Engineering Physics

Module 1
Quantum Mechanics

Contents: Introduction, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle - statement, significance ,

application(non existence of electron in nucleus), wave function, Physical significance of
wave function, setting up of Schrodinger Time Independent wave equation in 1
dimension , Eigen values and Eigen functions, Application - Particle in a box (one
dimensional), Basics of Quantum Computing: Bit-Qbits – superposition and Quantum
entanglement- Problems.

Introduction:
At the end of 19th century it was thought by the researchers and scientists that there were enough
laws in physics using which any phenomena that occur in nature can be explained. All particles
obey Newton’s laws and all radiations obey Maxwell’s equations. These were put together and
are called Classical Physics.
During the same time, some experimental observations were made such as black body radiation,
photo electric effect, Compton Effect. Using the existing theories and laws these observations
could not be explained. In order to explain these new observations Quantum Physics was
developed. These observations paved the way for the evolution of quantum mechanics which is
put in to a broad category of Modern Physics. Any phenomena developed after this period is put
under this broad umbrella. It deals with particles of atomic and subatomic dimensions. Before
Quantum Mechanics, classical mechanics ruled the world of Physics. For particles down to
atomic and subatomic dimension, classical mechanics was a failure and hence Quantum
mechanics came into existence.

Dual nature of light:

In the beginning, light is considered to have wave nature and the phenomena such as
reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction etc., can well be explained considering the wave
nature of light.
The concept of black body radiation, photoelectric effect and Compton effect could not
be explained based on the wave nature of light. To explain these observations it was assumed
that light is made up tiny packets or particles called photons and energy can be absorbed or
released only in terms of these photons. Hence it is concluded that light exists as both wave and
particle nature depending on the circumstances. This paved the way for the dual nature of matter
which was put forward by deBroglie.
Dual nature of matter:
Since nature loves symmetry, it was suggested by the scientist deBroglie that, when light
which has predominantly wave nature can also exhibit the nature of particles under certain
circumstances, we can assume that matter which has particle nature can also possess wave nature
under suitable conditions. This assumption is called deBroglie hypothesis.

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Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (HUP):

According to classical mechanics a particle occupies a definite place in space and possesses a
definite momentum. If the position and momentum of a particle is known at any instant of time,
it is possible to calculate its position and momentum at any later instant of time. The path of the
particle could be traced. This concept breaks down in quantum mechanics leading to
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle according to which “there are certain pair of physical
quantities which cannot be measured simultaneously and accurately. The product of the
ℎ
uncertainties involved in their measurement is greater than or equal to . For example, it is
4𝜋
impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and momentum of a particle accurately.
If we make an effort to measure very accurately the position of a particle, it leads to large
uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice versa.

If ∆ x and Px are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the
particle then the uncertainty can be written as

∆ x . Px ≥ h/4π

ℎ
∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥
4𝜋
ℎ
∆𝐿. ∆ ≥
4𝜋
Where,

∆𝑥 → 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, ∆𝑃 → 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

∆𝐸 → 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, ∆𝑡 → 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

∆𝐿 → 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚, ∆ → 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ℎ → 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Application (or) example :
Electrons Cannot reside inside the nucleus:
Using the above principle, we can prove that electrons cannot reside inside the nucleus.
Let us assume that the electrons are inside the nucleus. The maximum uncertainty in
measuring the position of electron is equal to the diameter of the nucleus i.e. 10-14m.

∴ ∆𝑥 = 10−14 𝑚
ℎ
Using, ∆𝑥∆𝑝 ≥ 4𝜋

ℎ
∆𝑝 ≥
4𝜋 𝑥 10−14

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6.625 𝑥 10−34
≥ ≥ 0.5 𝑥 10−20 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
4 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 10−14

Let us consider ∆𝑝 ≃ 𝑝 and putting this in total energy equation,

𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 , we get

𝐸 2 = (0.5 𝑥 10−20 )2 𝑥 (3 𝑥 108 )2 + (9.1 𝑥 10−31 )2 (3 𝑥 10+8 )4

∴ 𝐸 = 9 𝑀𝑒𝑉

If an electron is inside the nucleus its energy (least) should be 9 MeV. But experimentally, it is
proved that electron has a maximum to 2 to 3 MeV energy. ∴ The assumption we have made is
wrong. ∴ Electrons cannot reside inside the nucleus.

