MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL

EDUCATION
Certificate
This is to certify that Mr. /Ms. Rahul Sachin Dhaneshwar Roll
No.190208of fifthSemester of diploma in
Mechanical Engineering of Marathwada Mitra Mandal’s
Polytechnic Thergaon, Pune (Code-0989) has completed the
micro project satisfactorily in subject Power engineering and
refrigeration (22562) for the academic year 2021 to 2022 as
prescribed in the curriculum.

Place: Pune Enrollment No: 1909890064

Date: 22-12-2021 Exam. Seat No:

Subject teacher Head of Department Principal

Seal of institution
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally a fossil
fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of
working fluid flow circuit. All the automobile engines work on the principal of internal
combustion engine.

Since we are using here the internal combustion engine that can work on both petrol and LPG
as a fuel. So, the introduction and description of internal combustion engine is discussed below:-

Introduction

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an
oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This
exothermic reaction creates gases at high temperature and pressure, which are permitted to
expand. Internal combustion engines are defined by the useful work that is performed by
the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause the movement of solid parts of the engine
Four-stroke
Engines based on the four-stroke or Otto cycle have one power stroke for every four strokes (up-
down-up-down) and are used in cars, larger boats, some motorcycles, and many light aircraft.
They are generally quieter, more efficient, and larger than their two-stroke counterparts. There
are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the Atkinson and Miller cycles. Most
truck and automotive diesel engines use a four-stroke cycle, but with a compression heating
ignition system. This variation is called the diesel cycle. The steps involved here are:-

1. Intake stroke: Air and vaporized fuel are drawn in.

2. Compression stroke: Fuel vapor and air are compressed and ignited.
3. Combustion stroke: Fuel combusts and piston is pushed downwards.
4. Exhaust stroke: Exhaust is driven out. During the 1st, 2nd, and 4th stroke the piston is relying on
power and the momentum generated by the other pistons. In that case, a four-cylinder engine
would be less powerful than a six- or eight-cylinder engine.

A four-stroke (also four-cycle) engine is an internal combustion (IC) engine in which

the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full
travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. The four separate strokes are termed:

1. Intake: Also known as induction or suction. This stroke of the piston begins at top
dead centre (T.D.C.) and ends at bottom dead centre (B.D.C.). In this stroke the
intake valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture
into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its
downward motion. The piston is moving down as air is being sucked in by the
downward motion against the piston.
2. Compression: This stroke begins at B.D.C, or just at the end of the suction stroke,
and ends at T.D.C. In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in
preparation for ignition during the power stroke (below). Both the intake and
exhaust valves are closed during this stage.
3. Combustion: Also known as power or ignition. This is the start of the second
revolution of the four-stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full
360-degree revolution. While the piston is at T.D.C. (the end of the compression
stroke) the compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug (in a gasoline
engine) or by heat generated by high compression (diesel engines), forcefully
returning the piston to B.D.C. This stroke produces mechanical work from the
engine to turn the crankshaft.
4. Exhaust: Also known as outlet. During the exhaust stroke, the piston, once again,
returns from B.D.C. to T.D.C. while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels
the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve.
These four strokes can also be referred to as "suck, squeeze, bang, blow" respectively, which can be
easier to remember.
Four-stroke engines are the most common internal combustion engine design for motorized
vehicles, being used in automobiles, trucks, light aircraft and motorcycles. The major alternative
design is the two-stroke cycle.

Common components

Combustion chambers

Internal combustion engines can contain any number of combustion chambers (cylinders), with
numbers between one and twelve being common, though as many as 36 (Lycoming R-7755)
have been used. Having more cylinders in an engine yields two potential benefits: first, the
engine can have a larger displacement with smaller individual reciprocating masses, that is, the
mass of each piston can be less thus making a smoother-running engine since the engine tends to
vibrate as a result of the pistons moving up and down: secondly, with a greater displacement and
more pistons, more fuel can be combusted and there can be more combustion events (more
power strokes) in a given period of time. This means that such an engine can generate more
torque than a similar engine with fewer cylinders.

