Hydrology Runoff

5. Runoff
5.1. Introduction
 The portion of precipitation which appears in the surface streams of either
perennial or intermittent nature is called runoff.
 This is the flow collected from a drainage basin and appearing at an outlet of the
basin.
 In a general sense it is the precipitation excess after meeting the
evapotranspiration demands.
 It is usually expressed as volume per unit time, the common unit being m 3/s or
cumec.
 It may also be expressed as depth equivalent over a basin that is mm/day,
mm/month or mm/year. This is particularly useful unit for comparing runoff rate or
runoff volume with precipitation.

5.2. Components of Runoff

According to the source from which the flow is derived, the total runoff is visualized to
consist of
 Surface runoff
 Subsurface runoff
 Groundwater runoff
The Fig. below shows the inter-relationship between various items involved in the
process of transforming the total precipitation into the total runoff.
 Before reaching the ground a small portion of precipitation evaporates and
joins back the atmosphere while another portion is intercepted
 The precipitation falling on the water surface is called channel precipitation
and it immediately becomes the stream flow.
 The rest of the precipitation falling on the land surface, after satisfying the
infiltration demand, is temporarily detained on the ground surface and when
sufficient depth is built up it travels over the ground surface towards the
stream channel – overland flow.
The overland flow ceases shortly after the rainfall stops.

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 Surface runoff may then be defined as that part of the total runoff which
travels over the ground surface to reach a stream channel and then through
the channel to reach the basin outlet. – it is the combination of the overland
flow and the channel precipitation.


Total precipitation
on the basin

Channel Overland Infiltration Abstractions like

Precipitation flow Interception &
evaporation

Channel Channel flow Interflow or sub- Deep percolation

flow Surface flow

Rapid Delayed Groundwater

interflow interflow runoff

Surface
runoff Channel flow

Base Flow
Direct Runoff
(Quick Flow

Total Runoff at the Basin Outlet

Fig.: Schematic representation of runoff process

 Water which infiltrates the soil surface and then moves laterally through the
upper soil horizons towards the stream channels above the main groundwater

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table is known as the interflow. It is also known as subsurface runoff,

subsurface stream flow, storm seepage, and secondary base flow.
 The infiltrated water which percolates deeply becomes groundwater and when
the groundwater table rises and intersects the stream channels of the basin it
discharges into stream as the groundwater runoff.
 Since the movement of the groundwater is very slow the groundwater runoff to
streams may lag behind the occurrence of precipitation by several days, or
weeks.
 The groundwater flow also tends to be very regular and in general it
represents the main long-term component of total runoff and is particularly
important during dry spells when surface runoff is absent.
 For the practical purpose of analysis total runoff in stream channels is
generally classified as direct runoff and base flow.
o The direct runoff or quick flow is that part of runoff which enters the
stream promptly and is equal to the sum of surface runoff and rapid
interflow.
o This clearly represents the major runoff contribution during storm
periods and is also the major contribution to most floods.
o The base flow is defined as the sustained or fair-weathered runoff and
it is composed of groundwater runoff and delayed interflow.
Precipitation excess is that part of total precipitation which contributes directly to the
surface runoff.

Time

Loss

Rainfall excess
River Discharge

Direct Runoff

Base Flow
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Fig. 5.2: Catchment Rainfall and Runoff process

5.3 Hydrographs
A hydrograph is the graphical representation of the instantaneous discharge of a stream
plotted with time (see Fig. 5.2). It includes the integrated contributions from surface
runoff, groundwater seepage, and drainage and channel precipitation. The shape of a
hydrograph of a single storm occurring over the drainage area follows a general pattern.
This pattern shows a period of rise that culminates in a peak, followed by a period of
decreasing discharge (called precession) which may, or may not, decrease to zero
discharge, depending on the amount of groundwater flow.

Tp

tb
Fig 5.2 components of hydrograph
.
The hydrograph has two main components, a broad band near the time axis
representing base flow contributed from groundwater, and the remaining area above the
base flow, the surface runoff, which is produced by the storm. The peak of the
hydrograph is reached after the effective rainfall has reached its maximum. The time
difference between the maximum effective rainfall intensity and the maximum runoff is
called the time lag.
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The boundary between surface runoff and baseflow is difficult to define and depends
strongly on the geological structure and composition of the catchment. Permeable
aquifers, such as limestone and sandstone strata, react much faster than impervious
clays. During the course of an individual rainfall event, the baseflow component
continues to fall even after river levels have begun to rise, and only when the storm
rainfall has had the time to percolate down to the water table does the baseflow
component begin to increase.

