PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

OHM’S LAW

EXP. NO: 1 DATE:

AIM:
To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting graph between potential
difference and current.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Battery eliminator, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Rheostat, Unknown resistance (coil),
connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝑽
R = 𝑰 (Ω)

𝐑
Resistance per cm = (𝛀/𝐜𝐦)
𝐥
Where
R → resistance (in Ohms)
V → voltage(in volts)
I → current(in amperes)
𝑙 → Length of the wire (in cm) =100cm
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

B → Battery, Rh → Rheostat, A → ammeter, V → Voltmeter,

R →Unknown resistance coil

1
PROCEDURE:
1. Make neat clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram.

2. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes

through the resistance coil or the resistance wire.

3. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and current I from

ammeter.
4. Shift the rheostat slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions

reading and not in fractions.

5. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
6. Find the resistance R using formula.

TABULAR COLUMN

Voltmeter reading(V) Ammeter reading (A) Unknown resistance

𝑽
S. No 𝑅 = (𝛀)
𝑰

1
2
3
4
5

R Mean= _________𝛀
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
V= ________ V
I= ________ A
R= __________ 𝛀
+ + + +
Mean resistance= = __________ (𝛀)
𝟓
𝑹
Resistance of the wire per cm(using graph) = =____________𝛀𝐜𝐦-1
𝒍

2
MODEL GRAPH:

∆𝑰
In ∆𝑨𝑩𝑪, 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = ∆𝑽
∆𝑽
Cot𝜽 = =R= _____ 𝛀
∆𝑰

The graph between V and I is a straight line.

RESULT:
1. Resistance of the wire =___________ 𝛀.
2. Resistance of the wire(using graph) = _________ 𝛀.
3. Resistance per cm of the wire =________𝛀cm-1.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
2. A low resistance rheostat must be used.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.

3
METER BRIDGE (SPECIFIC RESISTANCE)
EXP. NO: 2 DATE:
AIM:
To find the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and hence determine the
specific resistance of the material.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter Bridge, Leclanche cell, Galvanometer, Resistance box, Unknown resistance,
Jockey and Connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝒍𝑹
X= (𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔)
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍

Where
X= unknown resistance(in ohms)
l=balancing length (in x 10-2m)
R=known resistance(in ohms)
𝒙𝝅𝑫𝟐
Specific resistance of the material of the given wire 𝜌 = (𝛀 m)
𝟒𝑳

D → diameter of the given wire(in m)

L → length of the given wire(in m)=1 m
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

E → leclanche cell (or) daniel cell, J → Jockey, G → Galvnometer,

R → Known resistor, X → unknown resistor, K → key,

4
PROCEDURE:
1. Include some resistance in the resistance box.
2. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Press the jockey at the ends
of the meter bridge. If the deflections are in the opposite direction, then the
connections are correct.
3. Move the jockey from the left end and observe the point of zero deflection in the
galvanometer.
4. Measure the balancing length as ‘l’ using the meter scale attached with the
apparatus.
5. Repeat the experiment by including different resistances in the known resistance
box and measure the balancing length in each case.
6. With the help of screw gauge measure the diameter of the wire at least two places
on the wire.
7. Using the formula calculate the specific resistance of the given material.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Unknown
Resistance in Balancing length Balancing length resistance
S. No
the box(𝛀) lx10-2m (100-l)x 10-2m 𝒍𝑹
X= 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍 (𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔)
1
2
3
4

X Mean= _________𝛀
L.C=0.01mm Z.E= ___________ Z.C= ________
Corrected reading
-3
S. No PSRx10 m HSC(div) D=[PSR +(HSC±𝑍𝐶)LC] x10-3m
1
2

Mean diameter =_____________ x10-3m

5
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
R= ___________ 𝛀
l= __________x10-2m
100-l = __________x10-2m
𝒍𝑹
X=𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍 (𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔) = _________(𝛀)

X Mean = _________𝛀
To find specific resistance
X Mean = _________𝛀
D= ___________ x10-3m
L= 100cm = 1m
𝒙𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝜌= (𝛀 m) = _________ (𝛀 m)
𝟒𝑳