Significance of HUP :
i) It signifies dual nature of matter.
ℎ
ii) From∆𝑥∆𝑝 ≥ 4𝜋 , it is clear that if ∆𝑥 decreases then ∆𝑝 increases. If we try to
measure x accurately, the error in measuring p increases, which will lead to the
measurement of absurd values. Hence it is always proper to measure the most
probable value of physical quantity than accurate values.

Wave function ( 𝝍 ) : Wave function in quantum mechanics is a variable quantity that

mathematically describes the wave characteristics of a particle. The value of wave function of a
particle at a given point of space and time is related to the likelihood of the particle being there at
that time. It is a function of position and time, which gives information about a particle
completely. Usually wave functions are complex in nature. Wave function is related the
probability of finding the particle at a given place and given time. It is represented by “psi – 𝜓”
Schrodinger’s equation :
The basic equation in quantum mechanics is given by Schrodinger which is of two types: Time
dependent and time independent. By solving the equation we can determine the Eigen function
and Eigen values of a particle.
The complex wave equation can be represented as,
𝑥
𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖𝑤(𝑡−𝑣) … … … . . (1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x twice,
𝜕𝜓 𝑥 𝑖𝑤
= 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖𝑤(𝑡−𝑣) ∗
𝜕𝑥 𝑣
𝜕 2𝜓 𝑥
−𝑖𝑤(𝑡− ) 𝑖 2𝑤 2
= 𝐴𝑒 𝑣 ∗
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣2

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𝜕 2𝜓 2
𝛾2 𝑥
−𝑖𝑤(𝑡− )
= −4𝜋 2 𝜓 [∵ 𝑖 2 = −1, 𝑤 2 = (2𝜋𝛾)2 = 4𝜋 2 𝛾 2 , 𝐴𝑒 𝑣 = 𝜓 ]
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣
𝜕 2𝜓 4𝜋 2 𝛾2 1
= − 𝜓 [∵ = 2]
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣2 𝑣 2 𝜆

1 1 𝜕 2𝜓
∴ = . … … … . . (2)
𝜆2 4𝜋 2 𝜓 𝜕𝑥 2
𝑝2
We know that, the total energy 𝐸 = + 𝑉
2𝑚

ℎ2 ℎ
(𝐸 − 𝑉) = [∵ 𝑝 = ]
2𝑚𝜆2 𝜆
ℎ2 ℎ2 𝜕2 𝜓 1
= 2𝑚
[− 4𝜋2𝜓 . 𝜕𝑥 2 ] (Substituting for 𝜆2 from (2))

−ℎ2 𝜕 2 𝜓
= .
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝜓 𝜕𝑥 2

8𝜋 2 𝑚 𝜕 2𝜓
∴ (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = − 2
ℎ2 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0 is Schrodinger’s time independent equation in one dimension.
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
In 3 dimension. + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

8𝜋 2 𝑚
∇2 𝜓 + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0
ℎ2
Eigen function and Eigen values; significance of 𝝍 (physical interpretation of 𝝍 ; Max-
Born interpretation; Normalisation condition):

We know that the Schrodinger equation is the 2nd order partial differential equation in 𝜓 and is,

𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
The solution of the above equation gives 𝜓, which has more that 1 value. The solutions have to
satisfy the following conditions, for them to be called as eigen function.
If the solutions are,
i) Single valued w.r.t x
ii) Continuous w.r.t to x
iii) Finite and

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iv) For bound states ‘ψ’ must vanish at potential boundary and outside. If ‘ψ*’ is a
complex function, then ψ* ψ must also vanish at potential boundary and outside, then
they are called Eigen function / wave function.
Therefore the wave function should be finite, continuous and single valued.
For each eigen function we get corresponding energy values and they are called eigen values.
Significance :

𝜓 has no physical significance. It is | 𝜓 2 | which has the significance. | 𝜓2 | is called probability

density function.It is the probability of finding a particle in unit volume.

The probability of finding a particle per unit volume = | 𝜓| 2.

Let us consider a particle in a volume V, which is divided into elementary volumes dV.

∴ Probability of finding the particle in volume dV = | 𝜓| 2 𝑑𝑉

The probability of finding the particle in volume V = ∫𝑉 | 𝜓| 2 𝑑𝑉

Since, the particle is present in the volume, probability of finding it is 1.