The downside to having more pistons is that the engine will tend to weigh more and generate
more internal friction as the greater number of pistons rub against the inside of their cylinders.
This tends to decrease fuel efficiency and robs the engine of some of its power. For high-
performance gasoline engines using current materials and technology—such as the engines
found in modern automobiles, there seems to be a break-point around 10 or 12 cylinders after
which the addition of cylinders becomes an overall detriment to performance and efficiency.
Although, exceptions such as the W16 engine from Volkswagen exist.

 Most car engines have four to eight cylinders with some high performance cars having ten, twelve
—or even sixteen, and some very small cars and trucks having two or three. In previous years,
some quite large cars such as the DKW and Saab 92, had two-cylinder or two-stroke engines.
 Radial aircraft engines (now obsolete) had from three to 28 cylinders; an example is the Pratt &
Whitney R-4360. A row contains an odd number of cylinders so an even number indicates a two-
or four-row engine. The largest of these was the Lycoming R-7755 with 36 cylinders (four rows
of nine cylinders), but it did not enter production.
 Motorcycles commonly have from one to four cylinders, with a few high performance models
having six; although, some 'novelties' exist with 8, 10, or 12.
 Snowmobiles usually have two cylinders. Some larger but not necessarily high-performance
touring machines have four.
 Small portable appliances such as chainsaws, generators, and domestic lawn mowers most
commonly have one cylinder, but two-cylinder chainsaws exist.
Ignition system

An internal combustion engine can be classified by its ignition system. Today most engines use
an electrical or compression heating system for ignition.

Spark: The mixture is ignited by an electrical spark from a spark plug—the timing of which is
very precisely controlled. Almost all gasoline engines are of this type, but not diesel engines.

Compression: Ignition comes from the heat derived from oxidation and the mechanical
compression of the air or mixture. The vast majority of compression ignition engines are diesels
in which the fuel is mixed with the air after the air has reached ignition temperature. In this case,
the timing comes from the fuel injection system. Very small model engines for which simplicity
is more important than fuel costs, use special fuels to control ignition timing.

Ignition Timing: For reciprocating engines, the point in the cycle at which the fuel- oxidizer
mixture is ignited has a direct effect on the efficiency and output of the ICE. The
thermodynamics of the idealized Carnot heat engine tells us that an ICE is most efficient if most
of the burning takes place at a high temperature, resulting from compression—near top dead
center. The speed of the flame front is directly affected by the compression ratio, fuel mixture
temperature, and octane or cetane rating of the fuel. Leaner mixtures and lower mixture pressures
burn more slowly requiring more advanced ignition timing. It is important to have combustion
spread by a thermal flame front (deflagration), not by a shock wave. Combustion propagation by
a shock wave is called detonation and, in engines, is also known as pinging or knocking.

So at least in gasoline-burning engines, ignition timing is largely a compromise between an

earlier "advanced" spark—which gives greater efficiency with high octane fuel—and a later
"retarded" spark that avoids detonation with the fuel used. For this reason, high-performance
diesel automobile proponents such as, Gale Banks, believe that

Fuel systems

A device used to deliver fuel to the internal combustion engine. Fuels burn faster and more
completely when they have lots of surface area in contact with oxygen. In order for an engine to
work efficiently the fuel must be vaporized into the incoming air in what is commonly referred to
as a fuel-air mixture. There are two commonly used methods of vaporizing fuel into the air: one
is the carburetor and the other is fuel injection.
Carburetor: Often for simpler reciprocating engines, a carburetor is used to supply fuel into the
cylinder. However, exact control of the correct amount of fuel supplied to the engine is
impossible. Carburetors are the current most widespread fuel mixing device used in lawn
mowers and other small engine applications. Prior to the mid-1980s, carburetors were also
common in automobiles.