RESULT:
1. The unknown resistance of the given coil is __________ ohms.
2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire=________ ohm. m.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Null point should be brought between 45cm and 55cm.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

6
METER BRIDGE
LAW OF COMBINATION(SERIES)
EXP. NO: 3 DATE:
AIM:
To verify the laws of combination of resistances using a meter bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter bridge, Leclanche cell, Galvanometer, Resistance box, Jockey, Two
Resistance coils, Connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝒍𝑹
r= Ω
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)

Req= ( 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 ) (Ω)
Where
R → known resistance in ohms
l→ balancing length in x 10-2m
r1,r2→ unknown resistance in ohms
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

E → leclanche cell (or) daniel cell, J → Jockey, G → Galvnometer,

R → Known resistor, r1 and r2 → unknown resistor, K → key

7
PROCEDURE:
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2 .
2. To find r1 , include some resistance in the resistance box.
3. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Press the jockey at the ends
of the meter bridge. If the deflections are in the opposite direction, then the
connections are correct.
4. Move the jockey from the left end and observe the point of zero deflection in the
galvanometer.
5. Measure the balancing length as ‘l’ using the meter scale attached with the
apparatus.
6. Using formula calculate r1.
7. Repeat the experiment by including another resistance in the known resistance box
and measure the balancing length.
8. Take mean of above two result and record it as r 1 mean.
9. To find r2 ,repeat steps 3,4,5,6,7.
10. Take mean of above two result and record it as r 2 mean.
11. Calculate theoretical value by adding r1 mean and r2 mean.
12. Connect the two coils r1 andr2 in series in the left gap.
13. To find the resistance of this combination Repeat steps 3,4,5,6,7.
14. Take mean of above two results and record it as experimental value.
TABULATION:
Resistance Balancing
Balancing 𝒍𝑹
Resistance S. from the length r =(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)Ω Mean
length
coil No resistance (100-l) resistance(Ω)
l(x10-2m)
box(Ω) x 10-2m
r1 only 1
2
1
r2 only
2

r1 and r2 1
in series 2
8
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
R= __________________ Ω
l= ________________ x10-2m
𝒍𝑹
r= Ω =____________ Ω
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)

CALCULATION FOR VERIFICATION OF LAWS:

Experimental value of rs = ___________Ω
Theoretical value of rs = r1 mean + r2 mean= ___________Ω
Difference (if any) = ___________Ω
RESULT:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rs are
same; hence the law of resistances in series is verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat clean and tight.
2. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

9
METER BRIDGE
LAW OF COMBINATION (PARALLEL)
EXP. NO: 4 DATE:
AIM:
To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using a meter bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter bridge, Leclanche cell, galvanometer, resistance box ,jockey , two resistance
coils, connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝒍𝑹
r = Ω
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
𝒓𝟏 𝑿 𝒓𝟐
Req = 𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐
Ω

Where
𝒓𝟏 , 𝒓𝟐 → unknown resistance in ohms
R → known resistance in ohms
l → balancing length in x 10-2m
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

E → leclanche cell (or) daniel cell, J → Jockey, G → Galvnometer,

R → Known resistor, r1 and r2 → unknown resistors, K → key

10
PROCEDURE:
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2 .
2. To find r1 , include some resistance in the resistance box.
3. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Press the jockey at the ends
of the meter bridge. If the deflections are in the opposite direction, then the
connections are correct.
4. Move the jockey from the left end and observe the point of zero deflection in the
galvanometer.
5. Measure the balancing length as ‘l’ using the meter scale attached with the
apparatus.
6. Using formula calculate r1.
7. Repeat the experiment by including another resistance in the known resistance box
and measure the balancing length.
8. Take mean of above two result and record it as r 1 mean.
9. To find r2 , Repeat steps 3,4,5,6,7.
10. Take mean of above two result and record it as r2 mean.
11. Calculate theoretical value by adding r1 mean and r2 mean.
12. Connect the two coils r1 andr2 in parallel in the left gap.
13. To find the resistance of this combination Repeat steps 3,4,5,6,7.
14. Take mean of above two result and record it as experimental value.
TABULATION:
Resistance Resistance
Balancing 𝒍𝑹
r = (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍) Ω
coil from the Mean
S. No length
resistance resistance(Ω)
l(x10-2m)
box(Ω)
r1 only 1
2
1
r2 only
2
r1 and r2 1
in parallel 2

