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‫اﻟوﺣدة‪17 :‬‬
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‫ ‬ ‫اﻟﻣﺎدة‪Grammar 3 :‬‬
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Course Content
Introduction

I- The Noun Phrase

1- Determiners
2- NP modification
3- NP complementation

II- The Verb Phrase

1- Finite and non-finite verbs
2. Verb Complementation
3- Intensive complementation
4- Extensive complementation

III- Adverbs, adverb phrases and adverbials

1- Modifying function
2- Adverbial function
3- Adverbial positions

IV- Clauses
1- Nominal Clauses
2- Adverbial clauses
3- Adjectival Clauses

V- Co-ordination and Subordination

1- Compound Sentences Complex Sentences
2- Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions

Phrases

A phrase is a group of related words that is used as a single part of speech and does not
contain a verb and its subject. A phrase does not make complete sense by itself.

Example: Khalid is upset with Mohamed because he has forgotten his book.

Phrases combine words to form a larger unit which is the sentence.

The central element in a phrase is referred to as the head. It is the part that cannot be
omitted from the phrase.
There are different kinds of phrases:

Noun phrase: Consists of a noun and all its modifiers which can include other phrases
The young girl in the garden waters the beautiful red flowers every day.
Verb phrase: refers to the verb of verb group of a sentence.
Many students find grammar confusing
Adjectival phrase: a phrase that modifies the noun or pronoun.
Those are unbelievably expensive sunglasses
Adverbial phrase: a group of adverbs or a phrase (usually a prepositional phrase) that
acts as an adverb.
You have to hand in the assignment before the holiday. (adverb of time)
He was driving too fast. (adverb of manner)
Prepositional phrase: has a preposition as its head and can function as an adjective or
adverb
The boy in the blue jacket is riding his bike in the park

I- The Noun Phrase

A noun is a word that names a person, an animal, a place or a thing.

e.g. Mohamed has forgotten Khalid’s book.

A noun phrase (NP) is a group of words that does the function of a noun in a
sentence. A Noun phrase can be the subject, the object or the complement of the verb in a
sentence.

A Noun phrase includes a noun, also called Head. It may contain other elements, either
before or after the head. These could include determiners, pre-modifiers and post-
modifiers. This can be expressed as followed:

(Pre) Determiner + (pre-modifier) + Head + (post modifier)

Noun Phrase Verb Phrase

All these interesting books on the desk need to be read
Pre determiner determiner Pre-modifier Head Post modifier

1- Determiners
A determiner is a word that determines or limits the meaning of a noun. Determiners are
grammatical words that inform about the definite and indefinite identity and quantity of
the Head.

Determiners are of three different types: Central determiners, pre-determiners, and post-
determiners.

1.1. Central determiners or Determiners

They are used before a noun in a sentence.
Examples:
What is your name? (Possessives)
What time is it? (Interrogative)
The door is open (Articles)
I would like those books (Demonstratives)
A few/Many people come to visit this place (Quantifiers)
Each/Every student has to complete the task (Distribution)

• Articles (the, a, an)

• Demonstratives (this, that, these, those)
• Numerals (two, five, etc.)
• Possessives (my, her, their, Samira’s, etc.)
• Quantifiers (some, any, much, many, half, two thirds, etc.)
• Wh-determiners: whose, what, which.

Notice that the determiner position in an NP is not always occupied by a real expression:

E.g. Tables are made of wood.

The noun phrases (Tables) do not seem to be preceded by any determiner. However,
there is one (o) called zero article which always determines mass and count nouns in the
plural.

1.2. Pre-determiners

Pre-determiners are determiners that occur before a determiner. They are used to express
a proportion (such as all, both, or half) of the whole indicated in the noun phrase.

Examples:
I have completed half the homework. (the pre-determiner is half)
All the students are present.

The underlined noun phrases consist of the following structure:

Pre-determiner + determiner + head
half the homework
all my students

Just like the following noun phrases in spite of superficial differences:

All men…
Both cars…
Pre-determiner + zero article + head (count nouns in the plural).