∴ ∫ | 𝜓| 2 𝑑𝑉 = 1
𝑉

This is called normalization condition, Max-Born interpretation or significance of 𝜓.

Application :
Particle in a one dimension potential well of infinite height (or) particle in a box.

Y-Axis

V= V=0 V=

Particle x=0 x x=a X-Axis

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Consider a potential well of width ‘a’ and height ∞. Particle is inside the well where V=0.
Outside and on the walls of the well V = ∞. We are going to find the Eigen function and Eigen
values for the particle.
𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
We know that, + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0 … … … … … (1)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

Outside the well V=∞

𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
∴ + (𝐸 − ∞)𝜓 = 0 … … … … … (2)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
The above equation is true only for 𝜓 = 0

∴ 𝜓 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑥 = 𝑎 … … … … … … … . . (3)
Inside the well V = 0

𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
∴ + 𝐸𝜓 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
8𝜋 2 𝑚
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐸 = 𝑘 2 … … … … … (4)
ℎ2
𝜕 2𝜓
+ 𝑘 2 𝜓 = 0 … … … … … … . (5)
𝜕𝑥 2
The solution of equation (5) is

𝜓 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑘𝑥 … … … … … . (6)

𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝜓 = 0
∴ 𝐴 = 0 … … … … … . . (7)

Hence 𝜓 = 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 … … … … … … . (8)

At x = a, 𝜓 = 0

∴ 𝐵 sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0 (B cannot be zero)

∴ sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0
𝑛𝜋
𝑘𝑎 = 𝑛𝜋; 𝑘 = … … … … … … . . (9)
𝑎
Substitute k in equation (4)

8𝜋 2 𝑚 𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝐸 =
ℎ2 𝑎2
𝑛2 ℎ 2
∴𝐸= 8𝑚𝑎2
… … … … … … . . (10) n = 1,2,3,…….
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[n = 0 not allowed as 𝜓 = 0 at n =0]

The value of energy for n = 1 is called zero point energy or ground state energy.

ℎ2
∴ 𝐸𝑧 =
8𝑚𝑎2
The values of energy for n = 2, 3, 4 ……….. are called excited states.

𝐸1 = 4𝐸𝑧 , 𝐸2 = 9𝐸𝑧 and so on.

∴ The Energy of the particle is quantized.

To find B : Using normalization condition for 1 dimension
𝑎

∫ |𝜓|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑥=0
𝑎 𝑎
𝐵2
∫ 𝐵 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1; ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑘𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1
2
𝑜 0
To find B : We know that using normalization technique,
𝑥=𝑎

∫ |𝜓|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑥=0
𝑎
𝑛𝜋
∫ 𝐵 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑎
𝑜
𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐵 2 [∫ − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥] = 1
2 2 𝑎
0 0

𝐵2𝑎 2 2
∴ = 1; 𝐵 2 = ; 𝐵 = √
2 𝑎 𝑎

2 𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 ℎ 2
∴ 𝜓𝑛 = √𝑎 sin 𝑎
𝑥 & 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2
are the values of 𝜓 & E for a particle in one

Dimension potential well.

ℎ2 2 𝜋
Case i) : n = 1 : Here, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑧 = and 𝜓 = √𝑎 sin 𝑎 𝑥
8𝑚𝑎2

At x = 0 & x = a, 𝜓 = 0. ∴ |𝜓|2 = 0
Hence the probability of locating the particle at walls = 0

2 𝑎 2
𝜓 = √𝑎 when x =
2
∴ |𝜓|2 = 𝑎
( 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)

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Hence the particle is located mostly at the centre of the well.

1 1
2

x=0 a/2 x=a x=0 a/2 x=a

Case ii) : n = 2

4ℎ2
𝐸 = 4𝐸𝑧 =
8𝑚𝑎2

2 2𝜋
𝜓 = √ sin 𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎
At x = 0 & x = a, 𝑥 = 2, 𝜓 = 0. ∴ |𝜓|2 = 0

∴ The probability of locating the particle at the walls and at the center of the well = 0

𝑎 3𝑎 2 2
At 𝑥 = 4
, 4
; 𝜓 = √𝑎 (or) |𝜓|2 = 𝑎 (maximum)

∴ The probability of locating the particle at ¼ th & 3/4th of well width is maximum.

