Electrical losses.

Although individual electric drive train components tend to be quite efficient for one-
way energy flows, in many hybrid configurations, electricity flows back and forth through components in a
way that leads to cascading losses. Further, some of the components may be forced to operate under
conditions where they have reduced efficiency. For example, like ICEs, most electric motors have lower
efficiency at the low-speed, low-load conditions often encountered in city driving. Without careful
component selection and a control strategy that minimizes electric losses, much of the theoretical efficiency
advantage often associated with an electric drive train can be lost.

1.5. CONVENTIONAL VEHICLES:

A conventional engine-driven vehicle uses its engine to translate fuel energy into shaft power, directing
most of this power through the drive train to turn the wheels. Much of the heat generated by combustion
cannot be used for work and is wasted, both because heat engines have theoretical efficiency limit.
Moreover, it is impossible to reach the theoretical efficiency limit because:

ost through cylinder walls before it can do work

coasting or at a stop, with the engine idling.

1.5. 1. BASIC VEHICLE PERFORMANCE:

The performance of a vehicle is usually described by its maximum cruisingspeed, gradeability, and
acceleration. The predication of vehicle performanceis based on the relationship between tractive effort and
vehicle speeddiscussed in Sections 2.5 and 2.6. For on-road vehicles, it is assumed thatthe maximum
tractive effort is limited by the maximum torque of thepower plant rather than the road adhesion capability.

1.5.1.1. General Description of Vehicle Movement

Figure 2.1 shows the forces acting on a vehicle moving up a grade. The tractiveeffort, Ft, in the contact area
between tires of the driven wheels and theroad surface propels the vehicle forward. It is produced by the
power planttorque and is transferred through transmission and final drive to the drive wheels. While the
vehicle is moving, there is resistance that tries to stop itsmovement. The resistance usually includes tire
rolling resistance, aerodynamicdrag, and uphill resistance. According to Newto vehicle
acceleration can be written aswhereVis vehicle speed, Ftris the total tractive effort of the vehicle, Ftris
the total resistance, Mvis the total mass of the vehicle, and is the mass factor,which is an effect of rotating
components in the power train. Equation.

Figure 1.5.1.1. Forces acting on a vehicle

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The above figindicates that speed and acceleration depend on tractive effort, resistance,
And vehicle mass.
Vehicle Resistance
As shown in Figure 1.5.1.1, vehicle resistance opposing its movement includes rolling resistance of the
tires, appearing in Figure 1.5..1 as rolling resistance torque TrfandTrr, aerodynamic drag, Fw, and grading
resistance (the termMv g sin in Figure). All of the resistances will be discussed in detail inthe following
sections.
Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is primarily caused by hysteresis in the tire materials. This is
due to the deflection of the carcass while the tire is rolling. The hysteresis causes an asymmetric distribution
of ground reaction forces. The pressure in the leading half of the contact area is larger than that in the
trailing half, as shown in Figure1.5.1.1 (a).Thisphenomenonresults in the ground reaction force shifting
forward. This forwardlyshifted ground reaction force, with the normal load acting on the wheel
center,Creates a moment that opposes the rolling of the wheel. On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is
primarily caused by deformation of the ground surface as shown in Figure 1.5.1.1(b). The ground reaction
force almost completely Shifts to the leading half.

Figure 1.5.1.1(a)&(b): Tire deflection and rolling resistance on a (a) hard and (b) soft road surface

The moment produced by the forward shift of the resultant ground reaction force is called the rolling
resistant moment, as shown in Figure 1.5.1.1(a),and can be expressed as

.........................eq.1
To keep the wheel rolling, a force F, acting on the center of the wheels, is required to balance this rolling
resistant moment. This force is expressed as

............................eq.2

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Whererdis the effective radius of the tire and fr= a/rdis called the rolling resistance coefficient. In this way,
the rolling resistant moment can be replaced equivalently by horizontal force acting on the wheel center in
the opposite direction of the movement of the wheel. This equivalent force is called rolling resistance with a
magnitude of

.. eq.3
Where P is the normal load, acting on the center of the rolling wheel. When a vehicle is operated on a slope
road, the normal load, P, should be replaced by the component, which is perpendicular to the road surface.
That is

The rolling resistance coefficient, fr, is a function of the tire material, tirestructure, tire temperature, tire
inflation pressure, tread geometry, road roughness,road material, and the presence or absence.