1.3. Post-determiners

Post-determiners are determiners that occur after a central determiner in a noun phrase to
make precise references.

Look at this example: The last day of work

The post-determiner last comes after the determiner the.

Post-determiners can be:
a- Cardinal numbers: one, three, seven (e.g. Look at these two birds)
b- Ordinal numbers: first, second, third (This my first class)
c- General ordinals: next, last, other, previous, several, certain…(this is his last
chance)
d- Number expressions or quantifiers: many, few, … (The few people left)
NB: More than one post-determiner can occur in a NP (e.g. my next two goals).

2. NP Pre-modification

A modifier can be defined as a word (or a group of words) that optionally precedes or
follows a head noun. Adjective phrases, -ed /-ing participles, and nouns function as pre-
modifiers in English.

2.1. The Adjective phrase

It is a group of words that does the function of an adjective in a sentence. It is a very
common type of pre-modifiers. The adjective phrase preceding the head is called
“attributive” adjective because it attributes a quality to, or describes, the head. Examples:
a beautiful house; a red car.

Adjective phrases may have these forms: Intensifier + Adjective as in:

He is a very energetic boy / She was a little angry with him

or Adjective + Adjective as in:

I ate a tasty healthy meal / He is a nice and intelligent man.

2.2. Participle
A participle is a form of a verb that ends in ‘ing’ in the present tense, and in ‘ed’ in the
past tense. Both function as pre-modifiers.

- Progressive/present participle: It denotes an ongoing or temporary action of the

head:

The approaching train / The running girl / The barking dog

- Past participle: It denotes a completed, passive action or a permanent state:

A faded dream (describes an action that has already taken place: completed)
A broken glass (passive)
A complicated exercise (a permanent state)

2.3. Nouns
A noun can pre-modify another noun and both make up a compound noun:

A children book / A post office / A computer game

3. NP Post-modification
A post modifier is a word or a group of words that follow the head. It takes varying forms

3.1. Prepositional phrase

The man in black / The cat on the chair

3.2. Adjective phrase

The students present /The men responsible

A post-modifying adjective phrase is known as post-posed or postpositive. It is in fact a

reduced relative clause:

The students who are present / The men who are responsible

3.3. Relative clause:

Finite clauses

Students who have no previous experience.

Non-finite clauses: to-infinitive clause / ing-clause / ed-clause

The next flight to arrive / the girl speaking fluently / the vase broken during the
party.

3.4. Apposition
Appositives are two words, clauses, or phrases that stand close together and share the
same part of the sentence, they are in apposition.

In fact, an appositive is very much like a subject complement but without the linking
verb:

Subject complement My brother is a doctor.

Appositive My brother, the doctor travels a lot.
Subject complement Ahmed became a lawyer.
Appositive I have already met Ahmed the lawyer.

4- NP complementation
A complement completes another sentence part. Noun phrase complements are words,
phrases, and clauses that complete the meaning of a noun or noun phrase.
While noun phrase modifiers modify or describe a noun or noun phrase, noun phrase
complements complete the meaning of a noun or noun phrase.
The two grammatical forms that can function as noun phrase complements are the
Prepositional phrase and the Noun clause.

4.1. Prepositional Phrases as Noun Phrase Complements

A prepositional phrase is defined as a preposition directly followed by a prepositional
complement in the form of a noun phrase, noun clause, verb phrase, or prepositional
phrase. For example, the following underlined prepositional phrases function as noun
phrase complements:

• My English teacher encourages my passion for reading.

• Your preference for spaghetti with ketchup seems strange to me.
• His fear of falling to his death prevents him from bungee jumping.