Separation of Base Flow and Runoff

The separation of the components of flood hydrograph in to direct runoff and base flow
is the important step in hydrograph analysis. Separating the positive base flow, which
may also be generated from upper catchment reaches (e.g. due to snow-melt in high
mountains), from the total runoff requires good experience.
Sophisticated techniques like the master depletion curve may be useful for longer
streams or rivers; however, they require a sufficient long observation period of discharge
and rainfall.

There are some approximate methods of base flow separation that are in common use.

1. Straight Line Method

Draw a horizontal line from the point at which surface runoff begins to the
intersection with the recession limb.

2. Fixed Base Method

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In this method the surface runoff is assumed to end a fixed time N after the
hydrograph peaks. The base flow before the surface runoff began is projected
ahead to the time of the peak. A straight line is used to connect this projection at
the peak to the point on the recession limb at time N after the peak.

Empirical equation for time interval N days from the peak to the point B is
N=0.83*A 0.2
Where A drainage area in Km2 and N in days

3. Variable Slope Method

The base flow curve before the surface runoff began is extrapolated forward to
the time of the peak discharge, and the base flow curve after the surface runoff
ceases is extrapolated backward to the time of the point of inflection on the
recession limb. A straight line is used to connect the end points of the
extrapolated curves.

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In the case of very small watersheds, the flow discharge consists almost only of the
surface runoff. Separation of base flow according to line a is appropriate (Figure 5.11)
(constant base flow). In small and medium catchments, direct surface runoff still
contributes the major share to discharge. Interflow may be taken into consideration
applying curve b or c (Figure 5.11). In the case of large catchments, the emphasis is
shifted from direct runoff to interflow. Usually only groundwater flow is separated as
base flow.

These simple techniques are normally leading to good results; however, it may require
several steps or trials before reaching the condition of equal storm and runoff volumes.
This revising of the base flow assumption may also need an adjustment of the initially
defined net rain before reaching sufficient results.

Since base flow represents the discharge of aquifers, changes occur slowly and there is
a lag between cause and effect that can easily extend to periods of days or weeks. This
will depend on the transmissivity of the aquifers bordering the stream and the climate.

Depending upon the unit of time involved, we have:

a) Annual hydrographs showing the variation of daily or weekly or 10 daily mean flows
over a year;
b) Monthly hydrographs showing the variation of daily mean flows over a month;
c) Seasonal hydrographs depicting the variation of the discharge in a particular season
such as the monsoon season or dry season; and
d) Flood hydrographs or hydrographs due to a storm representing stream flow due to a
storm over a catchment.
Each of these types have particular applications, Annual and seasonal hydrographs are of use in
(i) calculating the surface water potential of stream, (ii) reservoir studies and (iii) drought studies.
Flood hydrographs are essential in analyzing stream characteristics associated with floods.

A study of the annual hydrographs of streams enables one to classify streams into three classes as
(i) perennial, (ii) intermittent and (iii) ephemeral.

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A perennial stream is one which always caries some flow, there is considerable amount
of groundwater flow throughout the year. Even during dry seasons the water table will
be able to reach the bed of the stream.

An intermittent stream has limited contribution from the groundwater. During the wet
season the water table is above the streambed and there is a contribution of the base
flow to the stream flow. However, during dry seasons the water table drops to a level
lower than that of the streambed and the stream dries up. Excepting for an occasional
storm, which can produce a short-duration flow, the stream remains dry for the most part
of the dry months.

An ephemeral stream is one, which does not have any base-flow contribution. The
annual hydrograph of such a river show series of short duration peaks marking flash
flows in response to storms. The stream becomes dry soon after the end of the storm
flow. Typically an ephemeral stream does not have any well-defined channel. Most
rivers in arid zones are of the ephemeral kind.

