CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CALCULATIONS
Comprehensive Examination

LAYLO, REX GREGOR M.

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PROCESS CLASSIFICATION

Process Classification
1. Batch – process where the feed is charged into
the system at the beginning of the process and
the products are all at once removed
sometimes later. No mass crosses the system
boundaries between the time the feed is
charged and the time the product is removed.
2. Continuous – process where input and output
flow continuously throughout the duration of the
process.
3. Semi-batch – any process that is neither batch
nor continuous

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PROCESS CLASSIFICATION

Process Classification
4. Steady-state – process wherein process
variables does not vary with time.
5. Transient or unsteady-state – process wherein
process variables varies with time.

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PROCESS CLASSIFICATION

What is the type of process where a material enters the

process during its operation, accumulates in the
process vessel, and withdrawn only after the process is
over?

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PROCESS VARIABLES

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PROCESS CLASSIFICATION

What is the specific gravity of a 64ºBe aqueous

solution of NaOH?

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PROCESS VARIABLES

• Brix Scale
400
ºBx = − 400
𝑆𝐺

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GIBB’S PHASE RULE
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F = C-P+2

F= Intensive Degrees of freedom = variance Number of intensive

variables that can be changed independently without disturbing the
number of phases in equilibrium
P = number of phases gas, homogeneous liquid phases, homogeneous
solid phases
C = components

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GIBB’S PHASE RULE
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The maximum number of independent equations that can be derived by

writing the material balances for an input and output stream with two
component substances is/are?

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PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICE

1. Open-end Manometer
2. Sealed-end Manometer
3. Bourdon gauge – usually gives gauge pressure of the fluid

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PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICE

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PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICE

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PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICE

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PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICE

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PRESSURE UNITS AND TERMS

1. Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmosphere

2. Pvacuum = Patm – Pabsolute
3. Phydrostatic = ρgh = pressure exerted by a column of fluid

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PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICE

1. Open-end Manometer
2. Sealed-end Manometer
3. Bourdon gauge – usually gives gauge pressure of the fluid

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PRESSURE UNITS AND TERMS

P2

PATM

P1

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PRESSURE UNITS AND TERMS

P2

PATM

P1

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PRESSURE UNITS AND TERMS

1. A manometer use kerosene (SG = 0.82) as fluid. A reading of 85mm on

the manometer is equivalent to how many millimeters of mercury
(SG=13.6)?

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UNIT SYSTEMS

SI ENGLISH CGS
g 9.80665m/s^2 32.174ft/s^2 980.665cm/s

1 𝑘𝑔.𝑚 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑔.𝑐𝑚

gc 𝑠 2 .𝑁 𝑓𝑡.𝑠 2 .𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠 2 .𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒

9.80665 𝑁 1𝑙𝑏𝑓 980.665𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒

g/gc
𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑔

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR NONREACTIVE PROCESSES

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR NONREACTIVE PROCESSES

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR NONREACTIVE PROCESSES

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Important Terminologies and Relationships

1. Stoichiometry – involves quantitative relationships between reactants and products

in a balanced equation.

2. Limiting Reactant - species present in the reaction that would be completely

consumed theoretrically if the reaction were to proceed to completion.

3. Excess Reactant – reactant present in more than its stoichiometric proportion relative
to every othe reactant.

4. Fractional excess (%) - ratio of the amount present in excess to the amount
stoichiometrically required

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Important Terminologies and Relationships

What is the material which remains unchanged in a process?

a. Limiting reactant
b. Tie substance
c. Excess reactant
d. Purged Component

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR NONREACTIVE PROCESSES

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR NONREACTIVE PROCESSES

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR NONREACTIVE PROCESSES

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Important Terminologies and Relationships

5. Extent of reaction – ratio of change in the number of moles of species, i, and its
stoichiometric coefficient of the species in reaction, j

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Ethanol is produced by the hydration of ethylene according to the reaction:

C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH

However, some of the products are converted according to the following side reaction:

2C2H5OH → (C2H5)2O + H2O

The feed to the reactor contains ethylene, steam, and N2. The effluent analysis is given as follows:

Component C2H4 H2O C2H5OH (C2H5)2O N2

% mole 39.12 45.08 2.95 0.27 12.58

a. Calculate the fractional conversion of ethylene

b. Calculate the fractional yield of ethanol
c. What is the maximum fractional conversion of the excess reactant?