4.2. Noun Clauses as Noun Phrase Complements

The second grammatical form that can perform the grammatical function of noun phrase
complement is the noun clause. A noun clause is defined as a dependent clause that is
formed by a subordinating conjunction directly followed by a clause. The subordinating
conjunctions that introduce noun clauses in English are that, Ø, if, whether, wh- words,
and wh-ever words. For example, the following italicized noun clauses function as noun
phrase complements:

• The claim that the earth is flat was once accepted as true.
• The idea that a parent would hurt a child makes me ill.
• Our hope that no child will ever go hungry is possible with your help.

Verb Phrase
A verb phrase is one or more words that function as a verb. The head is the verb. Verbs
indicate an action, a state, or an event.

A Verb Phrase includes a main verb and its helping verbs. It can function only as the
predicate of a sentence. The main verb is a Lexical verb which typically expresses action,
state, or other predicate meaning. Lexical verbs give basic information. The helping verbs
are auxiliary verbs which express grammatical meaning or determine the mood or tense
of another verb.

Auxiliary verbs can be primary (do, have, be), or models such as can, could, may, and
will.

1- Finite and non-finite verbs (tensed and non-tensed)

Finite verbs show agreement with a subject and express tense.

Examples:

I go to school everyday.
He is looking for a job/He has found a good job.
I have been waiting for a long time.
He must have been talking on the phone.

On the other hand, Non-finite verbs do not show distinction in tense and cannot stand
alone as the main verb in a sentence. They have two different forms, the infinitive (to
infinitive (1) and bare infinitive (2)) and the participle (-ing participle (3) and –ed
participle (4)).

Examples:
(1) Ahmed hoped to live in Canada.
(2) I had my sister cut my hair.
(3)Severely punished by his father, he no longer did the same mistake.
(4) Smoking is a nasty habit

2. Verb Complementation
The verb phrase in English can be intensive or extensive.

2.1. Intensive verbs

Intensive verbs require a subject complement (Cs) as in:

He is a lawyer / She feels ill / They seem happy

Notice that the most frequent verb of this category is the verb to be which is also called a
Copular verb.

Intensive verbs can be Current Copular Verbs as in:

She is a doctor / She feels happy / they look tired.

or Resulting Copular Verbs as in:

They grew old / she became a lawyer / He got angry.

2.2. Extensive verbs

Extensive verbs are sub-categorised into intransitive (no object) and transitive verbs.
Intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs do not take a direct object or subject attribute in the sentence. They
have the pattern: Subject Verb (S V)

The baby is crying / He sings / The train from Casablanca arrived late.

Transitive verbs
A transitive verb is followed by an object. The verb has its action conveyed to the object.
For example:

The teacher answered the question.

The meaning of a transitive verb is incomplete without a direct object, as in the following
examples:
Incomplete: He missed
The child broke
Complete: He missed the bus
The child broke the vase

Transitive verbs can be mono-transitive (one Object (O)), di-transitive (one Indirect
Object (Oi) and one Direct Object (Od)), and complex transitive (one Object(O) and one
Object Complement (Co)).

a. Mono-transitive Complementation
The object of a mono-transitive verb can take these forms:
- Noun phrase
He caught a ball
They sent a letter

- Finite clause

He declared that he loves her

She knew why her friend was upset

- Non-finite clause
She wanted to have a vacation abroad
They enjoyed playing together

b. Di-transitive Complementation

Di-transitive complementation involves two objects: an indirect object and a direct object.
The direct object can take these forms:
- Noun Phrase
She gave her brother some fruits
I sent them a letter

- Non-finite clause
He persuaded me to see the doctor

- Finite clause
She convinced them that she was right
Martin asked me what time the meeting would end

- Prepositional verbs
We reminded him of our meeting
The social services provided the poor with food
They blamed him for the damage

c. Complex-transitive Complementation

Prepositional Verbs
Prepositional verbs are verbs in which the Preposition and the NP function as an object.
Some examples are: abide by, refer to, glance at, lean against, account for, reply to,
absolve from, long for, yearn for, argue about, and defer to.

(1) They abided by the contract.

(2) He referred to that article.

