EC307 Fundamentals of Data Communication

Module-1 Data Communication Techniques

Basic Concepts MODEM
Analog and Digital Transmission Synchronous and Asynchronous transmission
Transmission line Impairments Backward and Forward Error Control
Channel Capacity Error detection techniques like CRC
Guided Transmission media Shift register implementation
Digital data to Digital Signal Error correction
Different encoding schemes like NRZ, Block Code principles
Multilevel Binary, Bi phase, Differential
Manchester
Scrambling techniques Hamming distance
Self clocking codes Interfacing standards like V.24/EIA232.F, CCITT-
X.21 Interface
CODEC

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, Pearson Education, William Stalling, Eighth Edition
Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Basic Concepts
Communications system fundamental role is to exchange data between source and
destination.
Source generates data to be transmitted (examples are telephones, personal
computers….).
Transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to produce
electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across transmission system. (Modem
takes a digital bit stream from a personal computer and transforms that bit stream
into an analog signal that can be handled by the telephone network.)
Transmission System can be a single transmission line or a complex network
connecting source and destination.
Receiver accepts signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form
that can be handled by the destination device. (Modem will accept an analog signal
coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream).
Destination takes the incoming data from the receiver.
SOURCE TRANSMITTER TRANSMISSION RECEIVER DESTINATION
SYSTEM

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Communications tasks
1. Transmission system utilization
2. Interfacing
3. Signal generation
4. Synchronization
5. Exchange management
6. Error detection and correction
7. Flow control
8. Addressing
9. Routing
10.Recovery
11.Message formatting
12.Security
13.Network management…

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Transmission system utilization
It refers to the need to make efficient use of transmission facilities that are
shared among a number of communicating devices.
Various techniques are used to allocate the total capacity of a
transmission medium among a number of users.
Congestion control techniques may be required to assure that the system
is not overwhelmed by excessive demand for transmission services.

Interfacing
It refers to device communicating with the transmission system.
Communication uses electromagnetic signals which are propagated over a
transmission medium.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Signal generation
It is required for communication once an interface is established.
Signals must be generated to conform to the requirements of the
transmission system and receiver.
Signals must be capable of being propagated through the transmission
system and interpretable as data at the receiver.

Synchronization
Transmitter and receiver needs to be synchronized.
The receiver must be able to determine when a signal begins to arrive and
when it ends.
It must also know the duration of each signal element.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Exchange management
It manages variety of requirements for communication beyond basic
requirements of nature and timing of signals.
Two parties must co-operate if data are to be exchanged in both directions
over a period of time.
For example, for two parties to engage in a telephone conversation, one
party must dial the number of the other, causing signals to be generated
that result in the ringing of the called phone. The called party completes a
connection by lifting the receiver.
For data processing devices connection can be established with certain
conventions. These conventions may include
1. Whether both devices may transmit simultaneously or must take
turns.
2. Amount of data to be sent at one time.
3. Format of the data.
4. What to do if certain contingencies arise (error).
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Error detection and correction
It is required in circumstances where errors cannot be tolerated.
This is usually the case with data processing systems.
For example, in transferring a file from one computer to another, it is
simply not acceptable for the contents of the file to be accidentally
altered.

Flow control
It is required to assure that the source does not overwhelm the destination
by sending data faster than they can be processed and absorbed.

Addressing
When a transmission facility is shared by more than two devices a source
system must indicate the identity of the intended destination.
The transmission system must assure that the destination system only
receives the data.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Routing
The transmission system may itself be a network through which various
paths may be taken.
A specific route through this network must be chosen.
Recovery
These techniques are needed in situations in which an information
exchange (database transaction or file transfer) is interrupted due to a
fault in the system.
The objective is either to be able to resume activity at the point of
interruption or at least to restore the state of the systems involved to the
condition prior to the beginning of the exchange.
Message formatting
It has to do with an agreement between two parties as to the form of the
data to be exchanged or transmitted.
For example both sides must use the same binary code for characters.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Security
It is provided in data communication systems to assure that only the
intended party actually receives the data; and the receiver of data may
wish to be assured that the received data have not been altered in transit
and that the data have actually come from the intended sender.
Network management
These capabilities are needed to
1. Configure the system
2. Monitor its status
3. React to failures and overloads and
4. Plan intelligently for future growth.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Analog and Digital Transmission
Data transmission from source to destination require following
considerations:
1. Nature of the data
2. Actual physical means used to propagate the data and
3. Processing required along the way to assure that the received data
are intelligible.

Data can be analog or digital. Analog correspond to continuous and digital

correspond to discrete data. Term analog and digital is frequently used in data
communications in three contexts:
1. Data
2. Signaling
3. Transmission

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Analog and Digital Transmission
Data can be defined as entities that convey meaning.
Signals are electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
Signaling is the act of propagating the signal along a suitable medium.
Transmission is the communication of data by the propagation and
processing of signals.
Analog data take on continuous values on some interval. For example voice
and video are continuously varying patterns of intensity. Most data collected
by sensors (temperature, pressure etc.) are continuous-valued.
Digital data take on discrete values. Examples are text and integers. Data
processing and communications systems use binary data. Most commonly
used code is the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
Electrical signals are the means to propagate data from one point to
another in a communication system.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Analog and Digital Transmission
Analog signal
It is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated
over a variety of media depending on spectrum.
Different wire media used are twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable.
Digital signal
It is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wire
medium.
For example a constant positive voltage level may represent binary 1 and a
constant negative voltage level may represent binary 0.

Data And Signals

Analog data are represent by analog signal and digital data are represented
by digital signal.
Analog data are a function of time and occupy a limited frequency
spectrum. Such data can be represented by an electromagnetic signal
occupying the same spectrum.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Data and Signals
Digital data can be represented by digital signals with a different voltage
level for each of the two binary digits.
Digital data can be represented by analog signals by use of a modem
(modulator/demodulator). The modem converts a series of binary (two-
valued) voltage pulses into an analog signal by encoding the digital data onto
a carrier frequency. The resulting signal occupies a certain spectrum of
frequency centered about the carrier and may be propagated across a
medium suitable for that carrier.
The most common modems represent digital data in the voice spectrum
and allow those data to be propagated over ordinary voice-grade telephone
lines. At the other end of the line the modem demodulates the signal to
recover the original data.
Analog data can be represented by digital signals. The device that
performs this function for voice data is a codec (coder-decoder).The codec
takes an analog signal that directly represents the voice data and
approximates that signal by a bit stream. At the receiving end, the bit stream
is used to reconstruct the analog data.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Analog transmission
It is a means of transmitting analog signals.

It is not concerned with the content of the signal (The signals may
represent analog data or digital data).

Analog signal will be attenuated after a certain distance.

Amplifiers are used for longer distances to boost the energy in the signal.

Amplifier also boosts the noise components.

cascaded amplifiers introduce signal distortion for analog data.