11
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
R= __________________ Ω
l= ________________ x 10-2m
r=____________ Ω
CALCULATION FOR VERIFICATION OF LAWS:
Experimental value Rp = ___________Ω
𝒓𝟏 𝑿 𝒓𝟐
Theoretical value Rp = = ___________Ω
𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐

Difference (if any) = ___________Ω

RESULT:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of R s are
same; hence the law of resistances in parallel is verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat clean and tight.
2. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

12
POTENTIOMETER
(COMPARISON OF EMF)
EXP. NO: 5 DATE:
AIM:
To compare the emf of two given primary cells using potentiometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Potentiometer, Leclanche cell, Daniel cell, Galvanometer, Rheostat, a two way key,
Jockey, Battery eliminator and Connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝐄𝟏 𝒍𝟏
= (no unit)
𝐄𝟐 𝒍𝟐

Where
𝐸1 and𝐸2 are the emf of two given cells (in V)
𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are the corresponding balancing lengths (in x10-2m )
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

AB → potentiometer, J → Jockey, E1,E2 → given primary cells,

Rh → Rheostat, G → Galvanometer
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the emf (E) of the battery and the emfs(E 1 and E2) of the cells confirm that
E> E1 and E > E2.
2. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Press the jockey at the ends
of the potentiometer. If the deflections are in the opposite direction, then the
connections are correct.
3. Include any one cell in the circuit with the help of a two way key and measure the
balancing length for that cell say l1(x10-2m).

13
4. Include another cell and find the balancing length say l 2(x10-2m).
5. Repeat the experiment by adjusting the rheostat position.
E1
6. Using formula calculate .
E2

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No Balancing length x10-2m 𝐄𝟏 𝒍𝟏
= (no unit)
𝐄𝟐 𝒍𝟐
𝒍𝟏 (when E1 connected) 𝒍𝟐 (when E2 connected)
1

𝐸1
Mean ( 𝐸2 ) = ___________

SAMPLE CALCULATION:
𝒍𝟏 = __________x10-2m
𝒍𝟐 = __________x10-2m
𝑬𝟏
= __________ (no unit)
𝑬𝟐
𝑬𝟏
Mean ( ) = ___________ (no unit)
𝑬𝟐
RESULT:
The ratio of the emf of the two cells is _________ (no unit).
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The positive poles of the battery E and cells E1 and E2 should all be connected to
the terminal at the zero of the wires.
2. The emf of the battery should be greater than the emf’s of the either of the two
cells.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.
2. End resistances may not be zero.

14
POTENTIOMETER
(INTERNAL RESISTANCE)
EXP. NO: 6 DATE:
AIM:
To determine internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Potentiometer, Galvanometer, Battery, Rheostat, One way key, Jockey, Resistance
box and Connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝒍 −𝒍
𝒓 = ( 𝟏𝒍 𝟐 ) 𝑹 (𝛀)
𝟐

Where
r → internal resistance in Ω
𝒍𝟏 → balancing length without resistance in 10-2m
𝒍𝟐 → balancing length with resistance in 10-2m
R → resistance included in the circuit in Ω
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

AB → Potentiometer, G → Galvanometer, R → resistance,

J → Jockey, K → One way key, B →Battery

15
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Without inserting the plug in the key, find the balancing length l1.
3. After inserting the plug in the key and some resistance (say 2 Ω ) in the resistance
box, find the balancing length l2.
4. Repeat the observations for different values of R (with 0.1 Ω difference).
5. Using formula calculate ‘r’ in each case.
TABULARCOLUMN:
Balancing length when key is (10-2m) 𝒓 = (𝒍𝟏 −𝒍𝟐 ) 𝑹(𝛀)
S. No Resistance 𝒍𝟐
R(Ω) Open(𝒍𝟏 ) Closed(𝒍𝟐 )
1
2

