Basic electronics and communication

engineering

Preface

Contents
1 Basic Concepts in Electrical Engineering
1.1 Introductory concepts and basic elements . . . . . .
1.2 Resistances in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Resistances in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Effect of temperature on resistance . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Ideal and non-ideal dc voltage sources . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Ideal and non-ideal dc current sources . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Open circuit voltage and short circuit current . . . . . 11

2 Kirchoff’s laws 17
2.1 Kirchoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.2 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.3 Steps to solve circuits by Kirchoff’s law . . . . 21
2.2 Voltage divider circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Current divider circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Source transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 Magnetic circuits 33
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Magnetic field around a bar magnet . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 Magnetic field around a current carrying conductor . . 34
3.4 Magnetic flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Magnetic flux density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.6 Magneto motive force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.7 Magnetic field intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

CONTENTS
3.8 Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.9 Relative permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.10 Reluctance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.11 Permeance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.12 Leakage flux in magnetic circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.13 Electromagnetic induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.13.1 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction . . 43
3.13.2 Lenz’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.13.3 Electromagnetically Induced emf . . . . . . . 44
3.13.4 Dynamically Induced emf . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.13.5 Fleming’s right hand rule (Generator rule) . . . 47
3.13.6 Fleming’s left hand rule (Motor rule) . . . . . 48
3.13.7 Statically induced emf . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.13.8 Self induced emf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.13.9 Self inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.13.10 Mutually induced emf . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.13.11 Mutual inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.13.12 Coefficient of coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4 Single Phase AC Circuits 59
4.1 AC Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Generation of sinusoidal emf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4 Phasor representation of alternating quantities . . . . . 70
4.5 Forms of phasor representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.6 Addition and subtraction of two phasors . . . . . . . . 73
4.7 Multiplication and division of two phasors . . . . . . . 73
4.8 AC through a purely resistive circuit . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.9 AC through a purely inductive circuit . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.10 AC through a purely capacitive circuit . . . . . . . . . 79
4.11 AC through series R-L circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.12 AC through series R-C circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.13 AC through series R-L-C circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.14 Active power, reactive power and apparent power . . . 89
4.14.1 Active power (P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.14.2 Reactive power (Q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.14.3 Apparent power (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
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4.14.4 Power factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.15 Impedance in polar and rectangular forms . . . . . . . 97
4.16 Admittance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.17 Resonance in series RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.18 Resonance in parallel RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.19 Comparison of series and parallel resonant circuits . . 105
5 Three Phase Circuits 107
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Advantages of three-phase system . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3 Generation of 3-phase ac voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.4 Phase sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.5 Three phase connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.6 Star or Wye (Y) connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.6.1 Voltage and current in a Y connected circuit . . 111
5.6.2 Power in star connected system . . . . . . . . 113
5.6.3 Neutral current in Y connected system . . . . . 114
5.7 Delta or mesh connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.7.1 Power in delta connected system . . . . . . . . 120
6 Transformers 125
6.1 Principle of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.2 Concept of an ideal transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3 EMF equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.4 Voltage transformation ratio and current ratio . . . . . 129
6.5 Construction of transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.5.1 Core type transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.5.2 Shell type transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7 DC machines 135
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.2 Principle of dc Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3 Simple loop generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.4 Constructional details of dc Machine . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.5 EMF equation of a dc generator . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.6 Types of dc generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.7 Separately excited dc generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
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7.8 Self excited dc generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.8.1 Shunt wound dc generator . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.8.2 Series wound dc generator . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.8.3 Compound wound dc generator . . . . . . . . 147
7.9 DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.9.1 Different types of dc motors . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.9.2 Applications of dc motors . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8 Three phase induction motor 159
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.2 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.2.1 Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.2.2 Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.3 Concept of rotating magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.3.1 Principle of operation of induction motors . . . 164
8.3.2 Slip of an Induction motor . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.3.3 Applications of three phase induction motors . 167
8.3.4 Comparison of squirrel cage induction motor
and slip ring induction motor . . . . . . . . . . 168
9 Synchronous generators 171
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.1.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.2 Principle of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.2.1 EMF equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
10 Power system 179
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
10.2 Generation of electric power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
10.3 Basic structure of AC power system . . . . . . . . . . 180
10.3.1 Typical power transmission scheme . . . . . . 181
10.4 Substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
11 Electrical estimation 185
11.1 Electrical installations-estimating and costing of material185
11.1.1 Steps for estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.1.2 Example of wiring installation in a room . . . 186
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12 Amplifiers and Oscillators 193
12.1 Principle of electronic amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.2 Characteristics of an amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
12.2.1 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
12.2.2 Input resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
12.2.3 Output resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.2.4 Equivalent circuit of an amplifier . . . . . . . . 197
12.3 Classification of amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
12.4 Frequency response of amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
12.5 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
12.5.1 Signal-to-noise ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.6 Cascaded amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.7 Differential amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
12.8 Concept of open loop and closed loop . . . . . . . . . 208
12.9 The operational amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
12.9.1 The ideal op-amp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
12.9.2 Equivalent circuit of op-amp . . . . . . . . . . 211
12.9.3 Parameters of op-amp . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.10Basic op-amp circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.10.1 Non-inverting amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
12.11Feedback systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.12Feedback in amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.12.1 The effects of negative feedback . . . . . . . . 220
12.12.2 Stabilization of gain with negative feedback . . 221
12.12.3 Frequency response and bandwidth . . . . . . 221
12.12.4 Effects of negative feedback on impedance . . 222
12.12.5 Reduction in distortion with negative feedback 223
12.12.6 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.12.7 Decrease in gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.13Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.14Principle of oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.15RC oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
12.15.1 Phase shift oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
12.15.2Wien bridge oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
12.16LC oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
12.16.1 Hartely oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
12.16.2 Colpitts oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
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12.16.3 Crystal oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
13 Digital Systems 235
13.1 Digital systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.1.1 Digital logic states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
13.1.2 Logic gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
13.1.3 Compound gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
13.1.4 Universal gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
13.1.5 Boolean algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
13.2 De Morgan’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.3 Forms of Boolean expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.3.1 Sum of Products (SOP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.3.2 Product of Sums (POS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.4 Simplification of Boolean expressions . . . . . . . . . 249
13.5 Generating Boolean expression from truth table . . . . 253
13.6 Implementing circuits from Boolean expressions . . . 254
13.7 Generating Boolean expression from logic circuit . . . 257
13.8 Implementation of logic circuits using universal gates . 259
13.8.1 Implementation using NAND gates only . . . . 260
13.8.2 Implementation using NOR gates only . . . . . 262
13.9 IC logic families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
13.9.1 TTL logic family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
13.9.2 CMOS logic family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
13.9.3 Comparison of TTL and CMOS logic families 270
13.10Programmable logic device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
13.11Advantages of PLDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
14 Measurements and data acquisition systems 275
14.1 Electronic measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
14.2 Cathode ray oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
14.2.1 Cathode ray tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
14.2.2 Waveform display on a CRO . . . . . . . . . . 278
14.3 Sensors and actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
14.3.1 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
14.3.1.1 Temperature sensors . . . . . . . . . 281
14.3.1.2 Light sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
14.3.1.3 Force sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
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14.3.1.4 Displacement sensors . . . . . . . . 284
14.3.1.5 Speed sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
14.3.1.6 Sound sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
14.3.2 Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
14.3.2.1 Light actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
14.3.2.2 Force, displacement and motion actuators
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
14.3.2.3 Sound actuators . . . . . . . . . . . 287
14.3.2.4 Heat actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
14.4 Digital voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
14.5 Data acquisition systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
14.5.1 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
14.5.2 Sample and hold circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
14.6 Analog to digital converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
14.7 Digital to analog converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
14.8 Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
15 Radio communication 295
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
15.2 Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.3 Amplitude modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
15.4 Frequency modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
15.4.1 Comparison between AM and FM . . . . . . . 302
15.5 Radio transmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
15.5.1 AM transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.5.2 FM transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.5.3 Radio receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
15.5.4 AM super heterodyne receiver . . . . . . . . . 305
15.5.5 FM radio receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
16 Radar and Navigation 309
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
16.2 Radar equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
16.3 Radar classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
16.3.1 Pulse Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
16.3.2 Continuous Wave Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
16.4 Applications of radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
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16.5 Navigational aids and systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

