering Procedures
5. Statistical Tools
6. Ethical Consideration

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section addresses the results of data analysis. Tables and figures should be
presented, summarized, analyze, interpreted and supported by related literature and/or

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studies. This will also discuss the findings in relation to the objectives of the study and the
topic being studied and investigated to draw an implication for the solution of the problem.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This part of research summarized the findings and recommends solution to the
identified problems. This may also include action plan and recommended courses of
actions to solve the identified problems or to sustain the existing performance.

REFERENCES
It is the list of books, journal, articles and online documents that are cited in the
development of the study. The institution requires the American Psychological Association
(APA) style of citations and references.

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WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

1. Background of the Study

This presents the general idea of the research paper. CARS (creating a research
space) model for writing introduction is a good avenue for the readers of research articles
and academic essays to facilitate their reading and comprehension. It includes a review of
related literature and studies, scope and delimitation as well as the significance of the
study, which are indicated in the three-move format.

Note: Minimum of 10 pages and maximum of 15 pages.

Organization of Paragraphs
✓ General Statement
✓ The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution
✓ Reason for choosing topic and the problem
✓ The research gaps (from the previous research cited)
✓ Scope and limitations of the study
✓ Geographical conditions of the study locale
✓ Discussion of the variables of the study
✓ Significance of the study

2. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework and Paradigm

This section explains the theory or the concept that will guide the study. The
connection between the theoretical or conceptual framework with the present study should
be clearly stated. By doing so, the researcher clarifies the relationship existing between or
among the independent and dependent variables.
The theoretical framework of a study is the structure that can hold or support the
theory of a research work. It presents the theory which explains why the problem under

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study exists. Thus, the theoretical framework is but a theory that serves as a basis for
conducting research.
After formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher has to develop the
conceptual framework of his study. The framework is a tentative explanation or
theoretical explanation of the problem and serves as the basis for the formulation of
hypothesis.
A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It depicts
in a more vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey. A paradigm may
take different diagrammatic forms, some are in a form of graphical presentation and the
common is the Input-Process-Output presentation. The flow of the study will be explained
based on the relationship of each variable from one another and to come up with the
outcome of the study.

3. Statement of the Problem

It contains the identification of the problems that can be solved by having the
proposed study.

Guidelines in formulating the general problem and the specific subproblems or

specific questions:
a. The general statement of the problem and the specific subproblems or questions
should be formulated first before conducting the research.
b. It is customary to state specific subproblems in the interrogative form.
c. Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal, that is, it has only one
meaning.
d. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other questions, that is,
answers to each specific question can be found even without considering the other
questions.
e. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and phenomena.
f. Answers to each specific question can be interpreted apart from the answers to other
specific questions.

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g. Answers to each specific question must contribute to the development of the entire
study.
h. Summing up the answers to all specific questions will give a complete development
of the entire study.
i. The number of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of
the whole research problem or study.
j. Generally, there should be a general statement of the problem and then this should
be broken up into as many subproblems or specific questions as necessary.

4. Hypotheses
This section contains the discussion of the major assumptions regarding the
relationships of the variables being studied.
Hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena, or events
which have occurred or will occur. It states the researcher’s expectations concerning the
relationship between the variables in the research problem. It is a testable statement of a
potential relationship between two or more variables furnishes the predicted answer to the
questions.
The use of the null hypothesis has been recommended by researchers and
statisticians on the ground that errors in accepting or rejecting the hypothesis can be easier
avoided if the expectations are in the null form.
Moreover, they claim that since it is a statistical hypothesis, it is intended for
testing. It suits statistical techniques that can determine whether the obtained relationship
or difference is due to chance or to true relationship or difference.
The researcher can use null or alternative hypothesis. Null hypothesis says “there
is no difference”, meaning the independent variable does not affect the dependent variable
while alternative hypothesis says “there is a difference”, meaning that, the independent
variable affects the dependent variable.

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Guidelines in the formulation of the explicit hypotheses:

a. In descriptive and historical investigations, hypotheses are seldom expressed if not
entirely absent. The specific questions serve as the hypotheses.
b. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is
easier than a hypothesis in the operational form.
c. Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based.
d. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating his findings and in formulating
his conclusions.

5. Definition of Terms
It identifies and defines relevant terms significant to the study for further
understanding and interpretation.