5.4 Factors affecting runoff

The factors affecting the runoff of a catchment may be broadly calssified into two
categories:
 Climatic factors
 Physiographic factors
The climatic factors include The physiographic factors are
- Intensity of rainfall - Land use
- Duration of rainfall - Type of soil
- Areal distribution of rainfall - Area of the basin
- Direction of storm movement - Shape of the basin
- Antecedent precipitation - Slope
- Other climatic factors that - Storage characteristics of
affect evapotranspiration the basin

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Intensity of rainfall
The runoff increases with an increase in the intensity of precipitation because an intense
rainfall occurs in a short and the evaporation and infiltration losses are relatively small.

- For rainfall intensities exceeding the infiltration capacity, the runoff increases
with increase in intensity.
- Owing to the storage effects of the basin, however, the increase in the runoff
rate is not the same as the increase in rainfall intensity.

Duration of rainfall
- If rainfall occurs over a long period, the runoff is large because the runoff is
proportional to the total rainfall. Moreover, the infiltration capacity decreases
with time.
- Under favorable conditions the infiltrated water may even raise the water table
to the ground surface reducing the infiltration to zero leading to serious flood.
- As a consequence, rains of long duration may produce high rates of runoff
even though the intensity is relatively mild.
- It is pertinent here to consider the duration of rainfall in conjunction with
critical concentration time of the basin t c, which is defined as the time
taken by a rain drop falling on the remotest point of the basin to reach the
basin outlet.
- If the duration of rainfall is greater than or equal to t c the whole of the basin is
likely to contribute to runoff during the later stages of the storm so that the
potential runoff rate is maximum.
- On the other hand, if the rainfall duration is less than t c the potential runoff will
be lower than the maximum because only part of the basin will be contributing
to runoff before rainfall ceases.

Rainfall distribution over the basin

Uniform areal distribution of rainfall over a basin is rarely observed in nature. Some
portion of the basin will receive rainfall which is much less than the average rainfall over

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the basin while the remaining portion will receive rainfall which is more than the average
of the basin.
A large areal extent of the rainfall over the catchment produces large runoff.
- Heavy rainfalls in the lower portions of the basin will produce a runoff
hydrograph with a rapid rise and nearly peak discharge,
- while heavy rainfall in the upper portions will reverse the hydrograph trend
with a slow rise and late peak.
- On the other hand, rainfall distribution uniformly over the entire basin will
tend to produce increased base flow and consequently a long and slow
increase in the hydrograph.

Direction of storm movement

If a storm striking a long and narrow basin is moving in an upstream direction the runoff
contributed by the lower tributaries would have been already drained out by the time the
runoff from the middle and upper tributaries reaches the basin outlet and therefore less
peak discharge would be observed in this case.
When, on the other hand, the storm moves downstream the runoff peaks from the
individual tributaries are more likely to arrive at the basin outlet at approximately the
same time with the result the runoff peak will be many times more than in the case of
storm moving upstream.

Antecedent precipitation
The soil moisture conditions of the basin existing at the time of occurrence of storm
would greatly influence the runoff peak resulting from that storm. Even very intense rains
falling in late summer, when the soil moisture is at its least, rarely produce high
discharges because most of the water enters the soil moisture under the existing high
infiltration capacity rates and is held there.

Physiographic factors
- Land use: the manner in which a land is being used is called land use. Rain falling
over on a thick forest or vegetated area produces less runoff because of large
interception, transpiration and infiltration losses.

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On the other hand, in urban areas, the losses are less and the runoff is more because of
paved areas (no infiltration).
In non forested areas the infiltration, interception and evaporation and
evapotranspiration losses are less and therefore high runoff rates are expected.

Type of soil
The type of soil has direct influence on its infiltration capacity rate and consequently it
also affects the runoff. Light textured soils (sandy soils) consists of coarser soil particles
and has large pore spaces  rapid absorption of water  less runoff potential.
Heavy textured soil (clay soils) have fine soil particles  small pore spaces  little
absorption of water  huge runoff volume.
Area of the basin
The area of the basin increases as the outlet point shifts downstream.
Area of the basin affects the peak flow and minimum flow in different ways.
- If all other factors including depth and intensity of rainfall remain constant in
all instances, the total runoff expressed as depth in cm over the basin will be
same for all the basins irrespective of their size.
- The total runoff expressed as volume will be more in the case of large basins
associated with higher peak discharges.
- As far as the minimum flow in the stream is concerned, the larger basins will
produce higher rates than smaller catchments. This is because after the
surface runoff ceases, the flow is entirely drawn from groundwater storage
which is large for larger basins,