These verbs require a PP. So the PP is considered an object rather than an adverbial. The
contract in (1) and that article in (2) can also be passivized, and this test shows that they are
real objects

The contract was abided by.

That article was referred to by him.

Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs must be distinguished from prepositional verbs and from verbs with an
adverbial. Examples of phrasal verbs are: bring up, turn in, take off, switch on.

(1) Helen turned in her homework.

(2) She switched on the light.

The prepositions up, in, down, and on accompanying these verbs have become particles
rather than prepositions since they no longer express place or direction. The structure of
the following sentence is therefore one of a verb with a particle.

Phrasal Prepositional Verbs

Constructions with phrasal prepositional verbs combine a verb, a particle, a preposition, and
an NP. The object of such a verb is a prepositional object, as indicated in the following
examples:
I can’t put up with that noise
He came up with a new idea

Objects and adverbials

The table below helps distinguish the different functions of Objects, Subject/Object
Complements, and Adverbials.

Objects Su/Obj Complements Adverbials

Obligatoryyes Yes no: optional info on time/place, etc
Passive yes No no

Adverbials are optional but objects and complements are not. A second criterion for
distinguishing the different functions is passivization. As mentioned, direct and indirect
objects and the NP in the prepositional object can be passivized, e.g.

I saw a movie (Direct Object). A movie was seen.

They gave Ahmed a book (Indirect Object and Direct Object). Ahmed was given a
book.
He referred to the article (Prepositional Object). The article was referred to.

However, The NPs in adverbials, subject complements, and object complements cannot
be passivized, as is shown for adverbials in the following examples:

I slept during the meeting (adverbial). The meeting was slept during
They elected him chair (Object Complement). The chair was elected him

Name Example verb Complement Example sentence

intransitive swim, arrive -- She arrived (early)

(mono)transitive see, eat, read Direct Object She saw the doctor

ditransitive give, tell Direct and Indirect Object I gave him flowers

copula be, become Subject Complement He is nice

Direct Object and Object

complex transitive consider, know I consider her nice
Complement

prepositional refer, glance Prepositional Object He glanced at the paper

She turned off the light

phrasal switch on/give in Direct Object/--
He gave in

phrasal prepositionalget down to Prepositional Object He got down to business

Adverbs, adverb phrases and adverbials

Adverbs provide information on when, where, why, and how the event described by the verb
and its objects takes place.

A group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence is an Adverbial

An adverbial can be one word, An adverb (you should speak slowly / don’t drive fast)
or a group of words:
An Adverb phrase: He doesn’t eat well enough
A prepositional phrase: Their children play in the park
A noun group (usually a time expression): We are going to travel next week

Adverbs modify or tell us more about Verbs:

You should drive carefully / The teacher speaks slowly

Adverbs tell us more about Adjectives:

She looks absolutely fabulous / The student is quite good

Adverbs can also modify other adverbs:

He plays the violin extremely well

Adverbs can modify even whole sentences.

Hopefully, there will be no snow this month.

Adverbs – Types
Adverbs of Adverbs of Adverbs of Adverbs of Connecting Negative
Frequency Manner Location Time Adverbs Adverbs
always carefully ahead again also barely
ever correctly back early consequently hardly
frequently eagerly forward late furthermore little
generally easily here now hence never
never fast high sometime however not
often loudly low then moreover nowhere
rarely patiently near today nevertheless rarely
seldom quickly outside tomorrow otherwise scarcely
sometimes quietly somewhere tonight therefore seldom
usually well there yesterday thus

Adverbs – Form
The majority of adverbs are formed from adjectives by the addition of the suffix -ly:

slow slowly / cheap cheaply/ quick quickly

If the adjective ends with y, replace the ‘y’ with ‘i’ as in:

easy easily / happy happily / lucky luckily

Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective: early, fast, hard, late

There are other common adverbs that are not marked in any way to help us recognize them:

again, always, later, sometimes, now, then, here, there, therefore, today, very,
everywhere

Adverbs – Function
Adverbs or adverb phrases perform a modifying and an adverbial function:

1. Modifying function: Adverbs pre- and post-modify adjectives and other adverbs
within the same clause. Pre-modifying adverbs are frequently used as intensifiers. Some
examples are: very, so, highly, awfully, terribly, quite, unbelievably, pretty, too, that
(informal) etc.

