Laboratory I

Procedure:
1. Watch the following video: The Wacky History of Cell Theory

2. After watching the video, answer the following questions. (HINT!!! You may need to watch the video
more than once.)

a. What are the three parts of the cell theory?

- All organisms are made up of cell

- Cells are the fundamental unit if life
- Cell come from other pre-existing cells

b. How did Leeuwenhoek discover bacteria?

- Leeuwenhoek created his own microscope with a single lens device but has a greater clarity and
magnification than a compound microscope. While using his own microscope he then discovered
“bacteria” which he called “animalcules” back then by viewing his own dental scrapings from his
teeth and the teeth of others.

c. Before it was called “bacteria,” what was it called?

- Animalcules

d. Who came up with the term “cell?”

- Robert Hooke
Procedure:

1. Begin by accessing this link: Virtual Microscope

2. Make sure the volume is on. Click on the “Start Tour” at the bottom right of the “Getting Started”
box.

3. When asked to select a slide, begin with the green specimen- Onion Root Tip. This is the easiest to
observe (2nd from top).

4. Click on the “Switch Objectives” tutorial under the “Getting Started” box. LISTEN!

CHECKPOINT: Which lens does the tutorial tell you to start with?
 In the tutorial the lens that’s used to start with is the 4X lens because the lens has a lower
magnification, and therefore it’s easier to locate the specimen being observe

5. Follow the tutorial prompts to learn how to center the slide and focus your specimen. (HINT!!! Use
the checklist box on the left side of the screen to monitor your progress.)

CHECKPOINT: Describe the difference between the coarse focus and the fine focus.
 The coarse focus knob is the one that moves the stage in a rapid movement, while the fine focus knob
is the one that moves the stage in a slow manner

CHECKPOINT: What are you supposed to do with the coarse focus?

 The coarse focus knob should be used for quick focusing by moving the objective or the stage that
contains the specimen as high as possible for initial focusing

6. Once your specimen is in focus using the 4X lens, use the revolving nosepiece at the bottom left of
your screen to move the 10X lens into place. Use the fine focus to adjust.

CHECKPOINT: What happens if you try to use the coarse adjustment when the 10X lens is in place?
 If the coarse adjustment is used when the 10X lens is in place when observing something; the changes
it cause is far too extreme. The focus of the specimen would be unclear or it makes the whole image
disappear and the stage would be lifted high due to the coarse adjustment. Therefore, it is not good to
change coarse focus under high power, and only the fine focus should be used instead

CHECKPOINT: What happens to your image if you try to magnify it using 40x or 100x?
 If a specific specimen is magnified using 40X or 100X lens the image would become heavily magnified
and the individual cells of the specimen (onion) can now be seen. In addition, in a 40X magnification
one could be able to see 5mm. At 100X magnification one would be able to see 2mm.

7. Draw the Onion Root Tip using 10x magnification in the appropriate circle below.

8. Follow the same procedure for the Bacterial Capsules and Cheek Cells Slides. Draw the images using
the total magnification shown under the circle.
Onion Root Tip

(100x Magnification)

Bacterial Capsule

(200X Magnification)

Cheek Cell

(1000X Magnification)
Analysis and Review:

1. Use the information from “History of The Cell Theory” and “Virtual Microscope” lab activities to
answer the questions below.

2. Answer using complete sentences.

3. Use “quotation marks” to cite specific evidence from the information you collected.

a. What objective lens you should have in place to begin looking at your specimen? Explain why.

- When viewing a specimen one should start with a 4x objective lens in the microscope. This kind
of objective lens has the least magnification power and therefore it has a large field of view. Once
this objective lens is utilized, it then makes it easier to see and focus on the specimen or sample
when looking through a microscope.

b. Explain why this statement is right or wrong. (Yes, make a decision and defend your choice.)
“You only use the coarse focus knob when you have the 4X scanning objective in place.”
- The statement is right. The coarse adjustment knob that’s located on the arm of the microscope
serves as the one who moves the stage up and down to bring the studied specimen into focus. The
gearing of mechanism of the adjustment produces a quite large vertical movement of the stage with
only a partial revolution of the knob — due to this the coarse adjustment should only be used with
4X scanning objective and never with the high power lenses such as 40X and 100X because they
possess long focal length and the coarse adjustment knob may bring the slide up too quickly and
therefore it might break the slide or even crush the specimen being observed.

c. Assuming the light is on and the oculars are in place, what are the next 2 steps?