Little distortion can be tolerated and data remain intelligible.

cascaded amplifiers introduces errors for digital data.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Digital Transmission
It is concerned with the content of the signal.
A digital signal can be transmitted only a limited distance before
attenuation endangers integrity of data.
To achieve greater distances repeaters are used.
A repeater receives the digital signal, recovers the pattern of 1s and 0s and
retransmits a new signal thereby overcoming the attenuation.
The same technique may be used with an analog signal if it is assumed that
the signal carries digital data.
At appropriately spaced points the transmission system has repeaters
rather than amplifiers. The repeater recovers the digital data from the
analog signal and generates a new clean analog signal.
It is the preferred method of transmission.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Digital Transmission
Digital transmission techniques are preferred because of following reasons
1. Digital Technology: The advent of LSI (large-scale integration) and VLSI
(very large scale integration) technology has caused a continuing drop in
the cost and size of digital circuit.
2. Data integrity: Noise and other signal impairments effects are not
cumulative with repeaters. It is possible to transmit data longer
distances and over lesser quality lines by digital means while maintaining
the integrity of the data.
3. Capacity utilization: It is economical to build transmission links of very
high bandwidth. Digital multiplexing techniques (Time Division
Multiplexing) can achieve high degree of multiplexing and effectively
utilize the capacity.
4. Security and privacy: Encryption techniques can be readily applied to
digital data and digitized analog data.
5. Integration: Economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by
integrating voice, video, and digital data.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Transmission Impairments
It degrades signal quality in an analog signal and introduces bit errors in
digital signals (A binary 1 is transformed into a binary 0 and vice versa).
The most significant impairments are:
1. Attenuation and attenuation distortion
2. Delay distortion
3. Noise

Attenuation
The strength of a signal falls off with distance over any transmission
medium.
For guided media attenuation is logarithmic and is typically expressed as a
constant number of decibels per unit distance.
For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex function of distance
and of the make up of the atmosphere.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Attenuation
Attenuation introduces three considerations
1. Received signal must have sufficient strength so that the electronic circuitry in
the receiver can detect and interpret the signal.
2. Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received
without error.
3. It is an increasing function of frequency.
First and second problems are dealt with by attention to signal strength and by the
use of amplifiers or repeaters.
Third problem is noticeable for analog signals. Because the attenuation varies as a
function of frequency, the received signal is distorted, reducing intelligibility.
To overcome this problem, techniques are available for equalizing attenuation
across a band of frequencies. This is commonly done for voice-grade telephone
lines by using loading coils that change the electrical properties of the line; the
result is to smooth out attenuation effects.
Another approach is to use amplifiers that amplify high frequencies more than
lower frequencies.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Delay Distortion
It is a phenomenon applicable to guided transmission media.
The distortion is caused by the fact that the velocity of propagation of a signal
through a guided medium varies with frequency.
For a band limited signal, the velocity tends to be highest near the center
frequency and lower toward the two edges of the band.
Thus various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at
different times.
This effect is referred to as delay distortion, as the received signal is distorted due
to variable delay in its components.
Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data. Consider that a sequence of
bits is being transmitted, using either analog or digital signals. Because of delay
distortion, some of the signal components of one bit position will spill over into
other bit positions, causing intersymbol interference, which is a major limitation to
maximum bit rate over a transmission control.
Equalizing techniques can be used to reduce delay distortion.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Noise
Received signal consist of transmitted signal modified by various distortions
imposed by the transmission system. Unwanted signals are inserted somewhere
between transmission and reception. These signals are referred to as noise.
It is a major limiting factor in communications system performance.
It may be divided into four categories:
1. Thermal noise
2. Intermodulation noise
3. Crosstalk
4. Impulse noise
Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons in a conductor.
Intermodulation noise occurs when signals at different frequencies share the same
transmission medium. The effect of intermodulation noise is to produce signals at a
frequency that is the sum or difference of the two original frequencies, or multiples
of those frequencies.
Crosstalk is an unwanted coupling between signal paths. It can occur by electrical
coupling between nearby twisted pair lines carrying multiple signals.
Impulse noise is non continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of
short duration and of relatively high amplitude.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Channel Capacity
Channel Capacity
It is defined as the rate at which data can be transmitted over a given channel
(communication path), under given conditions.
Transmission impairments limit the data rate.

Data rate
It is the rate at which data can be communicated. It is measured in bits per second.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth of the transmitted signal is constrained by transmitter and by nature of
transmission medium.
It is expressed in cycles per second or hertz.

Noise
It is the average level of noise over the communications path.
Error rate
It is the rate at which errors occur. (An error is the reception of a 1 when a 0 was
transmitted or the reception of a 0 when a 1 was transmitted).
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Importance of channel capacity
Communications facilities are expensive (greater the
bandwidth greater the cost).
All transmission channels of any practical interest are of
limited bandwidth.
The limitations arise from the physical properties of the
transmission medium or from limitations at the transmitter on
the bandwidth to prevent interference from other sources.
Task is to make efficient use of a given bandwidth.
For digital data this means high data rate at a particular limit
of error rate for a given bandwidth.
The main constraint on achieving this efficiency is noise.
Let us consider the case of a channel that is noise-free. In this
environment the limitation on data rate is simply the
bandwidth of the signal.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Importance of channel capacity
For a given level of noise greater signal strength will improve
the ability to correctly receive data in the presence of noise.
The key parameter involved is signal-to-noise ratio (S/N),
which is the ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise that is present at a particular point in
the transmission.
S/N ratio is measured at receiver. A high S/N will mean a high-
quality signal and a low number of required intermediate
repeaters.
The signal-to-noise ratio is important in the transmission of
digital data because it sets the upper bound on the achievable
data rate.
Shannon's Theorem of channel capacity is given by C = B log2 (
1 + S/N ), where C is the capacity of the channel in bits per
second and B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Guided Transmission Media
Transmission capacity in terms of either data rate or bandwidth for guided
transmission media depends critically on the distance and on whether the
medium is point-to-point or multipoint.
The three guided media commonly used for data transmission are
1. Twisted pair
2. Coaxial cable and
3. Optical fiber

Twisted Pair
It is the least-expensive and most widely-used.
It can be used to transmit both analog and digital signals.
It require amplifiers every 5 to 6 km for analog signals and repeaters every
2 to3 km for digital signals.
It is limited in distance, bandwidth and data rate.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Twisted Pair
Attenuation is a strong function of frequency.
It is quite susceptible to interference and noise because of its easy
coupling with electromagnetic fields.
Twisted pair comes in two varieties:
1. UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
2. STP (Shielded twisted pair)
UTP is ordinary telephone wire.
STP provides better performance at lower data rates.
Electronic Industries Association (EIA-568-A standard) recognizes three
categories of UTP cabling:
1. Category 3 UTP: transmission characteristics are specified up to 16
MHz
2. Category 4 UTP: transmission characteristics are specified up to 20
MHz
3. Category 5 UTP: transmission characteristics are specified up to 100
MHz