Fuel injection: Larger gasoline engines used in automobiles have mostly moved to fuel injection
systems (see Gasoline Direct Injection). Diesel engines always use fuel injection because it is the
fuel system that controls the ignition timing. Other internal combustion engines like jet engines
use burners and rocket engines use various different ideas including impinging jets, gas/liquid
shear, preburners, and many other ideas.

Natural aspirated engines: When air is used with piston engines it can simply suck it in as the
piston increases the volume of the chamber. However, this gives a maximum of 1 atmosphere of
pressure difference across the inlet valves, and at high engine speeds the resulting airflow can
limit potential power output.

Superchargers: A supercharger is a "forced induction" system which uses a compressor

powered by the shaft of the engine which forces air through the valves of the engine to achieve
higher flow. When these systems are employed the maximum absolute pressure at the inlet valve
is typically around 2 times atmospheric pressure or more.

Piston engine valves

In piston engines, the valves are grouped into 'inlet valves' which admit the entrance of fuel and
air and 'outlet valves' which allow the exhaust gases to escape. Each valve opens once per cycle
and the ones that are subject to extreme accelerations are held closed by springs that are typically
opened by rods running on a camshaft rotating with the engines' crankshaft.

Control valves

Continuous combustion engines—as well as piston engines—usually have valves that open and
close to admit the fuel and/or air at the startup and shutdown. Some valves feather to adjust the
flow to control power or engine speed as well.

Exhaust systems

Internal combustion engines have to manage the exhaust of the cooled combustion gas from the
engine. The exhaust system frequently contains devices to control pollution, both chemical and
noise pollution. In addition, for cyclic combustion engines the exhaust system is frequently tuned
to improve emptying of the combustion chamber.

For jet propulsion internal combustion engines, the 'exhaust system' takes the form of a high
velocity nozzle, which generates thrust for the engine and forms a colimated jet of gas that gives
the engine its name.

Cooling systems

Combustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this transfers to the walls of the engine.
Failure will occur if the body of the engine is allowed to reach too high a temperature, either the
engine will physically fail, or any lubricants used will degrade to the point that they no longer
protect the engine.

Cooling systems usually employ air or liquid cooling while some very hot engines using
radiative cooling (especially some Rocket engines). Some high altitude rocket engines use
ablative cooling where the walls gradually erode in a controlled fashion.
Piston

A piston is a component of reciprocating engines. It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight

by piston rings. Its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the
crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve
by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.

Crankshafts

Very many reciprocating internal combustion engines end up turning a shaft. This means that the
linear motion of a piston must be turned into a rotation. This is typically achieved by a
crankshaft.
Applications

The motion of internal combustion engines is usually performed by the controlled movement of
pistons, cranks, rods, rotors, or even the entire engine itself. Internal combustion engines are
most commonly used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. In mobile
equipment, internal combustion is advantageous since it can provide high power-to-weight ratios
together with excellent fuel energy-density. Generally using a petroleum called All-Petroleum
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles or APICEVs, these engines have appeared in transport in
almost all automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and
locomotives.

Internal combustion engines appear in the form of gas turbines as well where a very high power
is required, such as in jet aircraft, helicopters, and large ships. They are also frequently used for
electric generators and by industry.

Two stroke engine

Introduction

A two-stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle in
only one crankshaft revolution and with two strokes, or up and down movements, of the piston in
comparison to a "four-stroke engine", which uses four strokes to do so. This is accomplished by
the end of the combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke happening
simultaneously and performing the intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions at the same
time.