- After getting the light on and the oculars in place the next thing to do is adjust the "coarse focus"
down as slowly as possible until the clear image of the specimen appears, and always make sure
that the specimen is in the light path. After adjusting the coarse focus the next thing to do is use the
"fine focus knob" to improve the clarity of the image of the specimen being viewed or studied.

d. Describe what to do if more light is needed to view the specimen.

- When more light is needed to view a specific specimen the "objective lens" can be utilized to
increase the light and the focus knob can be adjusted as well.
The Microscope
Parts of the Microscope

 Body Tube - is located at the upper part of the arm of the microscope in which this separates the
objective and the eyepiece as well as assures alignment of the optics, and direct light towards the ocular
lens

 Revolving nosepiece - is the inclined circular metal plate; in which four objective lenses are attached
into it that can be rotated into various positions for various magnifications

 Objectives - is a rotating turret that contains lenses closest to the specimen or objects, to which its
purpose is to magnify the details of the subject being viewed, it's also a part of the microscope that
holds two or more objective lenses.

 Aperture - is the hole that can be found in the middle of the stage that allows light from the illuminator
to reach the specimen

 Stage Clips - are the metal clips that holds the slides or other various specimens in place

 Diaphragm - is located at above the condenser and below the stage; and this part of microscope is the
one who controls the amount as well the shape of light reaching the specimen

 Illuminator - is the “light source” of the microscope and it’s located at the base, its purpose is to
provide an even yet high intensity of light at the place of the field aperture so that the captured light
can travel through the condenser and to the specimen.

 Condenser - is usually located beneath the stage and serves to collect wavefronts from the microscope
light source and concentrate them into a cone of light that illuminates the specimen being studied with
uniform intensity over the entire view field.

 Eyepiece - is the part of the microscope where the user looks through in order to view their magnified
specimen or object under investigation. The eyepiece contains lenses that can magnify the specimen
for 10X.

 Head - is also referred as the body of the microscope, it’s a structural component that contains the
optical parts of the microscope

 Arm - is the one that acts as the frame of the microscope that provides support to all the various parts
above the base, this is also used as a convenient carrying "handle" to hold the microscope

 Stage - is the platform that supports the specimens below object lens

 Coarse Adjustment Knob - is a rapid control that’s obviously used to focus the microscope by raising
and lowering the objective lens or the stage, also used for initial focusing

 Fine Adjustment Knob - is in contrast with the coarse adjustment because these knobs are going to
move the stage much slower but with precise control to fine focus the image of the specimen when
viewing at higher magnifications. In addition, the fine adjustment knobs are utilized at the high power
levels, and in some microscope the fine adjustment knobs very quietly clicks giving the user additional
auditory indicators to help the user to focus on the specimen

 Base - is located at the lower part of the microscope and it provides support to the other parts of the
microscope

 Light Switch - is located at the base of the microscope and it’s the one that turn “on” and “off” of the
illuminator
Laboratory II

Analysis and Review:

1. How are cells similar to a factory or business?
A cell is defined as the smallest structural and functional unit of living organisms which has the ability to
exist on its own, and is sometimes called the "building block of life" that makes up all living organisms as
well as the tissues of one's body. They play a significant role and therefore are important because they take
in nutrients from food and convert these various nutrients into energy and carry out specialized functions
and provide body structures to one's body. Cells are believed to be similar to factories or business and
indeed it is quite a fact because they are both systems that integrate and work together. To stay alive and
function properly, cells have a division of labour that's similar to that found in factories. Here, we will
examine cells as protein-producing factories.
When you need to find a job even without manufacturing skills and is not a management material; you will
probably be assigned to the warehouse department where you are responsible for shipping and receiving
because a factory needs a constant supply of raw materials as well as a send out finished product. In some
instance you might also take a job as a receptionist and sit a desk near the front door of the factory where a
phone would allow you to contact anyone else in the building, and all incoming and outgoing calls would
go through you, and as receptionist you may speak for the factory and allow to communicate with the
outside messengers. Another possibility might be to take a job within the security department in which you
are responsible for checking ID cards, and admitting only those individuals who belong in the factory. All
of these various jobs in a cell are performed by the "plasma membrane" in which it regulates what goes and
comes inside the cell, responsible for shipping and receiving, and allows the cells to interact with other cells
as well.
In a factory a chief executive officer is the one who controls everything that happens. It has various
responsibilities in which it keeps all tracks of all blueprints kept in a safe and it commands the workers on
which product should be built and when to build them. A factory may contain a large inventory of blueprints
be it out of date and some are for parts and products that are no longer made so its part of a chief executive
to entail sorting through everything, find the correct blueprints, copy them, and send those copies to the
assembly line at the exact time. All of these works are done by "nucleus" that's often referred to as
headquarters of cell in which it's the one who controls all the cell activities by regulating what proteins are
made, it contains important blueprints of the cell, the information for the manufacture of proteins is encoded
in a series of vases along the DNA found in nucleus.
Workers are responsible for making minor adjustments to the finished products. They also inspect the
products for possible flaws, clean them of any extra material added during their manufacture, wrap them
securely and perfectly, and target them for packing. The "golgi apparatus" is the one who performs all these
tasks in the cells; in which once the ribosome is finished manufacturing a protein through rough ER it
prepares it for use and export, its special enzymes will trim of any extra amino acids, and the unfinished
proteins move through channels in the smooth ER.
All various factories contain a good maintenance crew that keeps everything orderly, get rid of the unwanted
trash, and dismantle as well as dispose of outmoded machinery. This also functions as a second line of
defence in which when someone gets past the security guard at the main door, the maintenance crew is
usually the one who catches the trespassers and chases them out. In a cell, the role of the building
maintenance crew is filled by the "lysosomes" in which it contains powerful protein digesting enzymes and
it's responsible for breakdown and absorption of materials that's taken in by the cell. Without lysosomes,
the cells would probably accumulate piles of junk and would not be able to function in a long-term aspect.
It's common for most factories to have a sort of energy source and this energy must be in a usable form.
Most factories have power plants in which the generators burn fuel to produce heat, and this heat energy is
then used to make steam which is used to make electricity. Building proteins is the major function of cells
and for this to occur a cell must have an energy source, and this energy must be in a form that cells can
benefit and use. The "mitochondria and the chloroplast" are the two organelles that's responsible for energy
transformation (neither organelle truly produces energy). Just like the factory's power plant, the
mitochondria and chloroplasts is the one that transforms one form of energy to another. In chloroplasts it
traps light energy and converts it into the chemical bond energy of sugar. Once the energy is trapped in the
form of sugar by photosynthesis it must be converted into a form that cells can easily use.
2. How are animal and plant cells similar? How are they different? Explain
Plants and animal cells are indeed important as they are the ones due to which the plant and animal body
survive. These two cells carry out all the functions that’s necessary for the plants and animals to live and
function effectively, and if there were no cells the both would probably not be able to do various lively
functions. It’s important to know that both plant and animal cells have similarities and they differ in several
ways too.