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of two conductors, a hollow outer cylindrical
conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor.
The inner conductor is held in place by either regularly spaced insulating
rings or a solid dielectric material.
The outer conductor is covered with a jacket or shield.
A single coaxial cable has a diameter of from 0.4 to about 1 inch.
Because of its shielded, concentric construction it is much less susceptible
to interference and crosstalk.
It can be used over longer distances and supports more stations on a
shared line.
It is the versatile transmission medium and is used in a wide variety of
applications (Television distribution, Long distance telephone transmission,
Short-run computer system links, local area networks etc).
It is used to transmit both analog and digital signals. It can be used
effectively at higher frequencies and data rates.
The principal constraints on performance are attenuation, thermal noise,
and intermodulation noise.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Optical Fiber
An optical fiber is a thin (2 to 125 pm), flexible medium capable of conducting an
optical ray.
Glass fibers are economical and provide good performance.
Plastic fiber is less costly and can be used for short-haul links for which moderately
high losses are acceptable.
An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three concentric
sections:
1. Core
2. Cladding
3. Jacket.
Core is the innermost section and consists of one or more very thin strands, or
fibers made of glass or plastic.
Each fiber is surrounded by its own cladding a glass or plastic coating that has
optical properties different from those of the core.
The outermost layer surrounding one or a bundle of cladded fibers is the jacket.
The jacket is composed of plastic and other material layered to protect against
moisture, abrasion, crushing and other environmental dangers.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Optical Fiber
It is used in long distance telecommunications and local area networking
Its important characteristics are:
1. Greater capacity: Immense bandwidth and high data rate. Data rates of 2 Gbps
over tens of kilometers have been demonstrated.
2. Smaller size and lighter weight: Thinner for comparable information-transmission
capacity. For cramped conduits in buildings and underground along public rights-
of-way, the advantage of small size is considerable. The corresponding reduction in
weight reduces structural support requirements.
3. Lower attenuation: Attenuation is significantly lower and is constant over a wide
range.
4. Electromagnetic isolation: Optical fiber systems are not affected by external
electromagnetic fields. Thus, the system is not vulnerable to interference, impulse
noise, or crosstalk. Fibers do not radiate energy, thereby causing little interference
with other equipment and thus providing a high degree of security from
eavesdropping. In addition, fiber is inherently difficult to tap.
5. Greater repeater spacing: Fewer repeaters mean lower cost and fewer sources of
error. The performance of optical fiber systems from this point of view has been
steadily improving.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Optical Fiber
Principle of optical fiber transmission:
1. Light from a source enters the cylindrical glass or plastic core.
2. Rays at shallow angles are reflected and propagated along the fiber.
3. Other rays are absorbed by the surrounding material.
This form of propagation is called multimode (refers to variety of angles
that will reflect). With multimode transmission multiple propagation paths
exist, each with a different path length, therefore time to traverse the fiber
differs. This causes signal elements to spread out in time, which limits the
rate at which data can be accurately received.
When the fiber core radius is reduced fewer angles will reflect. By reducing
the radius of the core to the order of a wavelength only a single angle or
mode can pass (axial ray).
This singlemode propagation provides superior performance. Because
there is a single transmission path with single-mode transmission
distortion cannot occur.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Optical Fiber
Multimode graded index transmission is possible by varying the index of refraction
of the core. The variable refraction has the effect of focusing the rays more
efficiently than multimode step index.
Two different types of light source are used in fiber optic systems
1. LED (light emitting diode)
2. Injection laser diode (ILD).
Both are semiconductor devices that emit a beam of light when a voltage is
applied. The LED is less costly, operates over a greater temperature range, and has
a longer operational life. The ILD, which operates on the laser principle, is more
efficient and can sustain greater data rates.
There is a relationship among the wavelength employed, the type of transmission,
and the achievable data rate. Both single mode and multimode can support several
different wavelengths of light and can employ laser or LED light source.
In optical fiber, light propagates best in three distinct wavelength "windows,"
centered on 850nm, 1300nm, and 1550 nanometers (nm). These are all in the
infrared portion of the frequency spectrum, The loss is lower at higher
wavelengths, allowing greater data rates over longer distances.
The highest data rates and longest distances require 1550-nm laser sources.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Guided Transmission Media

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Basic Concepts MODEM
Analog and Digital Transmission Synchronous and Asynchronous transmission
Transmission line Impairments Backward and Forward Error Control
Channel Capacity Error detection techniques like CRC
Guided Transmission media Shift register implementation
Digital data to Digital Signal Error correction
Different encoding schemes like NRZ, Block Code principles
Multilevel Binary, Bi phase, Differential
Manchester

Scrambling techniques Hamming distance

Self clocking codes Interfacing standards like V.24/EIA232.F, CCITT-
X.21 Interface

CODEC

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Data Encoding
Data come in both analog (continuous) and digital (discrete) form.
For transmission input data must be encoded as an electrical signal that
is tailored to the characteristics of the transmission medium.
Both analog and digital data can be represented by either analog or
digital signals
Digital data to Digital Signal
A digital signal is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses.
Each pulse is a signal element. Binary data are transmitted by encoding
each data bit into signal elements.
Binary 0 may be represented by a lower voltage level and binary 1 by a
higher voltage level.
It shows one-to-one correspondence between bits and signal elements.
Unipolar signaling will have only positive or negative voltage level.
Bipolar signaling will have both positive voltage level and negative voltage
level.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Digital data to Digital Signal
Data rate (data signaling rate) of a signal is the rate in bits per second of
data that are transmitted.
The duration or length of a bit is the amount of time it takes for the
transmitter to emit the bit. For bit duration 1/R, data rate is R.
Modulation rate is the rate at which signal level is changed. This will
depend on the nature of the digital encoding. It is expressed in bauds
(signal elements per second).
Terms mark and space refer to the binary digits 1and 0 respectively.
Tasks involved in interpreting digital signals at the receiver
1. The receiver must know the timing of each bit.
2. The receiver must determine whether the signal level for each bit
position is high or low.
These tasks are performed by sampling each bit position in the middle of
the interval and comparing the value to a threshold.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Digital data to Digital Signal
Because of noise and other impairments there will be errors.
Three factors determine how successful the receiver will be in interpreting
the incoming signal.
1. Signal to noise ratio (or, better Eb/No)
2. Data rate
3. Bandwidth.
An increase in data rate increases bit error rate (the probability that a bit
is received in error).
An increase in S/N decreases bit error rate. An increase in bandwidth
allows an increase in data rate.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Digital data to Digital Signal
Encoding scheme(mapping from data bits to signal elements)
It can improve performance.
A variety of encoding schemes are in use.
Non-return-to-Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
0 = high level,
1 = low level

Non-return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)

0 = no transition at beginning of interval (one bit time)
1 = transition at beginning of interval

Bipolar AMI
0 = no line signal
1 = positive or negative level alternating for successive ones

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Digital data to Digital Signal
Encoding scheme(mapping from data bits to signal elements)
Manchester
0 = transition from high to low in middle of interval
1 = transition from low to high in middle of interval

Differential Manchester
Always a transition in middle of interval
0 = transition at beginning of interval
1 = no transition at beginning of interval