3
4
5

rMean = ______ (𝛀)

CALCULATION:
R= ___________ Ω
𝒍𝟏 = __________x10-2m
𝒍𝟐 = __________x10-2m
𝒍 −𝒍
𝒓 = ( 𝟏𝒍 𝟐 ) 𝑹= _____________ Ω
𝟐

RESULT:
The internal resistance of the cell is found to be _________ Ω.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Jockey should be rubbed gently on the potentiometer wire.
2. A sensitive galvanometer should be used to find the null point.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The potentiometer wire may not be uniform cross section throughout its length.
2. The battery may not be fully charged.
16
FIGURE OF MERIT
EXP. NO: 7 DATE:
AIM:
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A galvanometer, Leclanche cell or Daniel cell, two resistance boxes, Plug key,
connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝑹𝑺
Resistance of the given galvanometer= G = (𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔)
𝑹−𝑺
𝑬
Figure of merit of the given galvanometer=K= (𝐀/𝐝𝐢𝐯)
(𝑹+𝑮)𝜽

Where
R → Resistance connected in series in ohms.
S → shunt resistance in ohms
θ → deflection in the galvanometer in division.
E → emf of the cell in volt.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

R → Resistance connected in series. S → shunt resistance.

E → emf of the cell. G → Galvanometer. K → One way key.

17
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Include the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R.
3. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within
the scale.
4. Note the deflection. Let it be θ.
5. Insert the key and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such that
deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 4
i.e., θ/2.
6. Note the value of shunt resistance S.
7. Repeat steps 4 to 7 by taking out four different values of R and adjusting S every
time.
8. Tabulate G and K values using the formula.
TABULARCOLUMN:
S. Resistance Deflection Shunt Half
No R (Ω) (θ) (div) resistance deflection 𝑹𝑺 𝑬
K= (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽
𝑮 = (𝛀)
(S) (Ω) (θ/2) (div) 𝑹−𝑺
(𝑨/𝒅𝒊𝒗)
1

G Mean = _______ (𝛀); K Mean = ______(A/div)

18
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
R= _______ Ω
S= _______ Ω
𝜽= _______ div
E= ________V
𝑹𝑺
G= = _____________(𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔)
𝑹−𝑺
𝑬
K= (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 =________(𝑨/𝒅𝒊𝒗)

RESULT:
1. Resistance of given galvanometer =G= _________ Ω.
2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer =K=__________ A/div.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.
2. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
.

19
SONOMETER
EXP. NO: 8 DATE:
AIM:
To determine the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer and an
electromagnet.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
A sonometer with a soft iron wire stretched over it, an electromagnet, a step-down
transformer, slotted 1/2 kg weights hanger, two sharp edge wedges and a weight box,
connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 √𝑻
The frequency of given electromagnet = n = √ =
𝟐 𝑳 𝝁 𝟐√𝝁 𝑳
(in Hz)
𝒏
The frequency of ac mains= (in Hz)
𝟐
Where
L=Resonating length of the string in 10-2m
T=Tension in the wire (in N) = mg (where g=9.8 m/s2)
𝜇=Mass per unit length (kg/m) =𝛑r2𝛒
m=slotted mass in kg
𝜌=Density of the given wire (in kg/m3)
r= radius of the given wire in 10-3m
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the sonometer and stretch the wire AB by placing a load of ½ kg on the
hanger.
2. Support the electromagnet in a stand and connect it to the secondary of a step-down
transformer. Adjust its position, such that its one pole lies close to the middle of the
sonometer wire.
3. Switch on the alternating current supply and adjust the length of vibrating portion of
AB by sliding the wedge p or p′. Make this adjustment until the amplitude of the
vibrating string is maximum.