Guidelines in defining terms:

a. Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the study
are defined.
b. Terms should be defined operationally, that is, how they are used in the study.
c. The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term
defined.
d. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper
articles, dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge
his sources.
e. Definitions should be as brief, clear and unequivocal as possible.
f. Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is used for the first
time.

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WRITING THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Research Design. It contains a discussion of the overall scheme to be followed in

conducting the research. Research design is basically a plan or strategy for conducting
research. As a blueprint or plan, it deals with matters such as selecting the participants
in the study, preparing for data collection, and planning for data analysis.

Four factors to consider in selecting the appropriate research design:

a. Type of data to be collected
b. Nature of data to analyzed
c. Research questions to be answered
d. Research goal or objective.

Guidelines in making Research Design

a. The method of research used whether historical, descriptive or experimental should
be explained briefly.
b. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to the study, and some of its
advantages should be given attention and should be well-discussed.

2. Population and Sampling Techniques

It describes the position of the respondents in the public sector/society likewise the
area of the study is briefly to be described. It quantifies the volume of population on the
research locale and specifies the number of the respondents using the appropriate sampling
technique.

Guidelines in making Research Population and Locale

a. Cite the specific place where the specific study is to be conducted.
b. Cite the variables used in the study.
c. Indicate the number of respondents to be used in the study.

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Sampling is the process of choosing a portion of a target population that can be the
source of data for one’s research. It is the drawing out of samples from the universe or
population of interest. Population of universe refers to the group from which the samples
shall be drawn. Sample refers to the group from which data have to be collected.
The Primary advantages of sampling, rather than studying the whole population,
are feasibility and convenience. In cases where the target population is quite small and also
accessible, it may be preferable to conduct research using the entire population.
To compute the sample size, Slovin Formula is used with the maximum of 5%
margin of error.

Two General Types of Sampling Designs

a. Probability Sampling:
✓ Each of the units in the target population has the same chance of being included
in the sample.
✓ Greater possibility of representative sample of the population.
✓ Conclusion derived from date gathered can be generalized for the whole
population.

Types of Probability Sampling

a. Simple Random Sampling. This is the basic probability sampling design. It
means that we are giving every unit of the population an equal chance and
non-zero probability of being included in the sample. In simple terms, we
allow chance and the technique of allowing chance to operate to be the basis
of selection.
b. Systematic Sampling. This is used when there is a ready list of the total
universe or population.
c. Stratified Sampling. This scheme is used to ensure that the different groups
of a population are adequately represented in the sample.
d. Cluster Sampling. This is used in large scale sampling.

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e. Multi-stage Sampling. This usually used for national, regional, provincial

or country level studies. The selection of the sample is accomplished in two
or more steps.

b. Non-Probability Sampling:
✓ No way has that each of the units in the target population had the same chance
of being included in the sample.
✓ No assurance that every unit has some chance of being included.
✓ Conclusion derived from data gathered is limited only to the sample itself.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

a. Accidental or Convenience Sapling. It is obtained when the researcher
selects whatever sampling units are conveniently available.
b. Purposive Sampling. Under this scheme, the sampling units are selected
subjectively by the researcher, who attempts to obtain a sample that appears
to be representative of the population. The chance that the particular
sampling units will be selected as the sample depends upon the subjective
judgment of the researcher.
c. Quota Sampling. In this method, the researcher determines the sampling
size which should be filled up. It may also be specified how many will be
included according to some criteria such as gender, age and social class,
among others.
d. Snowball Sampling. This type of sampling that starts with the known
sources of information, who or which will in turn give other sources of
information. As it goes on, data accumulates. Snowball sampling is used
when there is inadequate information for making the sampling frame.
e. Networking Sampling. This is used to find socially devalued urban
populations such as addicts, alcoholics, child abusers and criminals, because
they are usually “hidden from outsiders”.

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Among the things that should explain are:

a. The size of the population
b. The study population
c. The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used
d. The type or technique of sampling used whether pure random sampling, purposive
random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling or a combination
of two or more techniques.
e. The actual computation of the sample
f. The sample subjects

3. Research Instrument
It is used to collect necessary data from the identified respondents. Questionnaire,
test, interview, observation, checklist, rating scale may be described by the researcher.
Each of the research instruments is explicitly explained.