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Digital data to Digital Signal
Encoding scheme(mapping from data bits to signal elements)

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Digital data to Digital Signal
Various encoding techniques can be compared on following points
1. Signal spectrum
A good signal design should concentrate the transmitted power in the middle of the
transmission bandwidth so that smaller distortion should be present in the received
signal. Codes can be designed with the aim of shaping the spectrum of the
transmitted signal.
2. Clocking
There is a need to determine the beginning and end of each bit position.
Synchronization mechanism based on the transmitted signal can be achieved with
suitable encoding.
3. Error detection
It is useful to have error detection capability built into the physical signaling encoding
scheme. This permits errors to be detected more quickly.
4. Signal interface and noise immunity
Certain codes exhibit superior performance in the presence of noise. This ability is
usually expressed in terms of a bit error rate.
5. Cost and complexity: The higher the signaling rates to achieve a given data rate the
greater is the cost. Some codes require a signaling rate that is greater than the actual
data rate.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Scrambling Techniques
Long distance applications require high signaling rate relative to the data
rate.
Scrambling scheme
sequences that would result in a constant voltage level on the line are
replaced by filling sequences that will provide sufficient transitions for the
receiver's clock to maintain synchronization.
The filling sequence must be recognized by the receiver and replaced with
the original data sequence.
The filling sequence is the same length as the original sequence so there is
no data rate increase.
The design goals for this approach can be summarized as follows:
1. No dc component
2. No long sequences of zero-level line signals
3. No reduction in data rate
4. Error-detection capability

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Scrambling Techniques
Two techniques are commonly used in long-distance transmission services
1. Bipolar with 8 Zeros Substitution (B8ZS) - Same as bipolar AMI, except that any
string of eight zeros is replaced by a string with two code violations.
2. High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros (HDB3)- Same as bipolar AMI, except that any string
of four zeros is replaced by a string with one code violation

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Self Clocking Codes
Biphase codes are known as self-clocking codes.
There is a predictable transition during each bit time and the receiver can
synchronize on that transition.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Digital Data To Analog Signals

Three basic
encoding
techniques for
transforming
digital data into
analog signals
are:
1. Amplitude-
shift keying
(ASK)
2. Frequency-
shift keying
(FSK)
3. Phase-shift
keying
(PSK)

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Analog Data To Digital Signals

This is a process of converting analog data into digital data. The process is
known as digitization. (Ex. PCM, DM)
Once analog data is converted to digital data it can be transmitted using analog
signal or digital signal.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

AM-FM-PM

Analog Data To Analog

Signals

Different modulation
techniques are
1. Amplitude
Modulation
(AM)
2. Angle
Modulation
(FM, PM)

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Basic Concepts CODEC, MODEM
Analog and Digital Synchronous and Asynchronous
Transmission transmission
Transmission line Backward and Forward Error Control
Impairments
Channel Capacity Error detection techniques like CRC
Guided Transmission media Shift register implementation
Digital data to Digital Signal Error correction
Different encoding schemes Block Code principles
like NRZ, Multilevel Binary, Hamming distance
Bi phase, Differential
Manchester
Scrambling techniques Interfacing standards like
Self clocking codes V.24/EIA232.F, CCITT-X.21 Interface
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Synchronous and Asynchronous transmission
Introduction

A high degree of cooperation is required for two devices linked

by a transmission medium to exchange data.

Data are transmitted one bit at a time over the medium.

The timing (rate, duration, spacing) of these bits must be the

same for transmitter and receiver.

Two common techniques for controlling this timing are

1. Asynchronous

2. Synchronous
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Asynchronous transmission
Data are transmitted one character at a time where each
character is eight bits in length.
Timing or synchronization is maintained within each character.
The receiver has the opportunity to resynchronize at the
beginning of each new character.
When no character is being transmitted the line between
transmitter and receiver is in idle state.
The beginning of a character is signaled by a start-bit with a
value of binary 0.
This is followed by eight bits that actually make up the
character.
The bits of the character are transmitted beginning with the
least significant bit.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Asynchronous transmission
The final element is a stop bit (a binary 1).
A minimum length for the stop is 1, 1.5 or 2 times the duration
of an ordinary bit.
No maximum value is specified for stop bit. Because the stop is
the same as the idle state, the transmitter will continue to
transmit the stop signal until it is ready to send the next
character.
Timing requirements are modest.
Following errors are possible
1. The last sampled bit is incorrectly received.
2. The bit count may be out of alignment.
It simple and cheap but requires an overhead of two to three
bits per character.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Asynchronous transmission

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Asynchronous transmission

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Synchronous transmission
Block of bits is transmitted in a steady stream without start
and stop codes.
The block may be many bits in length.
To prevent timing drift between transmitter and receiver their
clocks is synchronized.
Separate clock line can be provided between transmitter and
receiver. One side pulses the line regularly with one short pulse
per bit-time. The other side uses these regular pulses as a clock.
(Suitable for short distance only)
Clocking information can be embedded in the data signal. For
digital signals this can be accomplished with Manchester or
Differential Manchester encoding. For analog signals carrier
frequency itself can be used to synchronize the receiver based
on the phase of the carrier.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Synchronous transmission
Block of bits is transmitted in a steady stream without start
and stop codes.
The block may be many bits in length.
To prevent timing drift between transmitter and receiver their
clocks is synchronized.
Separate clock line can be provided between transmitter and
receiver. One side pulses the line regularly with one short pulse
per bit-time. The other side uses these regular pulses as a clock.
(Suitable for short distance only)
Clocking information can be embedded in the data signal. For
digital signals this can be accomplished with Manchester or
Differential Manchester encoding. For analog signals carrier
frequency itself can be used to synchronize the receiver based
on the phase of the carrier.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Synchronous transmission
Another level of synchronization is to inform receiver about beginning and
end of a data block.
To achieve this each block begins with a preamble bit pattern and ends with
a postamble bit pattern. In addition other bits are added to the block that
conveys control information.
Frame starts with a preamble called a flag, which is eight bit-long. The same
flag is used as a postamble.
The receiver looks for the occurrence of the flag pattern to signal the start
of a frame. This is followed by some number of control fields, then a data field
(variable length for most protocols), more control fields and finally the flag is
repeated.