20
4. Measure the vibrating length and note the tension in the string.
5. Increase the load in steps of ½ kg and each time find the vibrating length.
6. Calculate the radius of the sonometer wire using screw gauge.
7. Record the readings in the tabulation.
DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. Slotted mass (m) Tension(N) Resonating length L √𝑻 √𝑵
No (kg) T=mg (10-2m) (𝒊𝒏 )
𝑳 𝒎
1

√𝑻 √𝑵
Mean =_______ (𝒊𝒏 )
𝑳 𝒎

21
FOR FINDING RADIUS OF THE WIRE:
L.C=0.01mm Z.E= ___________ Z.C= ________
Corrected reading
S.no PSRx10-3m HSC(div) D=[PSR +(HSC±𝑍𝐶)LC] x10-3m

1
2

Mean diameter (D) =____________x10-3m, Mean radius(r) =D/2 =___________x10-3m,

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS;
L=________10-2m
m=________ kg
T= mg =________X 9.8=________ N
𝜌=_______kg/m3
r=_______10-3m
𝜇=Mass per unit length (kg/m) = 𝝅r2𝝆=___________ kg/m
𝟏 √𝑻
The frequency of given electromagnet(n)= =
𝟐√𝝁 𝑳

= _________ Hz
𝒏
The frequency of ac mains= =_______ Hz
𝟐
RESULT :
Frequency of ac mains = ________ Hertz.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The wire should be soft iron or any magnetic material.
2. The length should be measured when vibration is maximum.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Pulley may not be frictionless.
2. Weights may not be correct.

22
CONVEX LENS
EXP. NO: 9 DATE:
AIM:
To find the focal length of a given convex lens by plotting graph between v and u.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Convex lens, lens stand, illuminated wire gauge-(light box), white screen, metre
scale.
FORMULA:
𝒖𝒗
𝒇 = 𝒖+𝒗 (in 10-2 m)

Where
f =focal length of given convex lens (in 10-2m)
u= object distance (in 10-2m)
v=image distance (in 10-2m)
PROCEDURE:
1. Find the rough focal length of given convex lens using distant object method in
focusing a distant object by keeping the screen behind the lens. The distance
between the screen and the lens with stand gives rough focal length say ‘f’ x10 -2m.
2. Mount the lens on the stand and keep it between light box and screen.
3. Find the clear image on the screen by adjusting u (distance between light box &
lens) values as 2f-4,2f-2, 2f, 2f+2,2f+4.
4. Record v values (distance between lens & screen) for the same.
5. Substitute u and v values in ‘f’ formula to get focal length in each case.
6. Take mean value for the focal lengths to getfinal result.
RAY DIAGRAM:

23
TABULAR COLUMN:
S. Object distance(u)(10-2m) Image distance(v)(10-2m) Focal length
No 𝒖𝒗
𝑓= in 10-2 m
𝒖+𝒗

fmean = _______ x 10-2m

MODEL GRAPH:

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
For u=___________ in 10-2 m

v=___________ in 10-2 m

𝒖𝒗 ( )( )
f= =( )+(
= _______________x10-2m
𝒖+𝒗 )

fmean=(f1+f2+f3+f4+f5)/5= _________x10-2m
24
RESULT:
The focal length of given convex lens is calculated as
i. From tabulation _____________ x10-2m.
ii. From u,v graph method __________________ x10-2m.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The uprights may not be vertically placed (lens).
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The lens must be clean and must be vertical.
2. Avoid parallax.

25
CONCAVE MIRROR
EXP. NO: 10 DATE:
AIM:
To find the focal length of a given Concave mirror.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Concave mirror, light box, screen , mirror stand, metre scale.
FORMULA:
𝒖𝒗
𝒇= (in 10-2 m)
𝒖+𝒗
Where
f =focal length of given concave mirror (in 10-2m)
v= object distance (in 10-2m)
v=image distance (in 10-2m)
PROCEDURE:
1. Find the rough focal length of given concave mirror using distant object method in
focusing a distant object on the screen by placing the mirror towards the object. The
distance between the screen and mirror with stand gives rough focal length say
‘f’ x10-2m.
2. Mount the mirror on the stand and place it towards light box and screen need to be
kept on the same side of light box.
3. Find the clear image on the screen by adjusting u(distance between light box
&mirror) values as 2f-4,2f-2, 2f, 2f+2,2f+4.
4. Record v values (distance between mirror & screen) for the same.
5. Substitute u and v values in ‘f’ formula to get focal length in each case.
6. Take mean value for the focal lengths to get final result.
RAY DIAGRAM:

26
TABULAR COLUMN:
S. Object distance Image distance Focal length of the concave
No (u)(10-2m) (v)(10-2m) mirror
𝒖𝒗
𝒇 = 𝒖+𝒗 in 10-2 m
1

fmean = _______ x 10-2m

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
For u=___________ x 10-2m
v=___________ x 10-2m
𝒖𝒗 ( )( )
f=𝒖+𝒗 = ( )+()
=_______________x10-2m

fmean= (f1+f2+f3+f4+f5)/5= _________x10-2m

RESULT:
The focal length of given concave mirror is found to be____________ X10-2m.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Mirror must be placed vertically.
2. ‘v’ must be noted when we get clear well defined image on the screen.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Involvement of parallax error.
2. Mirror may not be placed vertically.

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CONCAVE LENS (OUT OF CONTACT)
EXP. NO: 11 DATE:
AIM:
To find the focal length of a given concave lens using convex lens.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Convex lens, concave lens, lens stand-2, light box, white screen, and metre scale.
FORMULA:
𝒖𝒗
𝒇 = 𝒖−𝒗 (in 10-2 m)
Where
f =focal length of given convex lens (in 10-2m)
u= object distance(in 10-2m)
v=image distance(in 10-2m)
PROCEDURE:
1. Image cannot be formed on the screen due to concave lens in regular method so we
follow indirect method in using convex lens to bring image on the screen.
2. Find the proper image using convex lens on the screen.
3. Introduce concave lens in between convex lens and screen(prefer closer to the
screen),record distance between concave lens and screen as ‘u’.
4. Bring screen away from the concave lens to get proper image on the screen, now
record distance as ‘v’.
5. Substitute u and v in ‘f’ formula.
6. Repeat the same for different ‘u’ values with 0.5cm difference.
7. Take mean value for the focal lengths to get final result.
RAY DIAGRAM:

28
TABULAR COLUMN:
S. Object distance Image distance Focal length
No (u)(10-2m) (v)(10-2m) 𝒖𝒗
𝒇 = 𝒖−𝒗 (in 10-2 m)

fmean = _______ x 10-2m

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
For u=___________ x10-2m
v=___________x10-2m
𝒖𝒗 ( )( )
f=𝒖−𝒗 = ( )−(
=_______________x10-2m
)

fmean= (f1+f2+f3+f4+f5)/5= _________x10-2m

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RESULT:
The focal length of given concave lens is calculated using convex lens is found to be
_________x10-2m.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Focal length of convex lens must be less than the focal length of concave lens.
2. The lens must be clean.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Parallax error is involved.
2. Lens may not be placed vertical.

30
CONVEX MIRROR
EXP. NO: 12 DATE:
AIM:
To find the focal length of a given convex mirror using a convex lens.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Convex mirror,convex lens,lens stand,illuminated wire gauge(light box),white
screen,metre scale, mirror stand.
FORMULA:
𝑹
Focal length of the given convex mirror 𝒇 =
𝟐
(𝒊𝒏 10-2m)
Where
R = B –A = radius of curvature of the given convex mirror (10-2m)
B =position of the screen from the source (10-2m)
A=position of the mirror from the source (10-2m)
RAY DIAGRAM:

31
PROCEDURE:
1. Image cannot be formed on the screen due to convex mirror in regular method.
So follow indirect method in using convex lens to bring image on the screen.
2. Keep convex lens between convex mirror and light box.
3. Bring convex lens & mirror stand close to light box to get image on the light box.
4. At this situation record distance between light box and mirror as A.
5. Now remove mirror stand from the setup, find the clear image using the convex lens
on the screen at that position.
6. Record distance between light box and screen as B.
7. Find R=B-A.
8. Repeat the same by disturbing convex lens position by 0.5cm.
𝑹
9. Take mean value of R and find f using formula 𝒇 = .
𝟐
TABULAR COLUMN:
S. Position of the mirror Position of the screen from Radius of curvature
No from the source A(10-2m) the source B(10-2m) R=B-A(10-2m)
1

𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐+𝑹𝟑+𝑹𝟒+𝑹𝟓
Rmean= = ________ x 10-2m
𝟓

𝐑𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧
f= 𝟐
= ________ x 10-2m

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SAMPLE CALCULATION:
For A= _______________ x(10-2m)
B= _______________ x(10-2m)
R=B-A= ____________ - __________ =___________=x 10-2m
RESULT:
The focal length of the given convex mirror using convex lens is found to be
______10-2m.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The lens and the mirror should be fixed vertical.
2. The convex mirror should be placed close to the convex lens.
SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. Focal length of lens may not be small.
2. There may be parallax error.

33
GLASS PRISM
EXP. NO: 13 DATE:
AIM:
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a
graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Drawing board, white papers, office pins, glass prism, geometry box.
PROCEDURE:
1. Place white paper on the drawing board using office pins.
2. Trace the outline of a given glass prism into 5 samples.
3. Mark the angle of incidence on the sample as 35○, 40○, 45○, 50○, 55○ separately.
4. Place on two office pins on the incidence ray and place prism on the sample.
5. Find the emergent ray by placing 2 office pins on the other side.
6. Find the angle between the extension of incidence ray to the emergent ray as
deviation for every sample.
7. Draw the graph taking ∠𝒊 𝑜𝑛 x-axis and ∠𝜹 on y-axis and mark 𝜹 m.
RAY DIAGRAM:

34
MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No Angle of incidence (∠𝒊) Angle of deviation(∠𝜹)
1

RESULT:
1. Graph indicates ∠𝒊increases ,∠𝜹decreases attains a 𝜹 mand then starts increasing

for further increase in ∠𝒊.

2. Angle of minimum deviation, 𝜹 m =__________.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. ∠𝒊must be between 30○to 60○.
2. The pins must be fixed vertical.
SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. Parallax in measuring the angles.
2. Pins may not be vertical.

35
PN JUNCTION DIODE
EXP. NO: 14 DATE:
AIM:
To draw the I- V characteristic curve of a PN junction diode in forward
bias.APPARATUS REQUIRED:
PN diode, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Rheostat, Battery and connecting wires.
FORMULA:
𝑽
Static resistance (Rs)= (𝒊𝒏 𝛀)
𝑰
𝚫𝑽
Dynamic resistance (Rd) = (𝐢𝐧 𝛀)
𝚫𝑰
Where
V =voltage across given PN diode(in Volts)
I=current through given PN diode (in Ampere)
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram.
2. Slowly increase the voltage of the battery.
3. Record the voltmeter and ammeter reading across the PN diode.
4. Plot graph between V & I.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

36
MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No Voltmeter reading (V) Ammeter reading (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

RESULT:
Static resistance of the given diode = Rs=___________(Ω).
Dynamic resistance of the given diode = Rd = ____________ (Ω).
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. High voltage should not be provided.
SOURCE OF ERRORS:
1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
2. Circuit connections may be wrong.
37
ZENER DIODE
EXP. NO: 15 DATE:
AIM:
To draw the I V characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to find its reverse
breakdown voltage.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Zener diode, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, battery and connecting wires.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram.
2. Slowly increase the voltage of the battery.
3. Find the constant reverse breakdown voltage at which current increases suddenly.
4. Record the voltmeter and ammeter reading across the zener diode.
5. Plot graph between V & I.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

38
TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No Voltmeter reading (V) Ammeter reading (µA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
RESULT:
1. The characteristics of zener diode are shown in graph.
2. From the graph, breakdown voltage for zener diode is _______ volt.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of appropriate ranges.
SOURCE OF ERRORS:
1. The zener diode may be faulty.
2. Circuit connections may be wrong.