The rolling resistance coefficient of passenger cars on concrete road may be calculated from the
followingequation:

WhereVis vehicle speed in km/h, and f0 and fs depend on inflation pressureof the tire.1
In vehicle performance calculation, it is sufficient to consider the rollingresistance coefficient as a linear
function of speed. For the most commonrange of inflation pressure, the following equation can be used for a
passengercar on concrete road.

6
This equation predicts the values of frwith acceptable accuracy for speeds upto128km/h.

1.5.1.2 Aerodynamic Drag:

Avehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting itsmotion. This force isreferred to
as aerodynamic drag. It mainly results fromtwo components: shape drag and skin friction.
Shape drag:The forward motion of the vehicle pushes the air in front of it. However, the air cannot
instantaneously move out of the way and its pressures thus increased, resulting in high air pressure. In
addition, the airbehind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the forward
Motion of the vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. The motion hastherefore created two zones of
pressure that oppose the motion of a vehicleby pushing it forward (high pressure in front) and pulling it
backward (lowpressure in the back) as shown in Figure . The resulting force on the vehicleis the shape
drag.3

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Skin friction:Air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speedof the vehicle while air far from
the vehicle remains still.

Figure 1.5.1.2.Shapedrag
molecules move at a wide range of speeds. The difference in speed betweentwo air molecules produces a
friction that results in the second componentof aerodynamic drag.Aerodynamic drag is a function of vehicle
speed V, vehicle frontal area Af,shape of the vehicle, and air density . Aerodynamic drag is expressed as

.....................................eq7

where CD is the aerodynamic drag coefficient that characterizes the shape ofthe vehicle and
Vw sign when this
component is opposite to thevehicle speed and a negative sign when it is in the same direction as
vehiclespeed. The aerodynamic drag coefficients for a few types of vehicle bodyshapes are shown in Figure
1.5.1.3.

1.5.1.3. Grading Resistance

When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component,which is always directed to the
downward direction, as shown in Figure This component either opposes the forward motion (grade
climbing) orhelps the forward motion (grade descending). In vehicle performance analysis,onuphill
operation is considered. This grading force is usually calledgrading resistance.

Figure1.5.1.3.Indicative drag coefficients for different body shapes

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Figure 1.5.1.3.Automobile climbing a grade
The grading resistance, from Figure 2.5, can be expressed as

eq8
To simplify the calculation, the road angle, , is usually replaced by grade valuewhen the road angle is
small. As shown in Figure 1.5.1.3, the grade is defined as

In some literature, the tire rolling resistance and grading resistance togetherare called road resistance, which
is expressed as

When the road angle is small, the road resistance can be simplified as

1.5.2.VEHICLE POWER SOURCE CHARACTERIZATION:

An automotive power train, as shown in Figure 2.8, consists of a power plant(engine or electric motor), a
clutch in manual transmission or a torqueconverter in automatic transmission, a gearbox (transmission),
final drive,

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differential, drive shaft, and driven wheels. The torque and rotating speed ofthe power plant outputshaft are
transmitted to the drive wheels through theclutch or torque converter, gearbox, final drive, differential, and
drive shaft.
The clutch is used in manual transmission to couple the gearbox to or decoupleit from the power plant. The
torque converter in automatic transmissionis a hydrodynamic device, functioning as the clutch in manual
transmissionwith a continuously variable gear ratio.
Thegearbox supplies a few gear ratios from its input shaft to its output shaft forthe power plant torque
speed profile to match the requirements of the load.
The final drive is usually a pair of gears that supply a further speed reductionand distribute the torque to
each wheel through the differential.
The torque on the driven wheels, transmitted from the powerplant, isexpressed as

eq1

where ig is the gear ratio of the transmission defined as ig_Nin/Nout (Nin input rotating speed, Nout
output rotating speed), i0 is the gear ratio of thefinal drive, t is the efficiency of the driveline from the
power plant to thedriven wheels, and Tp is the torque output from the power plant.
The tractive effort on the driven wheels, as shown in Figure 1.6, can beexpressed as