8-bit variable 8-bit

Flag Control fields Data Field Flag

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Synchronous transmission
TYPES OF ERRORS
In digital transmission systems an error happens when a bit is
altered between transmission and reception.
It can be of two types
1. Single bit error
2. Burst error
Single bit error
It is an isolated error condition that alters one bit but does not
affect nearby bits.
It can occur in the presence of white noise when a slight
random deterioration of the signal to noise ratio is sufficient to
confuse the receiver’s decision of a single bit.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Synchronous transmission
Burst error
Burst error of length B is a contiguous sequence of B bits in
which the first and last bit and any no. of intermediate bits are
received in error.
There is a cluster of bits in which no. of error occurs.
It is common and more difficult to deal with.
It can be caused by impulse noise.
Its effect is high at high data rates.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Backward and Forward Error Control
Error Correction can be handled in two ways.
Backward error control
When an error is discovered, receiver informs sender to
retransmit the entire data.
Forward error control
Receiver uses an error-correcting code, which automatically
corrects certain errors.
Error-correcting codes are more sophisticated than error
detecting codes and require more redundant bits.
The number of bits required to correct multiple-bit or burst
error is so high that in most of the cases it is inefficient.
For this reason, most error correction is limited to one, two or
three-bit errors.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Error detection techniques
Parity Check
The simplest error-detection scheme.
Append a parity bit to the end of a block of data.
Example is ASCII transmission in which a parity bit is attached to each 7-bit
ASCII character.
The value of this bit is selected so that the character has an even number of
1s (even parity) or an odd number of 1s (odd parity).
The receiver examines the received character and if the total number of 1s
is odd, it assumes that no error has occurred.
If one bit (or any odd number of bits) is erroneously inverted during
transmission then the receiver will detect an error.
If two (or any even number) of bits are inverted due to error, an undetected
error occurs.
Typically, even parity is used for synchronous transmission and odd parity
for asynchronous transmission."

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Error detection techniques
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
One of the most powerful error-detecting code.
It can be described as follows.
“Given a k-bit block of bits or message the transmitter generates
an n-bit sequence, known as FCS (frame check sequence) so that
the resulting frame consisting of k + n bits is exactly divisible by
some predetermined number. The receiver then divides the
incoming frame by that number and, if there is no remainder it
assumes there was no error.”
The pattern P is chosen to be one bit longer than the desired
FCS and the exact bit pattern chosen depends on the type of
errors expected. Both high- and low-order bits of P must be 1.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
The occurrence of an error is easily expressed. An error
results in the reversal of a bit.
This is equivalent to taking the exclusive-or of the bit and 1
(modulo 2 addition of 1 to the bit).
Thus, the errors in an (n + k)-bit frame can be represented by
an (n + k)-bit field with 1s in each error position.
The resulting frame T, can be expressed as Tr = T + E
Where T = transmitted frame, E = error pattern with 1s in
positions where errors occur, Tr = received frame
The receiver will fail to detect an error if and only if T is
divisible by P which is equivalent to E divisible by P.
Intuitively, this seems an unlikely occurrence.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
It expresses all values as polynomials in a dummy variable X,
with binary coefficients.
The coefficients correspond to the bits in the binary number.
for M = 110011, we have M(x) = x5 + x4 + x+ 1 and
for P = 11001, we have P(x) = x4 + x3 + 1.
Arithmetic operations are modulo-2.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
An error E(x) will only be undetectable if it is divisible by P(x).
It can be shown that all of the following errors are not
divisible by a suitably chosen P(x) and hence are detectable:
1. All single-bit errors.
2. All double-bit errors as long as P(x) have at least three 1s.
3. Any odd number of errors as long as P(x) contains a factor
(x + 1).
4. Any burst error for which the length of the burst is less
than the length of the divisor polynomial (less than or
equal to the length of the FCS).
5. Most large burst errors.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Different versions of P(x) are :
CRC-12 = x12 + x11 + x3 + x2 + x +1
CRC-16 = x16 + x15 + x2 + 1
CRC-CCITT = x16 + x12+ x5 + 1
CRC-32 = x32 + x26 + x2 3+ x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 x2 + x+1
CRC-12 system is used for transmission of 6-bit characters and generates a
12-bit FCS.
CRC-16 AND CRC-CCITT (Consultative Committee for International
Telegraph and Telephone created in 1956, renamed ITU-T [International
Telecommunication Union- Telecommunication] in 1993) are popular for 8-
bit characters and results in a 16 bit FCS.
CRC-32 is specified as an option in point-to-point synchronous
transmission standards and is used in IEEE 802 LAN standard.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Message M = 1010001101 (10 bits), Pattern P = 110101 (6 bits), FCS R = to be
calculated (5 bits). M is appended by 5 zeros and divided by P.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
The remainder (R = 01110) is added to 2nM to give T = 101000110101110,
which is transmitted.
If there are no errors, the receiver receives T intact. The received frame is
divided by P.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Shift Register Implementation
The CRC process can be implemented as a circuit consisting of exclusive-or
gates and a shift register.
The shift register is a string of 1-bit storage devices (flip flops).
Each flip flop has an output line and an input line.
Output line indicates the value currently stored.
At discrete time instants (clock times) the value in the flip flop is replaced
by the value indicated by its input line.
The entire register is clocked simultaneously, causing a 1-bit shift along the
entire register.
The circuit is implemented as follows:
1. The register contains n bits, equal to the length of the FCS.
2. There are up to n exclusive-or gates.
3. The presence or absence of XOR gate corresponds to presence or
absence of a term in the divisor polynomial, P(x).

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Shift Register Implementation

Message M = 1010001101, M(x) = x9 + x7 + x3 + x2 + 1

Divisor P = 110101, P(x) = x5 + x4 + x2 + 1

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Shift Register Implementation
The process begins with the shift register cleared (all zeros).
The message (dividend) is then entered one bit at a time
starting with the most significant bit.
Each row of the table shows the values currently stored in the
five shift-register elements.
In addition, the row shows the values that appear at the
outputs of the three exclusive-or circuits.
Finally, the row shows the value of the next input bit which is
available for the operation of the next step.
Because no feedback occurs until a 1-dividend bit arrives at
the most significant end of the register, the first five
operations are simple shifts.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Shift Register Implementation
Whenever a 1 bit arrives at the left end of the register c4, a 1 is subtracted
(exclusive-or) from the second (c3) fourth (c1) and sixth (input) bits on the
next shift.
This is identical to the binary long-division process. The process continues
through all the bits of the message and five zero bits.
These latter bits account for shifting M to the left five positions to
accommodate the FCS. After the last bit is processed the shift register
contains the remainder (FCS) which can then be transmitted.

At the receiver, the same logic is used. As each bit of M arrives, it is

inserted into the shift register. If there is no error the shift register should
contain the bit pattern for R at the conclusion of M. The transmitted bits
of R now begin to arrive, and the effect is to zero-out the register so that,
at the conclusion of reception the register contains all 0s.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Shift Register Implementation

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
1. For M = 11100011 and P = 110011, find FCS and implement CRC.
2. For message polynomial x9 + x7 + x3 + x2 + 1 and divisor polynomial
x5+x4+x2+1, find FCS and implement CRC.
3. In a CRC scheme the message is M=10111011010, divisor polynomial is
x5+x4+x3+x2+1. Find FCS and implement CRC.
4. For M = 1100001101 and P = 11001, find FCS and implement CRC.
5. Compute the frame to be transmitted in CRC scheme for a message
M=10111011010, divisor polynomial is x5+x3+x+1.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Module-1 Data Communication Techniques
Basic Concepts CODEC, MODEM
Analog and Digital Synchronous and Asynchronous
Transmission transmission
Transmission line Backward and Forward Error Control
Impairments
Channel Capacity Error detection techniques like CRC
Guided Transmission media Shift register implementation
Digital data to Digital Signal Error correction
Different encoding schemes Block Code principles
like NRZ, Multilevel Binary, Hamming distance
Bi phase, Differential
Manchester
Scrambling techniques Interfacing standards like
Self clocking codes V.24/EIA232.F, CCITT-X.21 Interface
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Error Correction
 Error correction by using error detection techniques requires
retransmission of block of data.