39
ACTIVITIES
ASSEMBLING THE GIVEN CIRCUIT
ACTIVITY NO: 01 DATE:
AIM:
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Resistor, ammeter, (0-1.5A) voltmeter (0-5V ), battery, one way key, rheostat, sand
paper, connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the components as shown in Fig.
2. After closing the key K, check that the voltmeter and ammeter show deflections on the
right hand side.
3. Check the continuity of the assembled circuit using a multimeter.
RESULT:
The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

40
CORRECTING THE WRONG CIRCUIT
ACTIVITY NO: 02 DATE:
AIM:
To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order and correct the circuitdiagram.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
A given open circuit comprising atleast a cell or a battery, plug key, resistor,
rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and sand paper.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WRONG CIRCUIT:

CORRECTED CIRCUIT:

41
PROCEDURE:
1. Draw the circuit diagrams.
2. Consider the various components which have not been connected in proper order.
3. Draw the correct circuit diagram.
4. Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit diagram.
5. Close the key in the circuit to verify if the corrected circuit is functional.
OBSERVATIONS:
S. No. Circuit Component Correct Component Incorrect Component
1 Battery/cell

2 Resistor

3 Rheostat

4 Key

5 Ammeter

6 Voltmeter

RESULT:
The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram is functional.

42
IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
ACTIVITY NO: 03 DATE:

AIM:

To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a

mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:

Multimeter, a collection of diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistor and capacitor.

PROCEDURE:

1. Check the physical appearance of the component.

2. If the component is

A diode, it is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and

does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting.

A LED (light emitting diode),it is also a two terminal device. It conducts

when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while

conducting.

A transistor, it is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E),

base (B) and collector (C).

An IC (integrated circuit); it is a multi-terminal device in the form of a chip.

But some may have only three terminals, e.g. 7805, 7806, 7809, 7912.

A resistor, it is a two terminal device. It conducts equally in both directions.

A capacitor,it is a two terminal device. It does not conduct but stores some

charge when dc voltage is applied.

43
OBSERVATION:

S. No Physical Appearance Name of the Component

RESULT:
A diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor are identified
respectively from a mixed collection.

44
GLASS SLAB
ACTIVITY NO: 04 DATE:
AIM:
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on
a glass slab.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Drawing board, rectangular glass slab, white sheet of paper, adhesive tape (cello-
tape), drawing pins, a metre scale, protractor, sharp pencil and eraser.
RAY DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins.
2. Place the glass slab lengthwise symmetrically mark its boundary on the paper sheet
with a sharp pencil.
3. Using the ray diagram, draw the incident ray and the corresponding emergent ray.
4. Calculate the lateral displacement from the ray diagram.
RESULT:
The ray of light emerging from a glass slab is parallel to the incident ray direction,
but is laterally deviated.

45
IMAGE FORMED BY CONVEX LENS AND CONCAVE MIRROR
ACTIVITY NO: 05 DATE:
AIM:
To study the nature and size of the image formed by (i) a convex lens (ii) a concave
mirror on a screen (for different distances of the light source from the lens/mirror).
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Light source, convex lens, Concave mirror, lens/mirror holder, screen, meter scale.
PROCEDURE:
1. Find the rough focal length of given convex lens/concave mirror using distant
object method.
2. Using ray diagrams check the nature and size of the image.
CONVEX LENS:

46
OBSERVATION (CONVEX LENS):
S. Position of the Image
No object Position Nature Size
1. At infinity At F Real and Inverted Point size
2. Beyond 2F Between F & 2F Real and Inverted Diminished
3. At 2F At 2F Real and Inverted Same
4. Between F & 2F Beyond 2F Real and Inverted Enlarged
5. At F At infinity Real and Inverted Extremely enlarged
6. < F Beyond 2F Virtual and Erect Magnified
CONCAVE MIRROR:

47
OBSERVATION(CONCAVE MIRROR):
S. Position of the Image
No object Position Nature Size
1. At infinity At F Real and Inverted Point size

2. Beyond C Between F & C Real and Inverted Diminished

3. At C At C Real and Inverted Same

4. Between F & C Beyond C Real and Inverted Enlarged

5. At F At infinity Real and Inverted Extremely enlarged

6. Between F & P Behind the mirror Virtual and Erect Highly Magnified

RESULT:
The nature and size of the image using convex lens and concave mirror were
studied and tabulated.

48
LOGARITHMS AND ANTI- LOGARITHMS

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50
51
52
53
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