Shape of the catchment

In approximately square or circular drainage basins the tributaries often tend to become
together and join the main stream near the center of the area.  Consequently, the
separate runoff peaks generated by heavy rainfall in the individual tributaries are likely to
reach the main stream in approximately the same locality and at approximately the same
time, thereby resulting in a large and rapid increase in the runoff.
On the other hand, if the basin is long and narrow the tributaries will tend to be relatively
short and are more likely to join the main stream at intervals along its length. This means

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that after a heavy rainfall over the area the runoff peaks of the lower tributaries would
have left the catchment before the peaks of the upstream tributaries have reached the
basin outlet.
Elongated catchments are thus less subjected to high runoff peaks (see Fig. below).

A
Q (m3/s)

Q (m3/s)

Time Time
Fig. 5.3: Effect of catchment shape on runoff

In Fig. 5.4a, a catchment area with a carrot-shape has peak flow occurring earlier than
the catchment of type shown in Fig. 5.4 b. This is because a larger catchment area in
the latter case is contributing at the basin outlet. Depending on the shape, sometimes a
catchment may have a multi-peak runoff pattern (Fig. 5.4c), even though all the three
catchments may have the same area and characteristics.
a b c
Discharge

Discharge

A A A A

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Fig. 5.4: Affect of concentration of Basin Area on Flood Peak.

Slope
The slope of the catchment area is an important factor as it decides the relative
importance of infiltration, interflow and overland flow. A catchments having extensive flat
area gives rise to low peaks and less runoff whereas a catchment with steep slope
produces high peak flood.
Rate of infiltration from a flat catchment is more which affects the velocity of overland
flow. Therefore, the time of arrival of peak at the outlet is late and so is the total time of
runoff for such flat shaped catchment. The basin slope plays an important role in urban
hydrology where catchment is usually small. For a high intensity and long duration
storm, the effect may be less pronounced.

Storage Characteristics of the basin

The storage characteristics of the basin affects the runoff.

5.5 Methods of Runoff Computation

Determination of accurate runoff rate or volume from the watershed is a difficult task,
because runoff is dependant upon several factors related to watershed and atmosphere,
prediction of whom is not so easy. However, some common runoff estimation methods
are given below:
- Rainfall-Runoff Correlation

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- Empirical Methods
- Rational Method
- Infiltration Indices method
- Hydrograph Method

5.5.1. Rainfall-Runoff Correlation

The relation between rainfall and the resulting runoff is quit complex and is influenced by
a host of factors relating the catchment and climate.
Further, there is the problem of paucity of data which forces one to adopt simple
correlations for the adequate estimation of runoff. One of the most common methods is
to correlate runoff, R with rainfall, P values. Plotting of R values against P and drawing a
best fit line can adopted for very rough estimates.
A better method is to fit a linear regression line between R and P and to accept the
result if the correlation coefficient is nearer unity. The equation for straight-line
regression between runoff R and rainfall P is
R = aP + b (1)
and the values of the coefficients a and b are given by

N   P R    P   R 
a
N  P 2     P  (2)
2

and
 R  a P
b  (3)
N
in which N = number of observation sets r and P.
the coefficient of correlation r can be calculated as
N   P R    P   R
r ( 4)
   
N  P     P 2  N  R 2     R
2 2

The value of r lies between 0 and 1 as R have only positive correlation with P.
A value of 0.6 < r < 1.0 indicates good correlation. Further it should be noted that R  0.
For large catchment, it is found advantageous to have an exponential relationship as
R   Pm (5)

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Where  and m are constants, instead of the linear relationship given by Eq. (1). In that
case Eq. (5) is reduced to a linear form by logarithmic transformation as

ln R  m ln P  ln 
(6)
and the coefficients m and ln  determined by using the method indicated earlier.