 This approach is inadequate for wireless applications because

of following reasons
1. Bit error rate is quite high. It results in large no. of
retransmissions.
2. Long propagation delay compared to transmission of
single frame. An error in single frame requires
retransmitting many frames.

 Therefore it is desirable to enable the receiver to correct

errors in an incoming transmission.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Error Correction
 On the transmission end each k-bit block of data is mapped into n-bit
block (codeword n>k) using Forward Error Correction (FEC) encoder.
 The codeword is transmitted.
 At the receiver the incoming signal is demodulated and passed through a
FEC decoder.
 Following events may occur:
1. There are no bit errors, FEC decoder input is identical to original
codeword and its output is original data block.
2. For certain errors, FEC decoder is able to correct the error and maps
n-bit codeword to k-bit data block that is original.
3. For certain errors, FEC decoder is able to detect but not correct, it
reports uncorrectable error.
4. For certain rare errors, FEC do not detect any error, maps n-bit
codeword to k-bit data block that differs from original.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Block Code principles
 Block coding provides redundancy to ensure synchronization
and error detecting.
 It improves performance of line coding.
 In general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a block
of n bits, where n is larger than m. Block coding is referred to
as an mB/nB encoding technique.
 Block coding normally involves three steps:
1. Division,
2. Substitution, and
3. Combination.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Block Code principles
 In the division step, a sequence of bits is divided into groups
of m bits. For example, in 4B/5B encoding, the original bit
sequence is divided into 4-bit groups.

 The heart of block coding is the substitution step. In this step,

we substitute an m-bit group for an n-bit group. For example,
in 4B/5B encoding we substitute a 4-bit code for a 5-bit group.

 Finally, the n-bit groups are combined together to form a

stream. The new stream has more bits than the original bits.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Block Code principles
 Divide message into blocks, each of k bits, called datawords.
 Add r redundant bits to each block to make the length n = k + r.
 The resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.
 Now we have a set of datawords, each of size k, and a set of codewords,
each of size of n.
 With k bits, we can create a combination of 2k datawords.
 With n bits, we can create a combination of 2n codewords.
 Since n > k, the number of possible codewords is larger than the number
of possible datawords.
 The block coding process is one-to-one; the same dataword is always
encoded as the same codeword.
 This means that we have 2n - 2k codewords that are not used. We call
these codewords invalid or illegal.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Block Code principles
 If the following two conditions are met, the receiver can
detect a change in the original codeword.
1. The receiver has (or can find) a list of valid codewords.
2. The original codeword has changed to an invalid one.
 The sender creates codewords out of datawords by using a
generator that applies the rules and procedures of encoding.
 Each codeword sent to the receiver may change during
transmission.
 If the received codeword is the same as one of the valid
codewords, the word is accepted; the corresponding
dataword is extracted for use.
 If the received codeword is not valid, it is discarded.
 However, if the codeword is corrupted during transmission
but the received word still matches a valid codeword, the
error remains undetected.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Block Code principles
Example: Let us assume that k =2 and n =3. Table 10.1 shows the list of
datawords and codewords.
Datawords Codewords
00 000
01 011
10 101
11 110
 Assume the sender encodes the dataword 01 as 011 and sends it to the
receiver. Consider the following cases:
1. The receiver receives 011. It is a valid codeword. The receiver
extracts the dataword 01 from it.
2. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and 111 is received
(the leftmost bit is corrupted). This is not a valid codeword and is
discarded.
3. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and 000 is received
(the right two bits are corrupted). This is a valid codeword. The
receiver incorrectly extracts the dataword 00.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Hamming Distance
 It is the central point in dealing with error detection and
correction codes.
 Hamming distance between two words (of same size) is the
number of differences between the corresponding bits.
 Hamming distance can easily be found by applying XOR
operation on two words and count number of 1s in the result.
 Hamming distance is a value greater than zero.
 Hamming distance between two words x and y is d(x, y).
 Hamming distance d(000, 011) is 2 because 000 XOR 011 is
011 (two 1s).
 Hamming distance d(10101, 11110) is 3 because 10101 XOR
11110 is 01011 (three 1s).

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Minimum Hamming Distance
 It is the smallest Hamming distance between all possible pairs.
 dmin is the minimum Hamming distance in a coding scheme.
 Find Hamming distances between all words and select the
smallest one.
 Example: Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding
scheme given in Table.
 Find all Hamming distances
Datawords Codewords
d(00000, 01011) =3
d(00000, 10101) =3 00 00000
d(00000, 11110) =4 01 01011
d(01011, 10101) =4
10 10101
d(01011, 11110) =3
d(10101, 11110) =3 11 11110

dmin in this case is 3.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Hamming Distance and Error
 Any coding scheme needs to have at least three parameters:
1. Codeword of size n
2. Dataword of size k, and
3. Minimum Hamming distance dmin.
 A coding scheme C is written as C(n, k) with a separate
expression for dmin.
 Example: coding scheme C(5, 2) with dmin ::= 3.

 Hamming distance between the received codeword and the

sent codeword is the number of bits that are corrupted during
transmission.
 For example, if the codeword 00000 is sent and 01101 is
received, 3 bits are in error and the Hamming distance
between the two is d(00000, 01101) =3.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Hamming Distance and Error
 If s errors occur during transmission, the Hamming distance
between the sent codeword and received codeword is s.
 If the code is to detect up to s errors, the minimum distance
between the valid codes must be s + 1, so that the received
codeword does not match a valid codeword.
 In other words, if the minimum distance between all valid
codewords is s + 1, the received codeword cannot be
erroneously mistaken for another codeword.
 The distances are not enough (s + 1) for the receiver to accept
it as valid. The error will be detected.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Hamming Distance and Error
Minimum Distance for Error Correction
 Error correction is more complex than error detection; a
decision is involved.
 When a received codeword is not a valid codeword, the
receiver needs to decide which valid codeword was actually
sent.
 To guarantee correction of up to t errors in all cases, the
minimum Hamming distance in a block code must be
dmin = 2t + 1.
 Example: A code scheme has a Hamming distance dmin = 4.
What is the error detection and correction capability of this
scheme?
 Solution: This code guarantees the detection of up to three
errors (s = 3), but it can correct up to one error.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Hamming code
 It is an error correcting code.
 It can correct single bit errors.
 It consists of code words of length n each having r parity bits,
where r is the smallest integer satisfying the condition
 2r ≥ n+1
 Check bits are generated using even or odd parity for a
defined set of data bits.
 Consider data words of 4 bits . Code word will require three
check bits. (2r ≥ 4+3+1)
 For correcting an error it is required to find location of bit that
is an error.
 This location is pointed out by error syndrome.
 Error syndrome is calculated based on based on parity checks.
It has a value equal to the location of bit in error.
Ref: Data Communications and Computer Networks, Prakash C Gupta, PHI
Hamming code
 If sixth bit is in error the error syndrome will take binary value
110.
 For a seven bit hamming code, error syndrome can take
values from 001 to 111.
 7 bit Code word consists of 4 bit data word and 3 bit parity