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Important Terminologies and Relationships

6. Fractional Conversion – fraction of feed or some component in the feed that is

converted to products.

X=

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Important Terminologies and Relationships

7. Selectivity– ratio of the moles of desired product to the moles of the undesired
product or by-product.

8. Degree of Completion – fraction of limiting reaction converted into products

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Important Terminologies and Relationships

9. Single Pass Conversion (once through conversion) – conversion of reactant based

on the amount of material that enters (fresh feed + recycle stream) and leaves the reactor
(gross product)

10. Overall Conversion – conversion in a process based on the amount of material that
enters (fresh feed) and leaves the reactor (overall product)

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Single Pass Conversion

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Overall Conversion

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Single Pass and Overall Conversion

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Important Terminologies and Relationships

11. Recycle – material of energy stream that leaves a downstream process unit and
returned to the same process unit or upstream unit.
12. Purge – material or energy stream bled off from a process to prevent accumulation
of inert materials that may buildup in the recycle streams.

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES

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MATERIAL BALANCES FOR REACTIVE PROCESSES
Important Terminologies and Relationships

11. Fractional Yield

a. Based on reactant fed = desired product/ limiting reactant fed

b. Based on reactant consumed = desired product/ limiting reactant consumed

c. Based on theoretical amount of limiting reactant consumed

= desired product/ limiting reactant all consumed and no side product

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Important Terminologies and Relationships

9. Recycle – material of energy stream that leaves a downstream process unit and
returned to the same process unit or upstream unit.
10. Purge – material or energy stream bled off from a process to prevent accumulation
of inert materials that may buildup in the recycle streams.

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TYPES OF MULTIPLE REACTIONS

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METHODS OF SOLVING MULTIPLE REACTIONS
1. Balances on atomic species: input = output
2. Balance on molecular species: input + generation = output + consumption
3. Extent of Reaction: ni,final = ni,initial +σ 𝑉𝑖 ε𝑖

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IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES AND RELATIONSHIPS
1. Combustion – sequence of chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant
accompanied by the production of heat.
C → CO2 or CO
H2 → H2O
S or N → SOx or NOx

2. Stack gas or flue gas – product gas that leaves a combustion furnace.
3. Composition of flue gas
a. Composition in wet basis – component of mole fraction of product gas that
involves water
b. Composition in dry basis (Orsat Analysis) – does not involve water

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IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES AND RELATIONSHIPS
4. Orsat Gas Analyzer – used to analyze gas samples for its oxygen, carbon monoxide,
and carbon dioxide content. The apparatus consist of calibrated water-jacketed gas
burette connected to three absorption pipettes by glass capillary tubing.

The absorbents are KOH (Caustic Potash)

Alkaline solution of pyrogallol or benzene-1,2,3-triol (O2)
Ammoniacal Cuprous Chloride (CuCl with NH3)

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IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES AND RELATIONSHIPS
5. Theoretical Oxygen/Air– mole or molar flow rate of oxygen necessary for the
complete combustion or complete conversion of all fuel.

6. Theoretrical Air – quanity of air that contains the theoretrical oxygen

The absorbents are KOH (Caustic Potash)

Alkaline solution of pyrogallol or benzene-1,2,3-triol (O2)
Ammoniacal Cuprous Chloride (CuCl with NH3)

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IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES AND RELATIONSHIPS
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 −𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑂2 ,𝑓𝑒𝑑 𝑂2 ,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
6. % Excess Air =
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟
,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
𝑂2

7. Complete combustion –
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

8. Partial or Incomplete Combustion

CH4 + O2 → 2CO + 4H2O

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COMBUSTION OF LIQUID FUELS

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COMBUSTION OF LIQUID FUELS

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COMBUSTION OF LIQUID FUELS
A certain brand of gasoline was burned and was analyzed to have the following flue gas composition:
12.54% mol CO2, 2.21% mol CO, 3.09% mol O2 and 82.16% mol N2. Assuming fuel contains cetane,
C16H34 (density = .7751g/mL) and methyl naphthalene C11H10 (density = 1.025g/mL), determine the
cetane number of the fuel.