Types of Research Instruments

A. QUESTIONNAIRE. It is simply a set of questions which, when answered
properly by a required number of properties selected respondents, will supply the
necessary information to complete research study.

Advantages of the questionnaire

✓ By personal distribution besides, a small staff can be employed in the
distribution even if the research project is a big one.
✓ Responses are easy to tabulate. Generally, responses to a questionnaire are
objectified and make tabulation easy.
✓ The respondent’s replies are free. The respondent’s replies are of the own free
will because there are no interviews to influence him.
✓ Confidential information may be given freely. Confidential information which
the respondent may not reveal to an interviewer may be given freely if the
respondent can be made anonymous.

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✓ The respondent can fill out the questionnaire at will. Because nobody is
pressing him to answer the questionnaire immediately, the respondent can
accomplish the questionnaire anywhere at his own convenience.
✓ The respondent has time enough to think reflectively of his replies making then
more

Guidelines in Making Questionnaire

a. Contents of question must pertain to the variables of the study, shall provide
answer to the stated questions, relate to the framework of the study and be stated
in words whose meaning is understood in the same way by the respondent and
the researcher.
b. Questions are either factual, opinion or probe question, open ended, close ended
or contingency questions.
c. The use of Likert Scale must be aligned in the objectives of the study.

Question Format
✓ General Format. It is a format to give the open-ended question and leave blanks
for the answer; or in close-question, give the answers and provide for boxes or
blanks to check or put the answer by drawing a circle.
✓ Rating. This is a format where the answers to the question are in the form of a
scale meaning, a hierarchy or a graduation of the intensity of response,
according to sets of ordered categories.
✓ Matrix Question. This is a method for organizing a large set of rating questions
that have the same response categories.
✓ Semantic Differential. This is another type of rating scale. It measures the
respondent’s reaction to some objects or concepts in terms of ratings on bipolar
scales defined with contrasting adjectives at each end.
✓ Ranking. The question asked the respondents to choose the degree of priority
or place the importance to the answers. Ranking takes the form of numbering,
starting from one (1) as the first/important or not important.

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✓ Card Sort. The respondent is handed a set of cards with a statement on each
card. The respondent is asked to sort these and place the chosen answer into one
of several boxes – which are degrees of agreement with the statement.

Note: The instrument must be validated by the expert in the field which is
called face validation prior to pilot testing. The research instrument will be
distributed to the possible respondent of the study but not the actual respondents of
the study. After such, the researchers may check the reliability of the initial result
of the survey

B. INTERVIEW. It is defined as a purposeful face relationship between two persons,

one of whom called the interviewer who asks questions to gather information and
the other called the interviewer or respondent who supplies the information asker
for.

Proposes and Uses of the Interview

✓ The researcher may approach and interview knowledgeable people to enable
him to gain insight into his problem.
✓ The researcher may also interview knowledgeable people about the proper
construction and valuation of a questionnaire. Or who can make any
contribution to the enrichment of his study.
✓ In case when the subject of the study is a person with some signs of abnormality,
the interviewer may wish to gain information from the overt. Oral, physical.
And emotional reactions of the subject towards certain questions to be used for
a possible remedy of the abnormality.
✓ The researcher may also the interview as the principal tool in gathering data for
his study or just to supplement data collected by other techniques.

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Advantages of the Interview

✓ It yields a more complete and valid information. The respondent is usually
pressed for an answer to a question which the interviewer can validate at one.
✓ The interview can be used with all kinds of people, whether literate or illiterate,
rich or poor. Laborer or capitalist, etc.
✓ The interviewer can always clarify point or questions which are vague to the
interviewee.
✓ Only interviewee respondent can make replies to questions of the interviewer,
unlike in the case of a questionnaire in which filling up a questionnaire may be
delegated to another person or the respondent may be aided by another person
in making replies.
✓ The interviewer can observe the nonverbal reactions or behavior of the
respondent which may reveal rich pertinent information.
✓ Greater complex questions can be asked with the interviewer around to
emplaning things greater complex data which are vital to the study can be
acquired.
✓ There is flexibility. The interview can affect a modification of the interview or
any question if there is a need that the desired information can be gathered.