5.5.2. Computation of Runoff using empirical formulae

Engineers recognized the importance of estimating the water availability from the
available hydrologic data for purpose of planning water-resource projects even in the
last century. With a keen sense of observation in the region of their activity, many
engineers of the past have developed empirical runoff estimation formulae. However,
these are applicable only to the region in which they have been developed.
Empirical formulas can be classified in different ways depending upon the basis
adopted. But they be considered under the following heads for the purpose of present
discussion
- Formulae that take area of the basin only into consideration
- Formulae that take one or more basin parameters apart from area and also
rainfall characteristics into consideration

These formulae are essentially rainfall-runoff relations with additional third or fourth
parameters to account for climatic or catchment characteristics. Some of the important
formulae are

- Runoff Coefficient Method

This method involves the estimation of runoff by multiplying the runoff coefficient to the
rainfall depth of the area. It is given by
R=CP
where, R = runoff, cm
C = Runoff coefficient, and P = Rainfall depth, cm
Runoff coefficient depends on factors affecting runoff. The values of runoff coefficient for
different land use conditions are given in the Tab. Below.

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Table 5.1: Values of Runoff Coefficient (C)

S.No. Area C
1 Urban area covered by
(i) building 0.30
(ii) garden apartment 0.50
2 Commercial 6 industrial area 0.90
3 Forest area 0.50 to 0.20
4 Parks, Farms, Pastures 0.05 - 0.3
5 Asphalt or concrete pavement 0.85

- Formulae based on Area of the basin

There are several regression equation for predicting the runoff rate from the drainage
basins. The form of equation is given as under.

Q = CAn
where, Q = Peak flow for a given recurrence interval, (m3/s)
n,C = are constants, known as regression constants
A = Drainage area, (km2)
- Dicken's Formula: Q  C  A3 / 4

Q  0.87  A
0.70
- Admasu's Formaula (1989): for Ethiopian ba sin s

Q  0.88  A
0.60
- Seleshi (2001): for Rift Valley region

- Khosla`s formula
R = P – 4.811 T (7)
Rm = Pm – Lm (8)
Lm = 0.48 Tm for Tm < 4.5 °C
For Tm < 4.5 0C
Tm (oC) 4.5 -1 -7 -12 -18
Lm 21 18 15 12.5 10
where R = annual runoff in mm
P = annual rainfall in mm
T = mean temperature in °C
Rm = monthly runoff in cm and Rm  0
Pm = monthly rainfall in cm
Lm = monthly loss in cm

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Tm = mean monthly temperature of the catchment in °C.

Khosla’s formula is indirectly based on the water-balance concept and the mean
monthly catchment temperature is used to reflect the loss due to evapotranspiration.

Example: For a given catchment, the mean monthly rainfall and temperatures are given.
Calculate the annual runoff and annual runoff coefficient by Khosla`s formula.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
T (°C) 12 16 21 27 31 34 31 29 28 29 19 14
P (cm) 4 4 2 0 2 12 32 29 16 2 1 2

Solution
In Khosla`s formula (Eq. 8)
Rm = Pm – Lm
If the loss Lm is higher than Pm then Rm is taken to be zero.
The value of Rm calculated by Eq. 8 are

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Rm (cm) 0 0 0 0 0 0 17.1 15.1 2.6 0 0 0
Annual runoff = Total = 17.1 + 15.1 + 2.6 = 34.8 cm
Annual runoff 34.8
Annual runoff coefficient    0.30
Annual ra inf all 116

5.5.3. Rational Method

Among various types of empirical relations, rational formula is the most rational method
of calculating peak discharge for small catchments.
In this method, it is assumed that the maximum flood flow is produced by a certain
rainfall which lasts for a time equal to or greater than the period of concentration time.
This concentration time is the time required for the surface runoff from the remotest part
of the catchment area to reach the basin outlet.

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When the storm continues beyond concentration time every part of the catchment would
be contributing to the runoff at outlet and therefore it represents conditions of peak
runoff. the runoff rate corresponding to this condition is given by
Q  C AI

where A is the area of the catchment, I is the intensity of rainfall and C a runoff
coefficient to account for the abstractions from the rainfall.
In this equation, if A and I are substituted in units of acres and inches/h, the runoff is
obtained in ft3/s without requiring any conversation factor. For this reason it is called the
rational formula.
 The formula is called rational because of the units of the quantities considered being
numerically constant.