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COMBUSTION OF GAS FUELS
The formula of the saturated hydrocarbon in hydrocarbon-N2 mixture was determined
by burning a sample of the mixture with 30% excess air. The combustion gases were
analyzed and showed an Orsat analysis of 8.95% CO2, 0.99% CO, 1.99% H2, 6.46%
O2, and 81.61% N2. What is the formula of the hydrocarbon?

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COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS

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4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID FUELS
• Solid organic fuels are classified into natural and artificial
fuels.
a)Natural Solid Fuels
1) Wood - may be burned directly as a fuel or maybe converted
into charcoal or producer gas. Sawdust is sometimes burnt at
sawmills supplemented with oil to reduce fuel cost.
2) Peat – Brown fibrous mass of partially decayed plant
material that has accumulated under water logged conditions.
pressure

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3) Lignite's – Immature coals that are intermediate in
composition between peat and bituminous coals and are about 1 to
100 M years old.

4) Coals – Compact stratified mass of mummified plant debris

that has accumulated during past geological ages about (100-
300M years old) and has been altered by processes involving
biochemical actions, submersion in water and action of the heat
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b) Artificial Solid Fuels
1) Wood Charcoal – Solid residue from the carbonization of wood which
involves heating wood strongly in the absence of oxygen.
2)Peat Charcoal – Made by carbonizing peat at low temperature
3) Lignite Briquettes – Air dried lignites
4) Lignite Coke – Air dried and carbonized lignite
5) Coke – Carbonized coal

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4.2 ANALYSIS OF SOLID FUELS
a)Proximate Analysis – This important method of laboratory
examination of solid fuel is based upon their volatilization characteristics. It
involves the determination ofː
1) Moisture (M) – water expelled when the coal sample is heated for 1 hour
at 104 - 110˚C.
2) Volatile Combustible Matter (VCM) – Total loss in weight minus the
moisture in coal when coal is heated for 7 min. in a closed crucible placed in
a muffle furnace at 900˚C in the absence of air. It includes volatile C combined
water, net H,N,S.

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3) Ash - Residue that remains when a weighed sample of coal is slowly heated in an
open crucible for 2 hours 500 - 815˚C.

4) Fixed Carbon (FC) – Obtained by difference from 100% of the sum of moisture,
VCM and ashː
FC=100 – M – VCM - ASH

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b) Ultimate Analysis – It is a precise chemical determination of the % by
weight of the six basic components components of coalː Carbon, Hydrogen,
Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ash, and Oxygen (usually obtained by difference).

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c) Modified Analysis – Modifications of the ultimate analysis for
combustion calculations. It includesː
1) C, N, S, ash
2) Moisture
3) Combined water (CW) – the oxygen in the coal (not present in moisture) is
treated as though it were already combined with hydrogen.
4) Net Hydrogen (NH) – hydrogen which requires O₂ from a for combustion.

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4.3 EMPIRICAL RELATIONS ON COAL ANALYSIS AND
CALORIFIC VALUES

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COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS
Sub-bituminous coal was fired in a furnace containing 9.80% moisture, 31.47% VCM
and 5.95% Ash. Nitrogen and sulfur contents were found to be 1.99% and 1.17%
respectively. The gross calorific value of the fuel was analyzed to be 23.18MJ/kg.

a. Determine the carbon of the coal sample

b. What is the calorific value of the VCM?
c. What is the percentage of combined water in the VCM?

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COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS

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COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS

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THANK YOU
LAYLO, REX GREGOR M., RChE