Error Position Error Syndrome

1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

Ref: Data Communications and Computer Networks, Prakash C Gupta, PHI

Hamming code
 11 bit Code word consists of 7 bit data word and 4 bit parity
Error Position Error Syndrome
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011

Ref: Data Communications and Computer Networks, Prakash C Gupta, PHI

Hamming code
 LSB of syndrome is 1 for bit position 1,3,5,7.
 These bit positions are grouped together.
 The error in these bit positions is detected by keeping parity
bit at any of these four positions.
 Whenever any of these bit positions is in error the LSB of the
syndrome is made 1.

 Middle bit of syndrome is 1 for the bit position 2,3,6,7.

Second parity bit can be placed at any of these four bit
positions.
 If an error occurs in these bit positions second parity bit will
detect it and when error is detected the middle bit of
syndrome is made 1.

Ref: Data Communications and Computer Networks, Prakash C Gupta, PHI

Hamming code
 Third parity bit is kept at any one of the bit positions 4,5,6,7 to
detect the error in these positions. If there is an error MSB of
the syndrome is made 1.

 Three parity bits together check the entire seven bit code
word.
 Parity bits are positioned at 1,2,4,8.
 In general bit positions 1,2,4,8,….. Of the code words are
reserved for parity bits. Other positions are for data bits. MSB
of the data word is on left hand side. LSB is transmitted first.
Bit Positions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Code Word P1 P2 D P4 D D D P8 D D D

Location of bits in Hamming code

Ref: Data Communications and Computer Networks, Prakash C Gupta, PHI

Hamming code
Ex.1 Generate the code word for ASCII character k. Assume even
parity. ( K = 100 1011 = 4BH)
BIT POSITIONS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
P1 P2 1 P4 0 0 1 P8 0 1 1 EVEN PARITY
First Parity Bit P1 1 0 1 0 1 P1 = 1
(P1,3,5,7,9,11)
Second Parity P2 1 0 1 1 1 P2 = 0
Bit
(P2,3,6,7,10,11)
Third Parity Bit P4 0 0 1 P4 = 1
(P4,5,6,7)
Fourth Parity Bit P8 0 1 1 P8 = 0
(P8,9,10,11)
Code word 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

Ref: Data Communications and Computer Networks, Prakash C Gupta, PHI

Hamming code
Ex.2 Detect and correct single error in the received Hamming code word
10110010111. Assume even parity.
BIT POSITIONS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 EVEN ERROR
P1 P2 D P4 D D 1 P8 D D D PARITY SYNDROME
CHECK
Codeword 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
First Parity Check 1 1 0 1 1 1 Fail ___1
(1,3,5,7,9,11)
Second Parity Check 0 1 0 1 1 1 Pass __01
(2,3,6,7,10,11)
Third Parity Check 1 0 0 1 Pass _001
(4,5,6,7)
Fourth Parity Check 0 1 1 1 Fail 1001
(8,9,10,11)
Ninth bit position is in error. Corrected codeword is 10110010011.
Dataword is 1001011
Ref: Data Communications and Computer Networks, Prakash C Gupta, PHI
Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
 V.24 is most widely used interface specified in ITU-T standard.
 It specifies functional and procedural aspects of the interface.
 It references other standards for electrical and mechanical
aspects.
 EIA-232 specification covers all four aspects: Mechanical,
Electrical, Functional and Procedural.
 EIA-232 was first issued by the Electronic Industries
Association in 1962 as RS-232.
 It’s fifth revision is EIA-232-E, issued in 1991. EIA-232-F is
issued in 1997. It is called universal serial peripheral interface.
 The current V.24 and V.28 specifications were issued in 1993.
 This interface is used to connect DTE devices to voice-grade
modems for use on public analog telecommunications
systems. It is also widely used for many other interconnection
applications.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
Mechanical Specification
 It is a 25-pin connector, That connects DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) to
DCE (Data Communication Equipment).

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
Electrical Specification
 It defines the signaling between DTE and DCE.
 Digital signaling is used on all interchange circuits.
 Depending on the function of the interchange circuit, electrical
values are interpreted either as binary or as control signals.
 The convention specifies that, with respect to a common
ground, a voltage more negative than -3 volts is interpreted as
binary 1 and a voltage more positive than + 3 volts is
interpreted as binary 0; this is the NRZ-L code. The interface is
rated at a signal rate of <20 kbps and a distance of <15 meters.
 The same voltage levels apply to control signals; a voltage more
negative than -3 volts is interpreted as an OFF condition and a
voltage more positive than +3 volts is interpreted as an ON
condition.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
Functional Specification
 Table summarizes the functional specification of the interchange circuits.
 The circuits can be grouped into the categories of data, control, timing, and
ground.
 There is one data circuit in each direction, so full-duplex operation is
possible. In addition, there are two secondary data circuits that are useful
when the device operates in a half-duplex fashion.
 In the case of half-duplex operation, data exchange between two DTEs (via
their DCEs and the intervening communications link) is only conducted in
one direction at a time.
 However, there may be a need to send a halt or flow-control message to a
transmitting device; to accommodate this, the communication link is
equipped with a reverse channel, usually at a much lower data rate than the
primary channel.
 At the DTE-DCE interface, the reverse channel is carried on a separate pair
of data circuits.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
 There are fifteen control circuits. The first ten of these listed in Table relate
to the transmission of data over the primary channel.
 For asynchronous transmission, six of these circuits are used (105, 106, 107,
108.2, 125, 109).
 In addition to these six circuits, three other control circuits are used in
synchronous transmission.
 The Signal Quality Detector circuit is turned ON by the DCE to indicate that
the quality of the incoming signal over the telephone line has deteriorated
beyond some defined threshold.
 Most high-speed modems support more than one transmission rate so that
they can fall back to a lower speed if the telephone line becomes noisy.
 The Data Signal Rate Selector circuits are used to change speeds; either the
DTE or DCE may initiate the change.
 The next three control circuits (120,121,122) are used to control the use of
the secondary channel, which may be used as a reverse channel or for some
other auxiliary purpose.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
 The last group of control signals relate to loopback testing.
 These circuits allow the DTE to cause the DCE to perform a
loopback test.
 These circuits are only valid if the modem or other DCE
supports loopback control; this is now a common modem
feature.
 In the local loopback function, the transmitter output of the
modem is connected to the receiver input, disconnecting the
modem from the transmission line. A stream of data generated
by the user device is sent to the modem and looped back to
the user device.
 For remote loopback, the local modem is connected to the
transmission facility in the usual fashion, and the receiver
output of the remote modem is connected to the modem's
transmitter input.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
 During either form of test, the DCE turns ON the Test Mode
circuit.
 Loopback control is a useful fault-isolation tool.
 For example, suppose that a user at a personal computer is
communicating with a server by means of a modem connection
and communication suddenly ceases. The problem could be
with the local modem, the communications facility, the remote
modem, or the remote server.
 A network manager can use loopback tests to isolate the fault.
Local loopback checks the functioning of the local interface and
the local DCE. Remote loopback tests the operation of the
transmission channel and the remote DCE.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
 Timing signals provide clock pulses for synchronous transmission.
 When the DCE is sending synchronous data over the Received Data circuit
(104), it also sends 1-0 and 0-1 transitions on Receiver Element Signal
Timing (115), with transitions timed to the middle of each BB signal
element.
 When the DTE is sending synchronous data, either the DTE or DCE can
provide timing pulses, depending on the circumstances.
 Signal ground/common return (102) serves as the return circuit for all data
leads. Hence, transmission is unbalanced, with only one active wire.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
Procedural Specification
 The procedural specification defines the sequence in which the various
circuits are used for a particular application.
Example: Asynchronous private line modem (limited-distance modem).
 It accepts digital signals from a DTE, such as a terminal or computer,
converts these to analog signals, and then transmits these over a short
length of medium, such as twisted pair. On the other end of the line is
another limited-distance modem, which accepts the incoming analog
signals, converts them to digital, and passes them on to another terminal or
computer. Exchange of data is two-way. Following interchange circuits are
actually required:
1. Signal ground (102)
2. Transmitted data (103)
3. Received data (104)
4. Request to send (105)
5. Clear to send (106)
6. DCE ready (107)
7. Received-Line Signal Detector (109)