a. Similarities
Plants and animal cells are both similar in a way that they are both “eukaryotic cells” in which these cells
therefore contain a well-defined membrane-bound organelle like the nucleus and mitochondria. The nucleus
of the eukaryotic cells is similar to the brain of the cell in which it contains the genetic information and it
directs the cells how to properly function, and the mitochondria is the membrane-bound cell organelles that
generate most of the chemical energy that's needed to power up the cell's biochemical reactions. They also
both have "vacuoles” in which the plant contains a larger size that's used for balancing and storing water
and nutrients as well as help maintain the cells' shape. In contrast, animal cells have a smaller size of
vacuoles that sequester waste products and it also acts as a storage for water and nutrients. The "golgi
apparatus" can be located in all plant and animal cells. It's a cell that consists of several flattened saclike
membranes that's responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles
for delivery to target destinations. The number of golgi apparatus within a cell is variable in which animal
cells tend to have fewer and larger golgi apparatus, while the plant cells can have as many as several hundred
smaller versions. Since plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells; they therefore contain "endoplasmic
reticulum" or ER in which it is a flattened membrane that folds back and forth on each other and contains
a large surface area. This is responsible for protein synthesis and processing, lipid synthesis, calcium storage
and release, supports the structure for the attachment of other organelles, serves as a pathway through the
cytoplasm, and acts as a workstation for the ribosomes.
The plant and animal cells are similar in a way that they possess "cytoplasm" a thick solution or semi-fluid
substance that fills each cell and is enclosed by cell membrane. This is composed of water, salts, and
proteins which function in various ways such as: cell expansion, growth and replication, and numerous
more. Both of the cells contain "ribosomes" which are the particles that are present in a large number in
both cells that serve as workers that build proteins. Lastly, a "cell membrane" is also present to both of the
cells which acts as the barrier that keeps the constituents of the cell in and the unwanted substance out, and
it also serves as a gate that allows transport into the cells of essential nutrients and movements from the cell
of waste products.
b. Differences
Plant and animal cells differ to each other in various ways. In terms of shape both cells differ because
animal cells are mostly round as well as irregular in shape, while animal cells possess a quite fixed
rectangular shape. However, when it comes to size an animal cell range from 10 to 30 micrometre in length,
while plant cells range from 10 to 100 micrometres in length. A "cell wall" is present in the plant cell in
which it is a rigid structure that surrounds the plant cell and provides structural support and protection, but
in animal cells they don't have cell walls because they don't need them. The green organelle known as
"chloroplasts" is only found in plant cells as well in which they are the site of photosynthesis, a process that
allows the plants to utilize the sun's energy to create food. The animal cells on the other hand cannot make
food from sunlight because they don't contain chloroplasts in the cells, and therefore plant cells obtain food
from other sources. The plant cells contain "centrosomes" and "lysosomes" while plant cells do not. A
centrosome is one of the unique properties of animal cells in which it is involved in the process of cell
division, regulates cell motility, adhesion and polarity in interphase, and facilitates the organization of the
spindle poles during mitosis. On the other hand, lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle that is involved
in a process of degrading and recycling cellular waste, cellular signalling and energy metabolism.
Animal cells possess a "cilia", a hair-like protrusions or microtubules that help certain kinds of animal cells
move around, while plant cells lack cilia on their own because they have no need to move and hence no
need for this means of propulsion. Plant cells contain small organelles— inner structures known as
"plastids" that contain pigments or food that plants can use to create energy, however plant cells lack
plastids in their cells. In cell storage, animal cells store their energy in the form of the complex carbohydrate
glycogen, and the plant cells store their energy as starch. There are 20 amino acids needed to create proteins
and only 10 amino acids can be produced naturally by animal cells and the other so called amino acids must
be acquired through diet, while the ant cells are very much capable of synthesizing all 20 amino acids. A
plant cell has what we called "plasmodesmata" or the pores between plant cell walls that allow the molecules
and communication signals to pass between individual plant cells, however the plant cell do not possess
plasmodesmata. Lastly, "glyoxysomes" are also present in plant cells and therefore not found in animal
cells. This glyoxysomes is the one that helps degrade lipids particularly in germinating seeds for the
production of sugar.

3. A solar cell is a device that collects energy from the sun to make electricity. What part of a plant cell is
most similar to a solar cell?
A solar cell also known as a "photovoltaic cell" it's a device that directly converts the energy of light into
electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. In a plant cell the most similar to a solar cell is the
"chloroplasts" because it collects or trap light energy from the sun and instead of converting it into electrical
energy through photovoltaic effect, the chloroplast converts the light into a relatively stable chemical bond
energy of sugar via the photosynthetic process. This happens when the energy from the sun hits a chloroplast
and the chlorophyll molecules, the light energy is then converted into the chemical energy. The plant uses
carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to make sugar and oxygen, and during photosynthesis the solar energy
is transmitted into chemical energy in the form of sugar or glucose. The purpose of chloroplasts is to create
food that feeds the cell machinery, and the food that the chloroplasts make is in the form of sugar that’s
used to provide energy for the plant. The extra sugar that the plant does not use is stored as starch for later
use. Therefore, chloroplasts are the food producers of the plant cell as well as the one who’s similar to a
solar cell.
4. Exploring the South American rainforest, a scientist discovers a mysterious organism and brings it back
to the lab for further study. What cell characteristics should the scientist examine to tell whether the
organism is an animal or plant? Why?
The scientist who discovered a mysterious organism should first look for a “cell wall” characteristic because
only the plants possess thick cell walls that surround the plasma membrane of plant cells thus further
providing protection and tensile strength against various mechanical and osmotic stress, it also allow the
cells to develop turgor pressure which is the pressure of the cell contents against cell wall. The next thing
to do is to look for a “chloroplast” characteristic because animal cells do not possess chloroplast and
therefore cannot make their own food because they also lack chlorophyll in their cells like plants commonly
do, they usually take food in other resources. Next, is to look for a “vacuole” characteristic in which it’s a
member-bound cell organelle, if ever the vacuole is found to be generally smaller it’s most likely an animal
cell in which it sequester waste products on animal cells, and if ever the vacuole is found to be large in size
it’s most likely a plant cell in which these vacuoles helps maintain water balance. In addition, another
difference can be found during mitosis; where the golgi body disappears for most of the process in animal
cells, but curiously remains present in the entire process in plant cells. The cytokinesis is also different in
both types of cells, and plant cells do not utilize centrioles during mitosis.