. .....................eq2

Substituting (eq1) into (eq2) yields the following result

.................eq3

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Figure 1.5.2.2: Tractive effort and torque on a driven wheel

The friction in the gear teeth and the friction in the bearings create losses inmechanical gear transmission.
The following are representative values of the mechanical efficiency of various components:
Clutch: 99%
Each pair of gears: 95 97%
Bearing and joint: 98 99%
The total mechanical efficiency of the transmission between the engine outputshaft and drive wheels or
sprocket is the product of the efficiencies of allthe components in the driveline. As a first approximation, the
following average values of the overall mechanical efficiency of a manual gear-shift transmission may be
used:
Direct gear: 90%
Other gear: 85%
Transmission with a very high reduction ratio: 75 80%
The rotating speed (rpm) of the driven wheel can be expressed as

..........................eq4

where Np is the output rotating speed (rpm). The translational speed of thewheelcenter (vehicle speed) can
be expressed as

...........................eq5

Substituting (eq4) into (eq5) yields

.....................eq6

1.5.2.1. VEHICLE POWER PLANT AND TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS:

There are two limiting factors to the maximum tractive effort of a vehicle. One is the maximum tractive
effort that the tire ground contact can support and the other is the tractive effort that the power plant torque
with given driveline gear ratios can provide (equation [2.29]). The smaller of these two factors will
determine the performance potential of the vehicle. For on-road vehicles, the performance is usually limited
by the second factor.
In order to predict the overall performance of a vehicle, its power plant and transmission characteristics
must be taken into consideration.
1.5.2 .2.POWER PLANT CHARACTERISTICS:

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For vehicular applications, the ideal performance characteristic of a power plant is the constant power
output over the full speed range. Consequently, the torque varies with speed hyperbolically as shown in
Figure 1.5.2.1.
At low speeds, the torque is constrained to be constant so as not to be over the maximaimited by the
adhesion between the tire ground contact areas. This constant power characteristic will provide the vehicle
with a high tractive effortat low speed, where demands for acceleration, drawbar pull, or grade climbing
capability are high.
Since the internal combustion engine and electric motor are the most commonly used power plants for
automotive vehicles to date, it is appropriate to review the basic features of the characteristics that are
essential to predicating vehicle performance and driveline design.
Representative characteristics of a gasoline engine in full throttle and an electric motor at full load are
shown in Figure 1.5.2.2 and Figure 1.5.2.3, respectively.
The internal combustion engine usually has torque speed characteristics far from the ideal performance
characteristic required by traction. It starts operating smoothly at idle speed.
Good combustion quality and maximum engine torque are reached at an intermediate engine speed. As the
speed increases further, the mean effective pressure decreases because of the growing losses in the air-
induction manifold and a decline in engine torque.
Power output, however, increases to its maximum at a certain high speed. Beyond this point, the engine
torque decreases more rapidly with increasing speed. This results in the decline of engine power output. In
vehicular applications, the maximum permissible

Figure1.5.2.1: Ideal performance characteristics for avehicle traction power plant

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Figure1.5.2.2: Typical performance characteristics of gasoline engines

Figure1.5.2.3:Typical performance characteristics of electric motors for traction