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
 When the modem (DCE) is turned on and is ready to operate, it asserts
(applies a constant negative voltage to) the DCE Ready line.
 When the DTE is ready to send data (e.g., the terminal user has entered a
character), it asserts Request to Send.
 The modem responds, when ready, by asserting Clear to Send, indicating
that data may be transmitted over the Transmitted Data line.
 If the arrangement is half-duplex, then Request to Send also inhibits the
receive mode.
 The DTE may now transmit data over the Transmitted Data line. When data
arrive from the remote modem, the local modem asserts Received-Line
Signal Detector to indicate that the remote modem is transmitting and
delivers the data on the Received Data line.
 It is not necessary to use timing circuits, as this is asynchronous
transmission.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
 When modem (DCE) is turned on and is ready to operate, it asserts DCE
Ready line. (applies a constant negative voltage)
 When DTE is ready to send data it asserts Request to Send.
 Modem responds by asserting Clear to Send, indicating that data may be
transmitted over the Transmitted Data line.
 If the arrangement is half-duplex, then Request to Send also inhibits the
receive mode.
 The DTE may now transmit data over the Transmitted Data line. When data
arrive from the remote modem, the local modem asserts Received-Line
Signal Detector to indicate that the remote modem is transmitting and
delivers the data on the Received Data line.
 It is not necessary to use timing circuits, as this is asynchronous
transmission.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
 Additional circuits are required to use a modem to transmit
data over the telephone network.
 In this case, the initiator of a connection must call the
destination device over the network. Two additional leads are
required:
1. DTE ready (108.2)
2. Ring indicator (125)

 With the addition of these two lines, the DTE-modem system

can effectively use the telephone network in a way analogous
to voice telephone usage.

 Figure depicts the steps involved in dial-up half-duplex

operation.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

V.24/EIA-232 dial-up operation

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Interfacing Standards V.24/EIA232
 When a call is made, either manually or automatically, the
telephone system sends a ringing signal.
 A telephone set would respond by ringing its bell; a modem
responds by asserting Ring Indicator.
 A person answers a call by lifting the handset; a DTE answers by
asserting Data Terminal Ready.
 A person who answers a call will listen for another's voice, and,
if nothing is heard, hang up. A DTE will listen for Carrier Detect,
which will be asserted by the modem when a signal is present;
if this circuit is not asserted, the DTE will drop Data Terminal
Ready.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

X.21 Interface
Physical Connection
 In ISDN terminology, a physical connection is made between
terminal equipment (TE) and network-terminating equipment
(NT). TE and NT correspond to DTE and DCE respectively.
 The physical connection, defined in IS0 8877, specifies that the
NT and TE cables shall terminate in matching plugs that provide
for 8 contacts.
 Figure illustrates the contact assignments for each of the 8 lines
on both NT and TE sides.
 Two pins are used to provide data transmission in each
direction. These contact points are used to connect twisted-pair
leads coming from the NT and TE devices.
 Because there are no specific functional circuits, the transmit1
receive circuits are used to carry both data and control signals.
The control information is transmitted in the form of messages.
Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling
X.21 Interface
ISDN interface

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

X.21 Interface
 The specification provides for the capability to transfer power
across the interface. The direction of power transfer depends
on the application.
 In a typical application, it may be desirable to provide for
power transfer from the network side toward the terminal in
order, for example, to maintain a basic telephony service in the
event of failure of the locally provided power.
 This power transfer can be accomplished using the same leads
used for digital signal transmission (c, d, e, f), or on additional
wires, using access leads g-h. The remaining two leads are not
used in the ISDN configuration but may be useful in other
configurations.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

X.21 Interface
Electrical Specification
 The ISDN electrical specification dictates the use of balanced transmission.
With balanced transmission, signals are carried on a line, such as twisted
pair, consisting of two conductors.
 Signals are transmitted as a current that travels down one conductor and
returns on the other, the two conductors forming a complete circuit.
 For digital signals, this technique is known as differential signaling. binary
value depends on direction of the voltage difference between the two
conductors.
 Unbalanced transmission used in EIA-232 uses a single conductor to carry
the signal, with ground providing the return path.
 The data encoding format used on the ISDN interface depends on the data
rate.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

X.21 Interface
Electrical Specification
 For the basic rate of 192 kbps, the standard specifies the use of
pseudoternary coding.
 Binary one is represented by the absence of voltage, and binary
zero is represented by a positive or negative pulse of 750 mV
±10%.
 For the primary rate, there are two options:
a. 1.544 Mbps using AMI (alternate mark inversion ) with
B8ZS and
b. 2.049 Mbps using AMI with HDB3.

 The reason for the different schemes for the two different
primary rates is simply historical, neither has a particular
advantage.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Null Modem
 Null modem is used to connect two computers(DTE devices) by
using RS232 protocol in absence of DCE devices (modems).
 RS232 protocol was originally used to connect a telephone
modem to a teletype machine.
 The teletype machines communicates through the modems.
 In this type of connection, the transmission and reception lines
are connected crosswise, enabling two-way data transmission.
 null modems are used to exchange data between older
computers or laptops. These machines may not have a USB
port or network card.
 For these types of machines, a null modem is the only option
when data transmission is required.

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling

Null Modem

Ref: Data and Computer Communications, William Stalling