Ahmed is a very good student.

This house is quite beautiful.
He sings so heavily.
The room is large enough (post-modifier)

2- Adverbial function: An adverb functions as an adverbial when it makes part of clause

structure SVOC(A).

Adverbials convey a good deal of information and perform a wide variety of functions:
some express the time and place of an action, others express manner, cause and reason.
Other adverbs are used to focus on a particular part of a clause, to express the speaker’s
(or writer’s) evaluation of the proposition, or to indicate the semantic relationship
between the current clause and an earlier clause in the text. In this respect, there are three
types of adverbials: Adjuncts, Disjuncts and Conjuncts.

2.1. Adjuncts or Adjunctive adverbs

Adverbials are called Adjuncts when they are integrated into the flow of a sentence. They
help to provide meaning in a sentence. However, they are optional and if they are
removed, the sentence continues to be meaningful and grammatically correct.
Adjuncts modify the meaning of the whole, or part of the sentence and provide
information about:

Time (or frequency): they answer the question: when (or how often): now, afterwards,
often, never, always, frequently, recently, regularly, yesterday
Space/Place: they answer the question: where: anywhere, outside, everywhere, there,
upstairs
Manner: they answer the question: how: reluctantly, timidly, badly, menacingly,
effectively

Examples:
She sings beautifully/ with confidence (manner)
I will go to the store in an hour/ now (time)
We arranged to meet near the house/ here (place)
Adjuncts take different forms:

Adverb phrases: here, there, near, soon, still… in addition to words consisting
generally of adjective + ly.
Noun phrases: home, last year, the day before yesterday, this morning, this
afternoon, etc.
Prepositional phrases: in the street, to the café, at 9 o’clock, etc.

Among the adjuncts, there are adverbials that are obligatory:

The animals are in the zoo
We keep the animals in the zoo

In this case, the adverbial is called predication adjunct. The Object Complement (Co) in
complex transitive verbs is also considered predication adjunct.

Take your hands out of your pockets

He put his hand in his pocket

2.2. Disjuncts or Disjunctive adverbs

They are adverbials which act as a kind of evaluation of the rest of the sentence. They
convey the speaker’s comment on the content of what he is saying
Disjuncts include: actually, basically, clearly, suddenly, personally, etc.

Examples:
Suddenly, it started to rain.
Remarkably, Mary survived her car accident.
Luckily, they were here to help us.

Disjuncts take the following forms:

• Adverb phrases: luckily, honestly, confidentially, sincerely, personally,
understandably, frankly, etc.
• Prepositional phrases: in fact, as a matter of fact, in my opinion, of course, in
all fairness, etc.
• Clauses: to be honest, to be frank, to tell the truth, sincerely speaking, if you
want me to be frank with you, etc.

Notice that the same adverb phrase functions either as an adjunct or disjunct depending
on the use of the comma:
It is too hot to play outside (adjunct)
I went shopping, too (disjunct)
2.3 Conjuncts or conjunctive adverbs
Conjuncts are adverbs that serve as connectors and signal a transition between ideas.
I love this school. However, I can’t afford the tuition

Conjuncts can be used to express the following semantic relationship between clauses:
Comparison (similarly, likewise)
Contrast (on the other hand, whereas,)
Concession (however, despite, nevertheless)
Reason (therefore, because of that)
Result (consequently, in consequence, as a result)
Conjuncts can be used to indicate the organization of a text:
Addition (in addition, furthermore, what is more)
Enumeration (first, secondly, finally)
Transition (by the way; meanwhile, in the meantime).
Conjuncts take the following forms:
Adverb phrases: nevertheless, however, moreover, furthermore, yet, so, thus,
incidentally,..