C. OBSERVATION. As a means of gathering information for research, may be

defined as perceiving data through the senses; hearing, taste, touch. And smell.
The sense of sight is the most important and the most used among the sense.
Observation is the most direct way and the most widely used in studying behavior.
✓ To enables the research to gather empirical data which are difficult to obtain by
other means.
✓ To enable the research to gather sufficient data to supplement or verify
information gathered by other means.
✓ To enable the research to gather information or data needed to describe the
aspect of a variable being studied which cannot be described accurately without
observation.

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✓ To enable the research to gather directly primary data or firsthand information

for his study for a more accurate description and interpretation.
✓ To enable the researcher to gather data from the laboratory or elsewhere through
experimentation.

The types of observation are the following:

✓ Participant and no participant observation
a. In participant observation takes active part in the activities of the
group being observed. The observer lives and works with the
group for a certain length of time until he learns all the ins and
outs of the aspect or aspects he is studying about.
b. In non-participant observation, the observer is a mere by stander
observing the group he is studying about.
✓ Structured and unstructured observation
a. Structured observation concentrates on a particular aspect or
aspects of the variable being observed, be it a thing behavior,
conditioner or situation.
b. In unstructured observation. The observer does not hold any list
of the items to be observed.
✓ Controlled and uncontrolled observation
a. Controlled observation is usually utilized in experimental
studies in which the experimental as well as the non-
experimental variables are controlled by the researcher.
b. Uncontrolled observation is usually utilized in natural settings.
No control whatsoever is placed upon any variable within the
observation area.

The Advantages of Observation are:

✓ The investigator is able to gather directly, first – hand information about the
subject of his study.

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✓ The researcher can observe his subjects for a long as he needs the time and
as many times as he can for greater accuracy and validity in description and
interpretation.

✓ Observation is superior technique of collecting information from non-verbal

behavior and inanimate objects. The observer is in a good position to
discern the significance of an inanimate object or anon-verbal behavior.
✓ The subject of the inquiry can be observed in their natural settings and this
will exclude artificiality in description and interpretation. This is especially
true in participant and uncontrolled and unstructured observation.

4. Data Gathering Procedures

Having found the questionnaire valid and reliable, the researcher proceeds to ask
permission and approval from the Dean of the College of Criminology and the agency
concerned where the researcher administer their questionnaires. Once permitted, the
researchers administer the instrument to the subject of the study. The date of administration
and retrieval of the instrument will also be stated.

Procedures in Data Collection

a. NOTATION. It is a process of making very brief, written notes, tally marks,
or evaluation symbols about people, objects, settings, or events being observed.
b. DESCRIPTION. It is the process of putting observations into verbal form
conveying the complete picture replete with details.
c. ANALYSIS. It is a process of obtaining data from objects, settings, and
procedures, which involves a careful scrutiny to discover traits, meanings, and
relationship.
d. QUESTIONING. It is a prompting process used in eliciting and probing
responses from participants and information.
e. TESTING. It is the process of obtaining data by having respondents answer
written or oral examination.

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f. MEASUREMENT. This method of data collection assesses traits and abilities

through non-testing techniques or schemes.

5. Statistical Tools

The role of statistics in research:

✓ It helps the researcher in making his research design, particularly in experimental
research.
✓ Statistical techniques help the researcher in determining the validity and reliability
of his research instruments.
✓ Statistical manipulations organize raw data systematically to make the latter
appropriate for study.
✓ Statistics are used to test the hypotheses.
✓ Statistical treatments give meaning and interpretation to data.

Some guidelines in the selection and application of statistical procedures:

✓ First of all, the data should be organized using any or all of the following depending
upon what is desired to be known or what is to be computed: talligram (tabulation
table), ordered arrangement of scores, score distribution, class (grouped) frequency
distribution, scatter gram.
✓ When certain proportions of the population based on certain variables such as age,
height, income, etc. are desired to be known, frequency counts with their frequency
percent may be used.
✓ When the typical, normal or average is desired to be known, the measures of central
tendency such as the median, the mean or the mode may be computed or used.
✓ When the variables being studied are abstract and continuous such that they cannot
be counted individually such as adequacy, efficiency, excellence, extent,
seriousness (of problems), and the like, the weighted mean may be computed and
used if the average is desired to be known.