However, in SI system of units when A is in km 2 and I is in cm/h, the runoff rate is given
by
Q  2.778 C A I

The maximum rainfall intensity depends on duration and frequency. The intensity of
rainfall used in the equation above should therefore be corresponding to duration equal
to concentration time and desired return period.
This requires an estimate of concentration time which is usually provided by an empirical
equation given by Kirpich (1940).

t c  0.02 L0.77 S 0.385

where tc is time of concentration in min, L is the maximum length of travel of water along
the water course in m and S is the slope expressed as the ratio of difference in elevation
between the remotest point and the catchment outlet to the length L.
Once the concentration time has been determined, the rainfall intensity can be
determined using the intensity-duration-frequency relation applicable to the catchment
area in question using eq.
d
C Tr
i
t  a
b

where Tr is the return period in years and C and d are regression constants for a given
location
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Once the rainfall intensity and catchment area have been obtained, a runoff coefficient
applicable to the given design condition is selected from the table below and the peak
runoff estimated from the rational formula.

Runoff coefficient is the ration of peak runoff rate to the rainfall intensity.
Its values are assigned on the basis of land use and soil type (Tab. 1). When the
watershed has different features regarding land use and soil types, then weighted value
of runoff coefficient is determined. For example:
Let, if a watershed area is divided into five sub-parts on the basis of soil type and land
use practice adopted, having the area a 1, a2, a3, a4 and a5 and the value of runoff
coefficient is C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5, respectively for the five sub-watersheds.

Then the value of weighted runoff coefficient (C) is given by:

C1a1  C2 a2  C3a3  C4 a4  C5 a5
C
a1  a2  a3  a4  a5
n

C a
i  1
i i

C 
A
In which, A is the total area of watershed.

Table: Values of C as a function of land use, topography and soil type for
use in rational Method
Land use and Soil Types
topography Sandy loam Clay and siltloam Tight clay
Cultivated land
i) Flat 0.30 0.50 0.60
ii) Rolling 0.4 0.60 0.70
iii) Hilling 0.52 0.70 0.82
Pasture land
i) Flat 0.10 0.30 0.40
ii) Rollin 0.16 0.36 0.55
iii) Hilling 0.22 0.42 0.60
Forest land
i) Flat 0.10 0.30 0.40
ii) Hilling 0.30 0.50 0.60
Populated land
i) Flat 0.40 0.55 0.65
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ii) Rolling 0.50 0.65 0.80

Example 1: Compute the value of weighted runoff coefficient of watershed from the
following data regarding watershed characteristics.

Land use and Cultivated land Pasture land Populated

topography Flat, sandy soil Rolling and sandy land
soil flat,, sandy soil
Area (ha) 100 30 75
Solution
Using the weighted runoff coefficient formula

C1 a1  C 2 a 2  C 3 a3
C 
a1  a 2  a3
In which, the values of C1 are obtained from the above table, for a given land use and
topographical feature of the watershed. The calculation is shown in the following table.

Land use/ topography Area (ha) C Computation

1. Cultivated land + flat
topography + sandy soil 100 0.30 C1 a1  C 2 a 2  C 3 a 3
C 
a1  a 2  a 3
2. Pasture land + rolling 100  0.30  30  0.16  75  0.40
topography + sandy soil 30 0.16 
100  30 75
3. Populated land + flat  0.32
topography + sandy 75 0.40
loam soil

Example 2: An engineer is required to design a drainage system for an airport with an

area of 2.5 km2 for 50 years return period. The 50-year rainfall intensity in that region is
given by
35
I 
t  10 
0.38

where I is intensity in cm/h and t is duration in minutes.

If the concentration time for the area is estimated as 50 minutes, what is discharge that
must be used to design the system?

Solution
Concentration time tc = 50 min
35 35 35
Intensity of rainfall for this duration = I     7.384 cm / h
 t  10 0.38
60 0.38
4.74

Since the airport is fully paved, it may be considered impervious and the runoff
coefficient C may be taken as unity. Therefore

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Q  2.778 CAI  2.778  1  2.5  7.384  51.25 m 3 / s

Therefore the engineer must design the drainage system for a discharge of 51.28 m3/s.

Example 3: A culvert is proposed across stream drainage an area of 185 ha. The
catchment has a slope of 0.004 and the length of travel for water is 1150 m. Estimate
the 25-year discharge if the rainfall intensity is given by
1000 Tr 0.2
I 
t  20 
0 .7

where I is in mm/h, Tr is in years and t is in minutes. Assume a runoff coefficient of 0.35.