ψ2 | ψ2|2
a/4 3a/4
a/4
3a/4
x=0 a/2 x=0 a/2 x=a
x=a
Case iii) : n = 3

9ℎ2
𝐸 = 9𝐸𝑧 =
8𝑚𝑎2

2 3𝜋
𝜓 = √ sin 𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 2𝑎
At x = 0 & x = a, 𝑥 = 3
, 3
; 𝜓 = 0. ∴ |𝜓|2 = 0

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𝑎 3𝑎 5𝑎 2 2
At 𝑥 = 6
, 6
, 6
; 𝜓 = √𝑎 (or) |𝜓|2 = 𝑎 (maximum)

Basics of Quantum Computing

Microscopic particles and light behave differently from objects we encounter in normal life,
which are described by classical mechanics and classical electrodynamics. The mechanics of
light and matter at the atomic and subatomic scale are described by quantum theory, which forms
the underlying principles of most of physics. The developments in the field of information
technology has been brought in by quantum mechanics.

Although applications of quantum mechanics are not straight forward, this branch of physics
opens up an entirely new world of possibilities in science, technology and information
processing. One of the most promising ones is the quantum computer.

Quantum computers

A quantum computer is a device performing quantum computations. It manipulates the quantum

states of qubits in a controlled way to perform algorithms. A universal quantum computer is
defined as a machine that is able to adopt an arbitrary quantum state from an arbitrary input
quantum state. The development of a quantum computer is currently in its infancy, systems
consist of a few to a few tens of quantum bits (qubits). Main challenges in further development
are to make the quantum computer scalable and to make it fault-tolerant. This means that it will
be able to perform universal quantum operations.

In the last two decades of the previous century more and more quantum mechanical concepts
were brought into information processing, allowing the development of so-called quantum
algorithms. Parallel to the theoretical efforts also ground-breaking strides were taken on the
experimental side. Physicists developed methods to detect and controllably manipulate
individual quantum objects such as photons, atoms or electrons. These quantum objects can
obviously be used as physical implementations of qubits.

Quantum computers perform calculations based on the probability of an object's state before it is
measured - instead of just 1s or 0s - which means they have the potential to process
exponentially more data compared to classical computers. Classical computers carry out logical
operations using the definite position of a physical state. These are usually binary, meaning its
operations are based on one of two positions. A single state - such as on or off, up or down, 1 or
0 - is called a bit.

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In quantum computing, operations instead use the quantum state of an object to produce what's
known as a qubit. These states are the undefined properties of an object before they've been
detected, such as the spin of an electron or the polarisation of a photon.

Rather than having a clear position, unmeasured quantum states occur in a mixed 'superposition',
not unlike a coin spinning through the air before it lands in your hand. These superpositions can
be entangled with those of other objects, meaning their final outcomes will be mathematically
related even if we don't know yet what they are. The complex mathematics behind these
unsettled states of entangled 'spinning coins' can be plugged into special algorithms to make
short work of problems that would take a classical computer a long time to work out. Such
algorithms would be useful in solving complex mathematical problems, producing hard-to-break
security codes, or predicting multiple particle interactions in chemical reactions. For example,
Google’s quantum computer that’s in development could help with many processes, such as
speed up machine-learning training or help create more energy-efficient batteries. Quantum
computing has a number of other applications, including securely sharing information. Other
methods include fighting cancer and various health concerns, such as cancer and developing new
drugs. As well, quantum computers can help improve radars and their ability to detect such
things as missiles and aircraft. Other areas include the environment and using quantum
computing to keep the water clean with chemical sensors.

Qubit

A qubit (or quantum bit) is the quantum mechanical analogue of a classical bit. In classical
computing the information is encoded in bits, where each bit can have the value zero or one. In
quantum computing the information is encoded in qubits. A qubit is a two-level quantum system
where the two basic qubit states are usually written as ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩. A qubit can be in
state ∣0⟩ , ∣1⟩. or (unlike a classical bit) in a linear combination of both states. The name of this
phenomenon is superposition.

In quantum computing, we often deal with state vectors, which are simply vectors that point to a
specific point in space that corresponds to a particular quantum state. This can be visualized
using a Bloch sphere. For instance, a vector representing the state of a quantum system could

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look something like this arrow, enclosed inside the Bloch sphere, which is the so-called "state
space" of all possible points to which our state vectors can "point". This particular state
corresponds to an even superposition between |0⟩and |1⟩ (the arrow is halfway between |0⟩ at
the top and |1⟩ at the bottom of the sphere). Our vectors are allowed to rotate anywhere on the
surface of the sphere, and each of these points represents a different quantum state.