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✓ When the variability of the population is desired to be known, the measures of

variability such as the range, quartile deviation, average deviation or the standard
deviation may be computed and used.
✓ When the relative placement of scores or positions is desired to be known, ranking,
quartile or percentile rank may be computed and used. These measures indicate the
relative positions of scores in an ordered arrangement of scores.
✓ When the significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of persons as a group
toward a certain issue, situation, value or thing is desired to be known but in which
there is a neutral position, the chi-square of equal probability, single group, is
computed and interpreted.
✓ When the significance of the difference between the reactions, or opinions of two
distinct groups in which there is a neutral position is desired to be known, the chi-
square of equal probability, two groups, is computed and used.
✓ To determine how one variable varies with another, the coefficient of correlation is
computed.
✓ If the significance of the difference between the perceptions of two groups about a
certain situation is to be studied, the computation of the difference between means
is to be studied.
✓ To determine the relative effectiveness of the different ways of doing things to
which different randomized groups are respectively exposed to and only a post test
is given to the different groups, analysis of variance is appropriate to use.
✓ To determine the effects of some variables upon a single variable to which they are
related, partial and multiple correlations are suggested to be used.
✓ To determine the association between two independent variables, the chi-square of
independence or chi-square of multiplication may be used.

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Levels of Measurement (a process that employs rules to assign numbers to

phenomena)
✓ Nominal (observations are categorized or sorted based on defined properties; each
category is distinct, mutually exclusive, and exhaustive. Ex. Gender, Religious
Affiliation, College major, hair color, birthplace, nationality, tribe)
✓ Ordinal (scores or observations are ranked in order without distance between
individuals. Ex. Age group when ranked, Socio-Economic-Status, Level of
Conflict)
✓ Interval (with equal intervals between numbers where there is no absolute absence
of the attribute because zero is assigned and represents an arbitrary point. Ex.
Temperature, IQ score)
✓ Ratio (this is in contrast to interval where there exists an absolute absence of the
attribute or rational zero. Ex. Age, height, weight, length of time)

Common Statistical Tools

✓ For sample size, Slovin’s; Parten’s Formula
✓ For reliability test, split-half method; Spearman-brown prophesy. Cronbach’s
coefficient alpha
✓ For the test of validity: standardized tool; pass through the panel of experts; used
in other studies.

Sources of Measurement Errors

✓ Environmental factors
✓ Researcher factors
✓ Instrumentation factors
✓ Subject factors

Two categories of Quantitative Data Analysis

a. Descriptive Statistics. These Statistical methods which summarize, organize, and
describe data, providing an organized visual presentation of the data collected. Ex.

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Measures of central tendencies (Mean, median mode) and measures of variability

(range, interquartile range, variance, semi-quartile range, and standard deviation)

b. Inferential Statistics. These are statistical techniques used to estimate or predict

a population parameter from a sample statistic.

6. Ethical Consideration

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WRITING THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This part presents the answers to the specific problems mentioned in the Statement
of the Problem.

Guidelines in writing the result and discussions.

1. Table should be introduced first.
2. State the table number and its title.
3. Table should be single spaced.
4. Explanation of the content of the table is presented in double space.
5. Support your findings with literature.

WRITING THE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This section discusses the answers to the specific problems with citations to support
findings and analysis. This includes also sub-sections like implications of findings for
theory and practice, conclusions, and recommendations.

Guidelines in writing the conclusions:

1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations,
general statements, and/or generalizations based upon the findings.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the
beginning of the investigation in the order they are given under the statement of the
problem.
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, yet they
convey all the necessary information resulting from the study required by the
specific questions.
5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated
categorically.
6. Conclusions should refer only to the population, area or subject of the study.

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7. Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Guidelines in writing the recommendations:

1. Recommendations should aim to solve or help solve problems discovered in the
investigation.
2. No recommendations should be made for a problem, or anything for that matter,
that has not been discovered or discussed in the study.
3. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good practice or
system, or even recommendation for its improvement.
4. Recommendations should aim for the ideal but they must be feasible, practical, and
attainable.
5. Recommendations should be logical and valid.
6. Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities, agencies, or offices
who or which are in a position to implement them.
7. There should be a recommendation for further research on the same topic in other
places to verify, amplify or negate the findings of the study.

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SAMPLE FORMAT

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