Two-stroke engines often provide high power-to-weight ratio, usually in a narrow range of
rotational speeds called the "power band", and, compared to 4-stroke engines, have a greatly
reduced number of moving parts.
The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to
Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, who in 1881 patented his design, his engine having a separate
charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a
charging pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day.
Petrol(spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight (portable) applications such
as chainsaws and small, lightweight and racing motorcycles, and the concept is also used in
diesel compression ignition engines in large and weight insensitive applications, such as ships,
locomotives and electricity generation. The heat transfer from the engine to the cooling system is
less in a two-stroke engine than in a traditional four-stroke, a fact that adds to the overall engine
efficiency, however, traditional 2-strokes have a poor exhaust emissions feature.
Working

A two-stroke engine performs all the same steps, but in just two piston strokes. The simplest two-
stroke engines do this by using the crankcase and the underside of the moving piston as a fresh
charge pump.  Such engines carry the official name "crankcase-scavenged two-strokes."

As the two-stroke’s piston rises on compression, its underside pulls a partial vacuum in the
crankcase. An intake port of some kind (cylinder wall port, reed valve or rotary disc valve) opens,
allowing air to rush into the crankcase through a carburetor.

As the piston nears Top Dead Center, a spark fires the compressed mixture. As in a four-stroke, the
mixture burns and its chemical energy becomes heat energy, raising the pressure of the burned
mixture to hundreds of psi. This pressure drives the piston down the bore, rotating the crankshaft.

As the piston continues down the bore, it begins to expose an exhaust port in the cylinder wall. As
spent combustion gas rushes out through this port, the descending piston is simultaneously
compressing the fuel-air mixture trapped beneath it in the crankcase.

As the piston descends more, it begins to expose two or more fresh-charge ports, which are
connected to the crankcase by short ducts. As pressure in the cylinder is now low and pressure in
the crankcase higher, fresh charge from the crankcase rushes into the cylinder through the fresh-
charge (or “transfer”) ports. These ports are shaped and aimed to minimize direct loss of fresh
charge to the exhaust port. Even in the best designs, there is some loss, but simplicity has its price!
This process of filling the cylinder while also pushing leftover exhaust gas out the exhaust port is
called “scavenging.”

While the piston is near Bottom Dead Center, mixture continues to move from the crankcase, up
through the transfer ports, and into the cylinder.

As the piston rises, it first covers the transfer ports, leaving only the exhaust port still open. If there
were no way to stop it, much of the fresh charge would now be pumped out the exhaust.

But there is a simple way to stop it—using exhaust pressure waves in the exhaust. If we shape and
dimension the exhaust pipe right, a reflection of the original pressure pulse, generated as the
exhaust port opened, will bounce back to the port just as fresh charge is being pumped out of it.
This pressure wave stuffs the fresh charge back into the cylinder just as the rising piston covers the
exhaust port.

Because fuel-air mixture is constantly being pumped by the crankcase, it is not practical to lubricate
piston and crank by pumped circulating oil—it would be swept away by the mixture rushing in and
out. Therefore, we must either mix a little oil with the fuel (2 to 4 percent) or inject it very
sparingly into the bearings with a tiny metering pump. The fact that there is so little oil dictates that
such simple two-stroke engines must employ rolling bearings, whose need for oil is very small.
More complicated two-stroke engines exist. Instead of using the crankcase and underside of the
piston as a fresh-charge pump, we can use a separate rotary blower, directly connected to the
transfer ports in the cylinders. We don't have to place the exhaust port in the cylinder wall—it can
take the form of four overhead poppet exhaust valves, as it does in two-stroke marine, rail, and
truck diesels. Because such engines do not use their crankcases as fresh charge pumps, they can
employ long-lasting plain bearings, lubricated conventionally by pumped recirculating oil.

Two-stroke diesels are scavenged with pure air, not a fuel-air mixture. Their fuel is injected only
after all ports have closed, preventing any loss. Certain crankcase scavenged two-strokes do the
same, and are called “DI,” or Direct Injection two-strokes. They can be made as fuel-efficient and
low in exhaust emissions as four-strokes.

The world’s most efficient piston engines are in fact the giant, slow-turning marine diesels that
carry the world’s international shipping trade—they are twice as efficient as the usual four-stroke
spark-ignition engines found in cars and motorcycles.