Single-qubit computational basis states

The two orthogonal z-basis states of a qubit are defined as:

• ∣0⟩
• ∣1⟩

When we talk about the qubit basis states we implicitly refer to the z-basis states as the
computational basis states.

Superposition

One of the properties that sets a qubit apart from a classical bit is that it can be in superposition.
Superposition is one of the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics. In classical physics, a
wave describing a musical tone can be seen as several waves with different frequencies that are
added together, superposed. Similarly, a quantum state in superposition can be seen as a linear
combination of other distinct quantum states. This quantum state in superposition forms a new
valid quantum state.

Qubits can be in a superposition of both the basis states ∣0⟩ ∣1⟩. When a qubit is measured (to
be more precise: only observables can be measured), the qubit will collapse to one of its eigen
states and the measured value will reflect that state. For example, when a qubit is in a
superposition state of equal weights, a measurement will make it collapse to one of its two basis
states ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ with an equal probability of 50%. ∣0⟩ is the state that when measured, and
therefore collapsed, will always give the result 0. Similarly, ∣1⟩ will always convert to 1.

Quantum superposition is fundamentally different from superposing classical waves. A quantum

computer consisting of n qubits can exist in a superposition of 2nd states:
from ∣000...0⟩ to ∣111...1⟩. In contrast, playing n musical sounds with all different
frequencies, can only give a superposition of n frequencies. Adding classical waves scales linear,
where the superposition of quantum states is exponential.

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Superposition and entanglement are two features of quantum physics on which these
supercomputers are based. This empowers quantum computers to handle operations at speeds
exponentially higher than conventional computers and at much lesser energy consumption.

Entanglement

Quantum entanglement is a physical phenomenon that occurs when a group of particles are
generated, interact, or share spatial proximity in a way such that the quantum state of each
particle of the group cannot be described independently of the state of the others, including when
the particles are separated by a large distance. The topic of quantum entanglement is at the heart
of the disparity between classical and quantum physics: entanglement is a primary feature of
quantum mechanics lacking in classical mechanics.

In quantum information theory, entangled states are considered a 'resource', i.e., something costly
to produce and that allows to implement valuable transformations.

Quantum entanglement is the state where two systems are so strongly correlated that gaining
information about one system will give immediate information about the other no matter how far
apart these systems are. This phenomena baffled scientists like Einstein who called it “a spooky
action at a distant” because it violates the rule saying that no information can be transmitted
faster than the speed of light. However, further research validated entanglement using photons
and electrons.
In quantum computers, changing the state of an entangled qubit will change the state of the
paired qubit immediately. Therefore, entanglement improves the processing speed of quantum
computers. Doubling the number of qubits will not necessarily double the number of processes
since processing one qubit will reveal information about multiple qubits (i.e. the entangled
qubits). According to research, quantum entanglement is necessary for a quantum algorithm to
offer an exponential speed-up over classical computations.

Applications of entanglement in quantum computing

Simple 2-qubit entanglement pairs (EPR) have a few identified applications in quantum
computing, including:

1. Superdense coding: In simple words, superdense coding is the process of transporting 2

classical bits of information using 1 entangled qubit.
2. Quantum cryptography: Cryptography is the process of exchanging information between
two parties using an encrypted code and a deciphering key to decrypt the message. The
key to cryptography is to provide a secure channel between 2 parties. Entanglement
enables that. If two systems are purely entangled that means they are correlated with each
other (i.e. when one changes, the other also changes) and no third party shares this
correlation. Additionally, quantum cryptography benefits from the no-cloning theorem
which states that: “it is impossible to create an independent and identical copy of an
Dr. Revathi V & Team, Dept. of Physics, NHCE, Bengaluru Page 12
Engineering Physics

arbitrary unknown quantum state”. Therefore, it is theoretically impossible to copy data

encoded in a quantum state.
3. Quantum teleportation: Quantum teleportation is also the process of exchanging quantum
information such as photons, atoms, electrons, and superconducting circuits between two
parties. Research suggests that teleportation allows QCs to work in parallel and use less
electricity reducing the power consumption up to 100 to 1000 times.

Dr. Revathi V & Team, Dept. of Physics, NHCE, Bengaluru Page 13