Speed of the engine is usually set just a little above the speed of the maximum power output. The internal
combustion engine has a relatively flat torque speed profile (compared with an ideal one), as shown in
Figure1.5.2.1.Consequently, a multigear transmission is usually employed to modify it, as shown in Figure
1.5.2.3.Electric motors, however, usually have a speed torque characteristic that ismuch closer to the ideal,
as shown in Figure 1.5.2.2. Generally, the electric motorstarts from zero speed.
As it increases to its base speed, the voltage increasesto its rated value while the flux remains constant.
Beyond the base speed, the

Figure 1.5.2.4: Tractive effort of internal combustion engine and a multigear transmission vehicle vs.
vehiclespeed

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Figure1.5.2.5:Tractive effort of a single-gear electric vehicle vs. vehicle speed

Voltage remains constant and the flux is weakened. This results in constant output power while the torque
declines hyperbolically with speed. Since the speed torque profile of an electric motor is close to the ideal,
a single-gear or double-gear transmission is usually employed, as shown in Figure 1.5.2.5.

1.5.3.TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS:

The transmission requirements of a vehicle depend on the characteristics of the power plant and the
performance requirements of the vehicle. As mentioned previously, a well-controlled electric machine such
as the power plant of an electric vehicle will not need a multigear transmission. However, an internal
combustion engine must have a multigear or continuously varying transmission to multiply its torque at low
speed. The term transmission here includes all those systems employed for transmitting engine power to
thedrive wheels.
For automobile applications, there are usually two basic types of transmissions: manual gear transmission
and hydrodynamic transmission.

1.5.3.1 Manual Gear Transmission

Manual gear transmission consists of a clutch, gearbox, final drive, and driveshaft. The final drive has a
constant gear reduction ratio or a differential gear ratio. The common practice of requiring direct drive
(nonreducing) in the gearbox to be in the highest gear determines this ratio.
The gearbox provides a number of gear reduction ratios ranging from three to five for passenger cars and
more for heavy commercial vehicles that are powered with gasoline or diesel engines. The maximum speed
requirement of the vehicle determines the gear ratioof the highest gear (i.e., the smallest ratio). On the other
hand, the gear ratio of the lowest gear (i.e., the maximum ratio) is determined by the requirementof the
maximum tractive effort or the grade ability. Ratios between them should be spaced in such a way that they
will provide the tractiveeffort speed characteristics as close to the ideal as possible, as shown inFigure
1.5.3.1. In the first iteration, gear ratios between the highest and the lowest gear may be selected in such a
way that the engine can operate in the same speed range for all the gears. This approach would benefit the
fuel economy and performance of the vehicle. For instance, in normal driving, the proper gear can be
selected according to vehicle speed to operate theengine in its optimum speed range for fuel-saving
purposes. In fast acceleration, the engine can be operated in its speed range with high power output.This
approach is depicted in Figure 1.5.3.2.For a four-speed gearbox, the following relationship can be
established.

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and

where ig1, ig2, ig3, and ig4 are the gear ratios for the first, second, third, and fourth gear, respectively. In a
more general case, if the ratio of the highest

Figure1.5.3.1: Tractive effort characteristics of a gasoline engine-powered vehicle

Figure1.5.3.2:Demonstration of vehicle speed range and engine speed range for each gear

gear, ign(smaller gear ratio), and the ratio of the lowest gear, ig1 (largest gearratio), have been determined
and the number of the gear ng is known, thefactorKg can be determined as

and each gear ratio can be obtained by

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For passenger cars, to suit changing traffic conditions, the step between the ratios of the upper two gears is
often a little closer than that based on (eq4).That is,

This, in turn, affects the selection of the ratios of the lower gears. For commercialvehicles, however, the
gear ratios in the gearbox are often arrangedbased on (eq5).
Figure 1.5.3.3 shows the tractive effort of a gasoline engine vehicle with fourgeartransmission and that of an
electric vehicle with single-gear transmission. It is clear that electric machines with favorable torque speed
characteristicscan satisfy tractive effort with simple single-gear transmission.

Figure1.5.3.3:Tractive efforts of a gasoline engine vehicle with four-gear transmission and an electric
vehiclewith single-gear transmission

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