Solution
L = 1150 m
S = 0.004
t c  0.0195 1150   0.004 0.385
0.77
 37.2 min utes

1000  25
0.2
I   112 .05 mm / h  11 .205 cm / h
 37.2  20 
0.7

A = 185 ha = 1.85 km2

C = 0.35
Q  2.778  0.35  1.85  11 .205  20.12 m 3 / s

Example 4: Calculate the time of concentration of 306 ha land of watershed, if the

maximum length of drainage course is 350 m and effective slope of water course is
about 4 m/ 100 m.
Solution
Given that, L = 350 m
S = 4/ 100

 Time of concentratin (Tc )  0.02 L0.77  S  0.385.

 0.385
 4 
 0.02  350
0.77
 
 100 
 6.82 min utes

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Hydrology Runoff

Since the above relationship does not give the accurate estimate for the small
watershed smaller than 5 sq. km. Haan et al (1982) proposed another relationship. He
justified that, small watersheds are mainly dominated by overland flow rather than
channel flow. Incorporating this effect, he formulated the following equation for
computing the time of concentration which is basically the addition of overland flow
component in the above equation.
0.467
 0.385
 2 L0 n 
Tc  0.02 L 0.77
S  
 S0 
where, L0 = length of overland flow, m
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient (Tab.)
S0 = Slope along the flow path, m/m
Table 5.3: Value of Mannings Roughness Coefficient (n)
S.No. Surface condition Value of n
1 Smooth and impervious surface 0.02
2 Smooth and bare surface 0.12
3 Cultivated row crops 0.20
4 Pasture or average grassed 0.40
surface
5 Forest area with dense grass 0.80
cover
To find intensity of rainfall I at a place, any of the following formulae can be used
depending on their suitability.
Table 6.4: Equations for Computation of Maximum Intensity of a Storm
Equation Condition of its use Proposed by
I = 30.48/ t0.5 Applicable for ordinary to sever C.E. Gregory
storms
I = 15.24/ t0.5 Applicable to winter storm C.E. Gregory
I = 81.25/ t0.8 Applicable to storm of max. Intensity C.E. Gregory
I = (348/ t)0.5 For storm expected each year E.W.Clark
0.5
I = (1045/ t) For storm expected once in 8 years E.W. Clark
I = (2090/ t)0.5 For storm expected once in 15 years E.W.Clark
I = 98.4/ t0.687 Storms of maximum intensity Sherman
I = 63.8/ t0.687 Applicable to ordinary storms Sherman
where I is the intensity of rainfall (mm/h), t the time (min).
If there is no self-recording rain gauge, then the following formula can be used to obtain
the maximum intensity of the storm that is likely to occur during an interval of any one
hour within the storm duration.

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F 1
I  
2 t
where I is the maximum intensity of rainfall in mm/h, F the total rainfall of the storm in
mm and t is the duration of the storm in h.

Assumption of rational Method

The rational formula was developed, using the following assumptions:
1. Rainfall occurs with a uniform intensity for the duration atleast equal to the time of
concentration of the catchment area, and
2. The rainfall intensity is uniformly distributed throughout the catchment.
If the above two assumptions are satisfied for any storm, then the relationship between
rainfall and runoff produced by the catchment, may be presented in the graphical form,
shown in the Fig., which indicates that, any specified storm having uniform intensity, if
occurred for the duration greater than time of concentration, the rate of runoff yield is
less than the peak value, because rainfall intensity is reduced for greater duration.
Similarly, a storm occurring for the duration less than T c, the resulting runoff would also
be less than the peak value, as in this condition, all parts of watershed are not able to
yield the discharge to the outlet, simultaneously.
Rainfall intensity and runoff rate

Fig. Relationship between rainfall and runoff

Rainfall intensity, i

Example: An outlet is to be designed for a small town covering 12 km 2, of which road area is
30 %, residential area is 50 % and the rest is industrial area. The slope of the catchment is 0.005
Peak runoff rate

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Tc Time, hour
Hydrology Runoff

and the maximum length of the town measured on the map is 1.6 km. From depth duration
analysis for the catchment, the following informations are obtained.

Rainfall duration (min) 30 40 50

Rainfall depth (mm) 30 40 44

Solution
Time of concentration can be calculated from Kirpich equation
tc = 0.02 L0.77 S-0.385 = 0.00  16000.77  0.005-0.385 = 45 min

Rainfall for tc = 45 min is computaed by interpolating data given in the problem.

i.e. 40 45 50
40 ? 44
50  40 44  40 10 4
45  40

?  40
 5

?  40
 10  ?  40   20  10 ?  400  20 

?  42 mm

 I = 42 mm within 45 min = 56 mm/h

From Table 5.2, C for road is 0.8, for residential area is 0.40 and for industrial area is
0.20.