Prepositional phrases: on the contrary, on the one/other hand, in conclusion, in

sum, etc.

Clauses: to conclude with, to sum it up, what is more, etc.

Clauses
A clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and a verb. Clauses are the
building blocks of sentences. There are two major types: independent clauses
and dependent clauses.

An independent clause or (main clause) is a complete sentence. It can stand by

itself, but is often part of a larger structure combined with other independent or
dependent clauses. It is also called an essential or restrictive clause.

Mary lives in England (Statement)

Where does Mary live? (Question)

A dependent clause (also called a subordinate nonessential, or nonrestrictive

clause) is a clause that cannot stand by itself but depends on an independent clause for
its meaning as in:

I know where Mary lives

The dependent clause ‘where Mary lives’ begins with what is called a subordinating
conjunction. This makes the clause dependent upon the rest of the sentence for its
meaning.

Dependent clauses can be classified according to their role in the sentence. They can
be Noun Clauses, Adverbial Clauses, or Adjectival Clauses.

1. Noun Clause
Noun clauses are dependent clauses that perform the functions of a noun. They can be
subjects, objects, or objects of prepositions.
What you are saying is really interesting
I appreciate what you are saying
I am thinking about what you have just said

1.1 Noun clauses with Wh-word

They are interrogative clauses that start with: what, how, where, who, whom, whose,
why… but have statement word order even when they occur within questions
(embedded questions).

Clause Function Examples

Subject of a verb What makes me sad is your poor health

Object of a verb She doesn’t know where he went

Subject complement You can be what you want

Object of a preposition within Op They argue about how they should solve the problem

1.2.That clause
The word ‘that’ can often be omitted but it cannot be omitted if it is in the
subject position.

Clause Function Examples

subject That she doesn’t understand my problem is obvious.

object She didn’t know that he was a good actor.

Subject complement The truth was that the company needed to cut down
on workers.

Adjective complement within Cs She was aware that the company didn’t need her.

Noun complement within NP The fact that she is here today makes me thrilled.

1.3.Whether/If clauses
When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, we use whether or if to
introduce the clause.

Clause Function Examples

subject Whether he can get a better job is not certain

object Can you tell me whether/if Bill is coming?

Subject complement The question is whether the company will make profits.

2. Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that answer the questions: where, when,
why, or how in the same way that single adverbs do. Adverbial clauses are used to

combine thoughts and show connections between ideas. They are introduced by
subordinating conjunctions.
Some types of adverbial clauses and subordinating conjunctions

Adverb clauses of Reason He was hired on account of the fact that he

(because, since, on account of the fact that…) had all the qualifications required
Adverb clauses of Concession Even if he couldn’t speak well, his written
(although, though, in spite of the fact that…) exam was quite good
Adverb clauses of Contrast While some people like to live in the city,
(while, whereas) others prefer the countryside
Adverb clauses of Condition We can’t go on a picnic if it’s cold tomorrow
(if, unless, provided that, in case…)
Adverb clauses of Time We saw many plays when we were in
(when, whenever, after, as soon as, while…) England
Adverb clauses of Place Wherever we go, we see the same thing
(where, wherever)
Adverb clauses of Comparison There are fewer wild animals than there were
(than, as much as , as many as) in the past
Adverb clauses of Result I was so exhausted that I couldn’t finish the
(so that, so + adj + that, or such + NP + that) work / It was such a strange story that no one
believed it
Adverb clauses of Purpose She woke up so early for fear that she missed
(so that, in order that, for fear that) her exam
Adverb clauses of Manner He speaks as if he were the boss
(as, as if, as though) When in Rome, do as the Romans do

3. Adjectival Clauses
Adjective clauses (also called relative clauses) are dependent clauses that modify or
give further information about nouns and pronouns. They are introduced by the
relative pronouns who, whom, whose, that, and which. These pronouns can be uses as
subject, object of a verb, or object of a preposition.