17 Advanced communication Systems 317

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
17.2 Microwave communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
17.2.1 Microwave frequency bands . . . . . . . . . . 318
17.2.2 Microwave communication system . . . . . . . 318
17.2.3 Advantages of microwave communication . . . 320
17.3 Satellite communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
17.4 Optical communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
17.4.1 Fiber-optic technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
17.4.2 Total internal reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
17.4.3 Snell’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
17.4.4 Light transmission through an optical fiber . . 327
17.4.5 Numerical aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
17.4.6 Optical fiber communication system . . . . . . 328
17.5 Cellular communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
17.5.1 Principles of cellular networks . . . . . . . . . 330
17.5.2 Frequency reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
17.5.3 Operation of cellular system . . . . . . . . . . 333
17.5.4 Hand off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
17.5.5 Roaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
17.5.6 Improving capacity in cellular system . . . . . 337
17.6 Global system for mobile communications . . . . . . . 337
17.6.1 GSM services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
17.6.2 Architecture of the GSM network . . . . . . . 338
17.6.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) . . . 341
17.6.4 Comparison of GSM and CDMA . . . . . . . 342
17.7 General packet Radio Service (GPRS) . . . . . . . . . 343
17.7.1 Features of GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
17.7.2 GPRS services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
17.7.3 GPRS applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
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Chapter 1
Basic Concepts in