0.8  0.312  0.4  0.5 12   0.2  0.2 12

 Composite C 
12

= 0.24 + 0.20 + 0.04 = 0.48

0.48  56  12
 QP   89.6 m3 / s
3.6

Limitation of Rational Formula

1. The formula is applicable to small catchments. The watershed can be maximum
upto 50 km2.

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2. Duration of rainfall intensity should be more than the time of concentration of the
basin.
3. It gives the peak of the hydrograph but does not provide the complete
hydrograph.
4. It plots a straight-line relation between Q p and I with intercept zero whereas
nature does not follow such a simple equation.
5. Rainfall intensity must be constant over the entire watershed during the time of
concentration.
6. Coefficient C is assumed to be same for all storms which means the losses are
constant for all storms.

5.5.4. Infiltration Indices Method

Infiltration may be defined as the entry of water into the soil. The capacity of any soil to
absorb the rainwater falling continuously at an excessive rate goes on decreasing with
the unit a minimum infiltration rate is reached. The trend of infiltration curve is shown in
Fig. below. When rainfall and infiltration rate are plotted on the same graph paper, then
the area between rainfall and infiltration curve indicates the excess rainfall, responsible
for making the runoff yield.
While area lying below the infiltration curve, represents the loss of rainfall due to
infiltration as shown in Fig. This loss varies greatly in the early of the rainfall and
subsequently decreases with the advancement of rainfall duration.
Infitration rate and
rainfall intensity

Rainfall

Runoff

Infiltration

Fig. Relationship between runoff and infiltration

Time

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This method is suitable for estimating the runoff, especially from large watershed areas
having uniform infiltration characteristics. It is done by subtracting the infiltration loss
from the total rainfall amount, termed as infiltration indices method.
Infiltration Index
It is defined as the average rate of loss of water, such that the volume of rainfall excess
is being equal to the direct runoff. The infiltration indices are of the following two types
1. -index and
2. W-index
-  - index
It can be defined as the rate of rainfall, above which the volume of rainfall is being to be
the volume of runoff, shown in the Fig. below. Mathematically, -index may be
expressed as:
Total ba sin rech arg e
  index 
Ra inf all disch arg e

This approach is applicable, when rainfall intensity is in excess of -index, continuously.

The method assumes that, the less runoff is formed at the beginning of the storm and
too much at the end of storm, due to the fact that rate of surface retention and infiltration
goes on decreasing with the time. The -index is also known as retention rate rather
than infiltration index.

- W-index: is also known as average infiltration rate, defined as the value of average
infiltration rate during the storm, when rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity
(i.e. maximum infiltration rate). It is given as
F PQS
W  index  
tr Tr

where, F = total amount of water lost through infiltration

tr = time during which rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity
P = Total rainfall amount occurring during t r
Q = Amount of surface runoff
S = Amount of water retained through surface retention

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Hydrology Runoff

In very wet condition, when infiltration rate of the soil becomes equal to the infiltration
capacity and surface retention is at minimum level, and then the value of W-index and -
index are, almost become same. In this condition W-index is known as W min-index.
Rainfall intensity

Runoff

Time
Fig. Relationship between -index and runoff
Example: The rainfall rates for successive 30-minutes interval up to 3-hours are given
as under. Calculate the -index and W-indices, assuming that surface runoff is 3.6 cm.
Time (minute) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Rainfall rate (cm/s) 0 1.6 3.6 5.0 2.8 2.2 1.0
Solution:
1. Computation of -index
2. Let ‘I’ is the rainfall intensity. Then surface runoff = ( I - )  t
Total runoff =  ( I - )  t
Thus, substituting the value of ‘I’ and ‘t’, we have,

 30 
3.6  3.6      5      2.8      2.2    60 
 

 = 1.6 cm/h

Computation of W-index

30
P  1.6  3.6  5.0  2.8  2.2  1.0    8.1 cm
60
Q = 3.6 cm
S=0
Tr = 3 hour = 180 minutes

8.1  3.6  0
W   0.025 cm / min
180
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