3.1. Functions of relative pronouns

Adjective clause pronouns used as the subject

I thanked the person who helped me

We are studying sentences which contain adjective clauses

The book that is on the table is mine

Adjective clause pronouns used as the object of a verb

She is the kind of person whom the others consider shy

The movie which we saw yesterday was terrible

Adjective clause pronouns used as the object of a preposition

I bought the picture that you were looking at yesterday

The person who/whom you count on is not really reliable

Other relative pronouns include: whose, when, where, and why

The painting whose value is inestimable has disappeared

I cannot forget the day when I graduated

We will visit the city where I grew up

I don’t know why you couldn’t come to the meeting

3.2. Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses

Restrictive relative clauses are clauses that are used to identify or distinguish one
person from another. They are also called identifying, defining, or essential.

Restrictive relative clauses do not have commas around the clause

The movie which/that we saw yesterday was terrible

I thanked the person who helped me

Nonrestrictive relative clauses are not used to identify something but simply add
extra information. They are also called nonidentifying, nondefining, or
nonessential.

Nonrestrictive relative clauses have commas around the clause

William Shakespeare, who wrote Hamlet, is a famous playwright

Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is a very nice person

I think you have creative ideas, which is the reason why I hired you.

Notice in the last example that which is used to refer to an entire clause. The
antecedent is not a noun but a whole clause.

Be careful
- Do not use a double subject pronoun in an adjective clause.
The man who I saw is my teacher
Not The man who I saw him is my teacher

- You can omit the relative pronoun if it an object but not if it is the subject of a
clause.
The man (who) I saw is my teacher
My teacher is a person who is hardworking Not My teacher is a person is
hardworking

- In a nonrestrictive clause, only which is usually used.

This test, which students have found difficult, has been refined
Not This test, that students have found difficult, has been refined

Co-ordination and Subordination

Conjunctions are words that are used to connect or link together other words,
phrases, and clauses. Conjunctions perform three grammatical functions:
Coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are words that link or coordinate words, phrases, or clauses
that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. This use of conjunctions is
called “parallel structure.”
The coordinating conjunctions are: and, or, but, nor, so, yet, for (meaning because).
Sally and her friends are coming to dinner (noun phrases)
You can walk, jog, or run (verbs)
The weather is lovely, so the weather reporter was wrong (clauses)

NB. Native English speakers often use coordinating conjunctions to join different
grammatical forms.
He cries loudly and like a baby (adverb and prepositional phrase)
The teacher gave the homework, but the exam was given by the
administration (active voice and passive voice)

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are paired conjunctions that also link or coordinate two or
more linguistic constituents. They are:
- both … and
- either … or
- neither … nor
- whether … or
- not only … but also
The second word or words in the previous pairs of conjunctions are coordinating
conjunctions. Correlative conjunctions only appear in pairs with coordinating
conjunctions.
The following sentences contain pairs of correlative and coordinating conjunctions
that join equal constituents:
Both the teacher and the students are present (noun phrases)
Students must either write a report or give a speech for the final project (verb
phrases)
That book is neither interesting nor accurate (adjectives)
Not only do I hate cats but I also hate dogs (clauses)

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are words that introduce dependent or subordinate clauses
(noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses), and indicates the nature of the
relationship between the independent clause and the dependent clause.

The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as,"

"because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till,"
"until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."

That you adopted a dog surprises me since you don’t like dogs
Before you go, you have to sign.

1. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses. They are connected
by coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, or a semi-colon (;).
We went to the stadium and we watched the match
The job was not done, but they need to rest
Our team won, so we were very excited
Some people like to watch matches in stadiums; others prefer to see them at
home

2- Complex Sentences:
A complex sentence has at least two parts: one that can stand by itself (independent
clause) and another one that cannot (dependent clause).
Since we needed to rest, we had to stop working
I did not do what my boss asked me to do
That she is wrong is something that she can never confess